Citizenship [with bibliography], prepared under direction of chief of staff; Nov. 30, 1928.

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TRAINING MANUAL } WAR DEPARTMENT,

No. 2000-25 ' ) WASHINGTON, November 30, 1928.

CITIZENSHIP

Prepared under direction of tlie
Chief of Staff

This manual supersedes Manual of Citizenship Training

The use of the publication "The Constitution of the United States, " by Harry
Atwood, is by permission and courtesy of the author.

The source of other references is shown in the bibliography

PART I — GENERAL

Paragraphs

SECTION I. Introduction 1-7

n. Mission of course 8-11

m. Time allotted 12

rV. Method of instruction 13-20

SECTION 1

INTRODUCTION

Paragraph

National defense 1

Citizenship training 2

Individual initiative 3

Foundation of citizenship 4

Social phase of citizenship 5

Economic phase of citizenship 6

Philosophy of American Government 7

1. National defense. — Under the national defense act as amended
in 1920. the War Department, among its many other duties, is
charged with the task of recruiting and training the young men of
our Nation through enlistments in the Regular Army, voluntary en-
listment in the Reserve Officers' Training Corps of high schools,
colleges, universities, and in the 30-day training period in citizens'
military training camps throughout the nine corps areas of the
United States. The combined average yearly strength of these
various units approximates some 260,000 young men between the
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ages of 16 and 25 years, the most critical period in the determina-
tion of their real value as citizens of our country.

It is. therefore, essential that the training of these young men
embody, with their instruction in military science, at least a basic
course in the science of government and the privileges, duties, and
responsibilities of the individual citizen, in order that they may be
returned to civilian life better equipped as the defenders of the insti-
tutions of our Government in time of peace as well as in time of war.

2. Citizenship training. — Training in citizenship is the most
vital of all subjects to that nation whose system of government,
security of property, and full power to express individual initiative
are based upon the intelligence, education, and character of each
individual citizen.

3. Individual initiative. — Individual initiative is the product
of slow progress in the development of the idea and ideals of self-
goveinment. It was cherished in the minds of the early Germanic
tribes, transmitted by them in the fifth century to the conquered
British Isles, there developed and finally transferred in principle
to the shores of America 300 years ago.

From the landing of the first settlers through the slow and perilous
years of colonial development, the struggles of the Revolutionary
days, the hardships and privations following the adoption of our
Constitution, the winning of the Great West, the fight to save our
Union, and the tremendous accomplishments in the development of
agricultural and industrial resources, individual initiative, coupled
with community cooperation, has been a determining factor, a spur
to our achievements, and a guaranty to our national security.

The protest of the Colonies against usurpation of the rights of
citizens, the Declaration of Independence, the Revolutionary War,
the writing and adoption of the Constitution of the United States,
and the ever-increasing development in population, industry, wealth,
and security, denoting the achievements of the United States, would
not have been possible lacking the spirit of individual initiative and
the talent for self-government. The United States worked out its
own destiny by the simple process of hard labor inspired with the
knowledge of full opportunity in the exercise of individual ability,
and sure reward and protection in the possession of the fruits of
their labor.

4. Foundation of citizenship. — In any instruction in citizenship
productive of lasting results, there must be woven into the study the
story of the faith, sacrifice, service, and achievements of the pioneers
of America from the landing of the Pilgrims to the settlement of the

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Great West and the development of our vast national resources.
This story, pregnant with hope, faith, courage, and the will to work,
is the rock foundation upon which to build the structure of citizen-
ship in the youth of to-day that the future may be assured in per-
petuity of the institutions, principles, ideals, and traditions the
development of which has made the United States great among the
nations of the world.

A study of the census reports of the United States, particularly
during the past 50 years, reveals a condition that to every thinking
man and woman is fraught with grave danger to the continuation
and maintenance of our constitutional form of government and the
blessings of liberty which we enjoy. We must be prepared to recog-
nize this situation and find the solution of the problem.

6. Social phase of citizenship. — As the result of the changing
life stream of America, there has arisen one of the greatest prob-
lems of our national life. Up to 30 years ago approximately 90 per
cent of all immigration to America was of Anglo-Saxon origin, that
race of people which has been working out the problem of self-
government for nearly 2,000 years. Due to the remarkable impetus
given to industrial development following 1890, opportunity for
employment was offered and every inducement made to secure the
immigration of European common labor, resulting in an immediate
change in the type of immigration to America, by which central,
eastern, and southern Europe increased their totals by over fifty
times in the 50 years from 1870 to 1920.

The history of the nations from which this later immigration
originated is that of large cultural advantages in art. literature, and
science, enjoyed by the ruling and favored minority, while oppres-
sion, privation, and suffering were endured by the great majority of
their subjects.

This latter class, without knowledge of self-government, denied
the opportunity for self-development, eagerly responding to the call
of American opportunity, emigrated to our shores, here to enjoy
full participation in the rights of American citizenship without a
proper Understanding of the meaning of liberty or the nature and
value of our free institutions, the very foundation of which is laid
in intelligent and active participation in government by our in-
dividual citizens.

A course of instruction in citizenship to be effective must develop
the social phase of citizenship and be particularly directed to the
native and foreign-born youth, setting up a clear understanding of

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this great problem of assimilation and amalgamation of the bloods
of all nations into the virile life stream of America.

6. Economic phase of citizenship. — The industrial achieve-
ments of America have become the marvel of the world. Therefore
the economic phase of citizenship must be developed with careful
study and with all the wisdom we possess that we may assure con-
tinued progress to the welfare, tranquillity, and enrichment of our
own citizens and at the same time steer a safe course for our ship of
state in the maelstrom of world envy engendered by a knowledge of
our wealth and power.

In the accomplishment of our industrial achievements the United
States has reinvested its profits in the development of horsepower,
automatic machinery, labor-saving devices, transportation, commu-
nication, organization, administration, and, since the World War,
has given further impetus to its accomplishments by sharing more
and more the fruit of her industries with the wage-earning class.
In the progress thus made the demand for brains to replace brawn
has been an ever-increasing factor in the production of our goods as
to quantity and quality in order to maintain our sense of well-being,
high standards of living, and to meet the competition of the world
at large.

A course of instruction in citizenship must emphasize the neces-
sity of the education of our masses as an economic measure in sup-
plying the great need of modern industry.

7. Philosophy of American Government. — The philosophy of
government, as set up under our Constitution, finds its keynote in
individualism as opposed to that misguided philosophy of govern-
ment, collectivism, which makes the State paramount in its demands
over the inalienable rights of its individual citizens. Incompre-
hensible as it may seem, the political problems of America and of
the world at large are embodied in this question of individualism as
opposed to collectivism as the philosophy of government for the
future development and welfare of nations.

Emphasis must be laid upon the benefits and advantages accruing
to each individual citizen of our country under the form of govern-
ment set up as the supreme law of the land in the Constitution of the
United States of America.

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SECTION n
MISSION OE COURSE

General purpose

Knowledge, the safeguard of our Repubhc-
Character building

National defense

Paragraph

10
11

8. General purpose. — This course in citizenship is designed to
teach the fundamental principles upon which our Government is
founded, including an insight into the social and economic elements
upon which our civilization stands. Special emphasis is laid upon
the meaning of "liberty," as interpreted by the founders of this
Republic, and the larger relationship of the individual citizen to
others and to his Government, defining loyalty and national respon-
sibility in terms of citizenship, recognizing that an intelligent and
informed people is a greater asset than are the unintelligent, unin-
formed, or misinformed, and that no government can exist upon a
plane higher than the moral character of its people.

9. Knowledge, the safeguard of our Republic. — Because of
the rapid increase in our population, largely made up of immigrants
from all parts of the world, the tendency within the family and the
school is to neglect the training of our youth in the knowledge of his
Government and his individual responsibility. It can not be expected
that foreign-born parents, lacking knowledge or inspiration of Ameri-
can ideals, will be either fitted or inspired to give such instruction to
their own children.

The indifference or the neglect of native-born citizens concerning
the training of their children to meet the responsibilities of citizen-
ship is largely caused by lack of information and proper tinder-
standing of the history, ideals, and underlying principles of our
political institutions.

The remarkable development of industry in America has caused
a congestion of population in our large cities, creating social, eco-
nomic, and political problems that materially affect the structure of
our Government.

The solution of the problems of citizenship lies largely in the edu-
cation of the youth of America in the principles of representative
government and their personal responsibility in perpetuating and
improving her free institutions.

10. Character building. — The ever-increasing wants as com-
pared to the needs of humanity, the added individual burdens and
problems of modern civilization, emphasizing material rather than

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ethical and spiritual attainment, are tending to break down the
character of our youth.

It is the mission of this course to specially emphasize the moral
aspects of citizenship — to build up home discipline, reverence for
religion, and respect for constituted authority.

11. National defense. — Education and training in citizenship
form a vital part of national defense. It will be the mission of this
course to interpret national defense through a broad and compre-
hensive instruction in citizenship, stressing the responsibility of the
individual citizen to become fully prepared for the defense of his
country in any emergency that may arise, whether of domestic or
foreign import, in peace or in war.

SECTION 111

TIME ALLOTTED

Paragraph
Time allotted 12

12. Time allotted. — In this course of citizenship adequate time
will be allotted for instruction, arranged in a number of short periods
of not more than 40 minutes' duration each, which may be supple-
mented by addresses and travelogues illustrated with stereopticon
slides, covering outstanding phases of American history, given to
combined groups at such time and frequency as directed by the camp
ctmnramider, uriiltb special reference to rainy-day schedules.

SECTION IV

METHOD OF INSTRUCTION

Outlined topics

Questionnaire

Subject matter suggestive -

Plan of instruction-
Selection of instructors-

Paragraph
13
14

15

16

-17

Suggestions for instructors 18

Supplemental instruction 19

Efficiency 20

13. Outlined topics. — This course will be given under a series
of outlined topics briefly presented by the instructor, preceded by a
few succinct historical statements bearing upon the development of
our country.

14. Questionnaire. — Brief questionnaires, containing a number
of questions pertinent to the subject matter contained in each lesson,
are given as an aid to the instructor in guiding the general discus-
sions by the students.

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15. Subject matter suggestive. — This course is not intended to
teach the details of American history, but to give special emphasis
to pertinent facts and principles associated with the foundation,
development, and preservation of our Government as to its social,
economic, and political phases. The instructors should briefly ex-
plain the historical and psychological aspects to the various forms

of government. '

The subject matter and illustrations are suggestive only and are
given as guides in teaching the fundamental principles of govern-
ment and citizenship. The instructor will make application of
these principles in such a manner as to stimulate individual thinking,
leaving it to the student to reach his own conclusions based upon the

facts and situations discussed.

18. Plan of instruction. — In the presentation of this course it
is necessary for the instructor to give certain definite and concise
information concerning the outstanding characteristics of our coun-
try; the fundamental principles of our Government; the spirit and
will to do by which it attained its present position; emphasizing the
encouragement, assistance, and protection granted every individual
citizen as guaranteed in our Constitution as the supreme law of the
Nation; developing the idea of individual responsibility and intelli-
gent participation in government as an economic necessity as well as
an evidence of patriotism and loyalty to our country.

The didactic method concerning facts of history, social changes,
economic development, and basic principles of our Government will
be used without discussion and without argument, special emphasis
being given to the fact that the United States is a Republic, not a

democracy.

Group discussions will be led by the instructor covering the cardinal
points of each lesson as outlined in the text, care being exercised to
confine the discussion to the limits of the lesson.

17. Selection of instructors. — There shall be designated a direc-
tor of citizenship training for each Citizens' Military Training Camp.
Under his supervision company officers carefully selected by the camp
commander will act as instructors in this course.

18. Suggestions for instructors. — Instructors are particularly
cautioned to confine instruction and discussion in each study period
not only to the lesson text but also to keep it within the scope of the
general division (social, economic, political) to which that particular
lesson is related. The tendency is to wander away into a discussion
of all three phases of citizenship, because of the close interrelation-
ship existing in- all the lessons. Clarity of instruction can be had
only through close observance of this suggestion.

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The instructor must use language simple enough to be readily
understood by all.

The text of these lessons is so arranged as to permit additional time
for study and discussion when such opportunity is available through
accommodation to rainy-day schedules.

19. Supplemental instruction. — At the discretion of the camp
commander, instruction may be supplemented by addresses given by
selected speakers to the combined student body on subjects related to
citizenship.

As a part of this course historic facts and brief statements taken
from the speeches and writings of distinguished Americans may be
projected on the screen immediately preceding the feature picture at
all motion-picture shows.

20. Efficiency. — To secure the most efficient results, the officers
detailed as instructors should be thoroughly trained in the method of
using the various studies in citizenship and the questionnaires.

A refresher or normal course will be conducted in each camp for tho
instruction of the designated instructors in subject matter and method
of presentation, with the view of having the classes in citizenship
faced by instructors as alert, competent, and as confident as are the
platoons in the military drill.

PART 11— COURSE OF INSTRUCTION

SOCIAL

Paragraphs

SECTION I. Lesson 1. — The American citizen 21-30

II. Lesson 2. — Independent relationships 31-44

III. Lesson 3. — Character, the greatest asset of

America 45-52

IV. Lesson 4. — Great Americans and their achieve-

ments 53-71

ECONOMIC

V. Lesson 5. — Economic development of America 72-92

VI. Lesson 6. — Individual initiative 93-102

POLITICAL

VII. Lesson 7. — Liberty and independence 103-112

VIII. Lesson 8. — The purpose of government 113-117

IX. Lesson 9. — Representative go vernment 1 18-135

X. Lesson 10. — Personal responsibility 136-144

PATRIOTIC

XI. Lesson 11. — Self-preservation 145-158

XII. Lesson 12. — The American flag 159-172

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SECTION 1

LESSON 1. — THE AMERICAN CITIZEN

Paragraph

Definition of citizenship 21

Origin of citizenship 22

Source of American citizenship 23

Acquisition of American citizenship 24

Birth.

Immigration and naturalization.

No dual allegiance 525

Dual citizenship 26

Right of suffrage 27

Guaranties as to person and property 28

Obhgations of citizenship 29

1 am an American 30

21. Definition of citizenship. — Citizenship is that membership
in a nation which includes full civil and political rights, subject to
such limitations as may be imposed by the government thereof.

22. Origin of citizenship. — Citizenship as we understand it
to-day is the result of centuries of social, economic, and political
experiments, in which improvement in human relations has slowly
developed the idea of the benefits of governmental rules and restric-
tiens f«f the protection of the rights of persons and property.

Ancient Greece was composed of a number of city states, each one inde-
pendent of the other and conferring certain privileges upon its subjects. The
greatest advantages of citizenship among these city states was conferred by
the Athenians, limited, however, to native sons of native fathers and mothers,
excluding from such privileges foreigners and slaves The Athenian idea of
citizenship was philosophical rather than practical

It was loft to the Romans, in succeeding centuries, to develop the more
practical phases of citizenship, i.e., safety of the Republic, public service, stern
simplicity, devotion to duty.

Above all other duties and obligations was placed that of unselfish
duty to the state It was this Roman virtue of loyalty to public duty,
this devotion on the part of the citizen to the interest of the state, that,
more than any other quality of the Roman character, helped to make
Rome great.
Roman citizenship was confined to a privileged class, native or adopted.
In the Anglo-Saxon races there was slowly developed the idea and ideals
of self-government and of individual worth, in contrast with the earlier Greek
and Roman domination of the state over the individual

Out of these experiments in government and human relations there has been
evolved the ideals and principles of American citizenship.

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23. Source of American citizenship. — The source of American
citizenship is found in the Constitution and subsequent Federal
enactments.

24. Acquisition of American citizenship. — American citizen-
ship is acquired in two ways:

By birth.

By naturalization.

Birth. — For 150 years following the first settlement of the American
Colonies their inhabitants were citizens and subjects of a foreign
power.

With the successful conclusion of tho Revolutionary War, termi-
nating with the treaty of peace, 1783, all persons born in the United
States before the Declaration of Independence could be regarded as
American citizens.

By the civil rights act of 1866 it was provided that —

All persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power,
excluding Indians not taxed, are declared to be citizens of the United States.

By the fourteenth amendment to the Constitution —

All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the juris-
diction thereof arc citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they
reside.

It has been decided by the Supreme Court of the United States
that the children of domiciled aliens born in the United States are
citizens under the fourteenth amendment. This is also true of the
children of alien parents ineligible to citizenship through natural-
ization.

Immigration and naturalization. — Under the Constitution, Con-
gress is given the power over both immigration and naturalization.
In order to determine their fitness to enter the United States, each
immigrant, on his arrival, is subjected to a physical and mental
examination by officers of the Public Health Service.

Under the immigration act the following classes of persons are
excluded from entering the United States:
Idiots.
Insane.
Epileptics.

Paupers and persons likely to become a public charge.
Professional beggars.
Persons suffering from tuberculosis or other dangerous or

loathsome contagious diseases.
Persons physically or mentally so defective as to be unable to
making a living.

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Persons convicted of a crime or misdemeanor involving moral

turpitude,
Polygamists.
Anarchists.
Women or girls imported for immoral purposes and persons

aiding in their importation.
Contract laborers — that is, those induced to migrate by offers
or promise of employment or by agreement, except artists
and professional men.
Children under 16 years of age unaccompanied by their

parents.
With certain exceptions no alien ineligible to citizenship is
admissible to the United States.
All aliens brought into the country in violation of the law are, if
possible, immediately sent back to the country whence they came on
the vessel bringing them, at the expense of the vessel owners.

There is also a heavy fine upon the transportation company or
vessel owner for unlawfully introducing immigrants into the United

States

Because of the great influx of nonassimilable people, which tended
to lower American standards of living, and to better develop a homo-
genous body politic. Congress, in 1923, passed the immigration

restriction act.

The abnormal immigration to America is shown in the census
returns of 1900, 1910, and 1920, as follows:

1000 3,687,564

1910 8,795,386

1920 5,735,81 1

The law governing immigration provides that the annual quota
from each country until July 1, 1927, is 2 per cent of the number of
foreign-born persons of such nationality resident in continental
United States as shown by the 1890 census, but the minimum quota
of any nationality shall be 100.

The quota for each fiscal year thereafter will be based on a total
immigration of 150,000.

The annual quota of any nationality for the fiscal year beginning July 1, 1927,
and for each fiscal year thereafter, shall be a number which bears the same
ratio to 150,000 as the number of inhabitants in continental United States in
1920 having that national origin (ascertained as hereinafter provided in this
section) bears to the number of inhabitants in continental United States in
1920, but the minimum quota of any nationality shall be 100. — Immigration
laws, 1927.

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Under the Articles of Confederation the power of naturalization
was in the States, thereby creating confusion through the lack of
uniformity in conferring citizenship.

The authority for naturalization is to be found in the Constitution
and Federal laws.

The Constitution has accordingly, with great propriety * * * authorized
the General Government to estabhsh a uniform rule of naturalization through-
out the United States. — Madison.

Constitution, Article I, section 8, paragraph 4, fourteenth amendment.

Naturalization Laics.

Under the Constitution two methods of naturalization have grown
up:

(1) By the general act of Congress conferring citizenship upon a
whole class of persons, such as tribes of Indians, and the inhabitants
of a new territory, like Hawaii, acquired by the United States.

(2) The general and more usual method is prescribed by the
Revised Statutes, which requires the fulfillment of certain conditions
before final admission into citizenship.

R. S. 3S1. Oath renouncing foreign allegiance and to support constitution and
laws. — He shall, before he is admitted to citizenship, declare on oath in open
court that he will support the Constitution of the United States, and that he
absolutely and entirely renounces and abjures all allegiance and fidelity to any
foreign prince, potentate. State, or sovereignty, and particularly by name to the
prince, potentate. State, or sovereignty of which he was before a citizen or
subject; that he will support and defend the Constitution and laws of the
United States against all enemies, foreign and domestic, and bear true faith and
allegiance to the same. — June 29, 1906, ch. 3592, sec. 4. 34 Stat. 596.

R. S. 382. Evidence of residence, character, and attachments to principles of
Constitution; evidence of witnesses. — It shall be made to appear to the satis-
faction of the court admitting any ahen to citizenship that immediately pre-
ceding the date of his application he has resided continuously within the United
States, five years at least, and within the State or Territory where such court
is at the time held one year at least, and that during that time he has behaved
as a man of good moral character, attached to the principles of the Constitution
of the United States, and well disposed to the good order and happiness of the
same. In addition to the oath of the applicant, the testimony of at least two
witnesses, citizens of the United States, as to the facts of residence, moral
character, and attachment to the principles of the Constitution shall be
required, and the name, place of residence, and occupation of each witness shall
be set forth in the record. — June 29, 1906, ch. 3592, sec. 4, 34 Stat 596.

25. No dual allegiance. — Every alien should become a citizen
in order that he may vote and hold office, and in all ways take an
active part in developing, building and maintaining the Govern-
ment — national and local — that protects him.

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There can be no divided allegiance here. Any man who says he is an Ameri-
can, but something else also, isn't an American at all. Wo have room for but
one flag, the American flag, and this excludes the red flag, which symbohzes
all wars against liberty and civilization, just as much as it excludes any
foreign flag of a nation to which We are hostile.

We have room for one soul loyalty and that is loyalty to the American
people. — Roosevelt.

26. Dual citizenship. — The Supreme Court declares that there
are two kinds of citizenship. State and National.

Citizens of the United States residing in any State enjoy the
rights of both State and United States citizenship.

In the protection thereof we look to the National Government if
the source of such rights lies in the Constitution and laws of the
United States; and to the State government if such rights are based
upon the constitution and laws of the State.

Dual citizenship does not imply a divided allegiance. While a
State commands allegiance of its citizens the paramount allegiance
is to the Union.

Liberty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable. — Webster.

27. Right of suffrage. — Under the Constitution, the National
Government confers American citizenship, but it is left to the
States to determine who may vote at both its own and national
elections.

Constitution, Article I, section 8, paragraph 4; fourteenth and fifteenth
amendments.

In America public opinion is the ultimate force of Government.
It is the expression of the mind and conscience of the whole Nation,
without respect to sectional or partisan alliances.

Under the Constitution, voting is the only means provided for the
expression of public opinion — it is the exercise of the will of the
citizen in the protection of his rights.

28. Guaranties as to person and property. — The United
States is composed of 48 sovereign States, each State having its indi-
vidual constitution and laws. Yet no State may discriminate against
the rights and privileges of the citizen of any other State as to person
or property.

Among these guaranties are —

Opportunity for education and individual improvement.
Unrestricted possession of property.

Joint rights to interstate commerce, communication, and trans-
portation.
Public utilities.

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Freedom of residence and choice of occupation.
Care or protection on the high sens or abroad through passport
privileges and international law.
29. Obligations of citizenship. — Active citizenship is gained
only by becoming an enfranchised citizen of a State. This carries
with it the obligation of a clear understanding of the principles of
government and the courage to demand that these principles be not
abridged.

Andrew Jackson said that every good citizen makes his country's honor his
own. and not only cherishes it as precious, but sacred.

Lincoln declared: "1 must stand by anybody that stands right; stand with
him while he is right; and part with him when he is wrong."

It is essential that the individual citizen —

Exercise his right of franchise — vote — as his paramount duty

at all elections.
Uphold the Constitution as the one assurance of the security

and perpetuation of the free institutions of America.
Practice self-government to assure good government for all.
Respect the rights of others, to assure the enjoyment of his

own.
Contribute to the maintenance of his Government by the pay-
ment of taxes.
Obey the law as the first essential to law enforcement.
Place service to country above service to self.
Conform his conduct to the best interests of society.
The opportunities and privileges of the American citizen are lim-
ited only by his individual ability, his personal habits, and con-
formity to necessary legal regulations.
It is your obligation to exercise —

Care in your choice of occupation.
Diligence in preparation for your task.
Thrift to insure advancement and prosperity.
Judgment in selection of companions.
Integrity, honor, initiative, self-reliance, self-control.
80. I am an American. — 'T am an American" is a challenge
to the highest ideals and aspirations of mankind; to self-sacrifice
and devotion: to loyalty and patriotism; to joyful work and
courageous achievement; to magnanimity and charity to all and
malice to none; as we seek to uphold and perpetuate the principles
of our great Republic.

1 hve an American; 1 shall die an American; and 1 intend to perform the
duties incumbent upon me in that character to the end of my career. 1 mean

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to do this with absolute disregard of personal consequences. What are the
personal consequences? What is the individual man, with all the good or
evil which may betide him, in comparison with the good or evil which may
befall a great country, and in the midst of great transactions which concern
that country's fate? Let the consequences be what they will. 1 am careless
No man can suffer too much, no man fall too soon, if he suffer, or if he fall
ill the defense of the liberties and Constitution of his country — Daniel Webster.
In the days of the Caesars "1 am a Roman citizen" was a proud exultant
declaration. It was protection. It was more — it was honor and glory.
Twenty centuries of advancing civilization have given to the declaration "1
am an American" a higher and nobler place. It stands to-day in the forefront
of earthly titles. It proclaims a sharing in the greatest opportunities. It is a
trumpet call to the highest fidelity. It is the diploma of the world, the highest
which humanity has to bestow — Judge Brewer of the Supreme Court.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Define "citizenship."

Describe the development of the idea of "citizenship."

What is the source of "American citizenship"?

How is "American citizenship" acquired?

What is the status of the children of domiciled aliens born in the

United States?
Who has power over immigration and naturalization?

To what examination is the immigrant subjected on his arrival?

What classes of persons are excluded from the United States by

the Immigration Act?
What disposition is made of immigrants belonging to the

restricted classes?

To whom is the execution of the Immigration Laws entrusted ?

What was the significance of the immigration to America by the

census returns of 1900, 1910, and 1920?

What has Congress done to limit immigration? Why?

What is the source of the authority for naturalization?

Explain the provision for naturalization under the Articles of
Confederation. Under the Constitution.

What is the attitude of the United States toward "dual

allegiance"?
Explain the meaning of "dual citizenship."
What is the function of "public opinion"?
Who has power over the right of suffrage?
What guaranties, as to person and property are provided the

citizen by the Federal Government?
Name several obligations of citizenship.
Why ought an alien become a citizen?
Why should every citizen vote?

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SECTION II

LESSON 2. — INTERDEPENDENT RELATIONSHIPS

Paragraph

Development of civilization — — — 31

Mutual relationships 32

Community relationships 33

Coordinated action.
National relationships 34

Articles of Confederation.

Constitution.

Interstate commerce.
International relationships — . — — 35

The State Department.
Beneficial to person and property 36

Law: Uniform acceptance and observance.
Beneficial to production 37

Accumulation of capital.

Relations between management and men

Results in progress 38

A Nation of specialists 39

Interdependence of capital, labor, and consumer 40

The telephone
Public utilities 41

Business.
Beneficial to peace 42

Unselfishness.
CosmopoUtan character of population 43

Full privileges of citizenship.

Resultant duties.

Class consciousness.

Immigrant not all problem.
Our opportunity 44

31. Development of civilization. — Civilization had its begin-
ning in the establishment of the family, then in the grouping of
families, tribes, states, and nations.

Through these various stages there was developed a crude order
of society based primarily upon the will of an outstanding individual
with power to enforce that will by control of physical forces and
the means of livelihood. Thus was established the basis of society,
imperfect in its form, inadequate in its results, yet containing the
essential elements for refinement and progress, viz, social intercourse,
protection, and advantages.

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32-34

32. Mutual relationships. — In the beginning, lacking means of
communication and transportation and confining efforts principally
to the production of mere necessities of life, individuals and groups

lived largely independently of each other.

With increasing wants, the result of enlightened intellect, with
increasing facilities in transportation and communication, with devel-
opment of ability for invention and improvement, independence gave
way to interdependence to such a degree that to-day the welfare of
every individual is woven into the fabric of modern society.

33. Community relationships. — If you destroy the dam builded
by a colony of beavers, they set about its reconstruction, using the
identical plan, method, and tools common to their species throughout
all generations. Animal intelligence contains no quality that enables
improvement beyond the inherited abilities or instincts of its kind.
Herein hes the marked distinction between the highest type of animal
and the lowest type of human intelligence.

Man possesses the ability to profit by the accomplishments of the
past, to improve, and to develop. Upon this ability the development
of past civilizations has depended. Upon this same ability the civili-
zations of the present and future are predicated. Out of this have
grown community relationships established in ordered society upon
the law of reason, supplanting the law of will, and ever increasing in
its benefits to all, with the growing understanding of the rights and
worth of the individual member of society.

Coordinated action. — Coordinated group action has strength in so
far as its members work together for the attainment of a common
purpose — the subordination of self for the good of all. Only by
helping others can we help ourselves.
"He profits most who serves best."

In the development of her strength, wealth, and accomplishments
America is founded upon the establishment of successive communities
bound together individually and collectively, by interdependent re-
lationships created and coordinated in home, school, church, and
local self-government, as expressed in town meetings in which each
individual member contributed his part to that greatest of all forces
by which the character of the people of our Nation is sustained and

developed — pub lie opinion.

34. National relationships. — In the development of our colo-
nies the need of protection for person and property, of cooperation in
the development of resources, of exchange of products and labor in
the creation of comforts and wealth, of consolidated action in resist-
ing oppression and establishing rights, created a national relation-

110834' —28 2

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CITIZEirSHIP,

ship binding communities and States in a federation designed for
the welfare of all.

Articles of Confederation. — Under the Articles of Confederation,
trade rivalries separated the new States from each other. There was
an emphasis of State over National interests: One State lost its sup-
ply of cheap manufacturing material; industries suffered from want
of coal, factories from lack of material, markets were limited; eco-
nomic barriers were set up, no cooperation existed, exclusiveness
prevailed. . ,

Constitution. — Grown now to a union of 48 States, working in a
spirit of harmony and cooperation, restricted yet greatly benefited
by our Constitution and statutes, we have come to be in point of
wealth, attainment, and influence one of the outstanding nations of
the world.

Under our Constitution the departments of government are set up
for the express purpose of coordination and cooperation for the gen-
eral welfare of the Nation.

Interstate commerce. — Notwithstanding the sovereignty of each
of the States composing our Union, great freedom is enjoyed as to
residence, travel, trade, and property rights among their citizens
which has developed an interstate commerce of tremendous volume
and worth. ,

Commerce among the States embraces navigation, intercourse, communica-
tion, travel, the transit of persons, transmission of messages by telegraph. —
Justice Harlan.

Railways, air transports, postal service, telephones, telegraph, ra-
diograms, help to unite the Nation by an exchange of goods or in-
formation, so that each citizen may know and profit by what the
others are doing.

The Interstate Commerce Commission contributes to the develop-
ment of "a more perfect union," which is an active association for
cooperative effort. This commission touches the various interests
of all of the people. Its benefits of regulations are in the interest of
public necessities. It provides for a quick settlement of labor dis-
putes affecting interstate trade and transportation, the control of
which is lodged in the Federal Government. '

35. International relationships. — In the development of those
international relations which are in accord with the principles of
interdependence, each nation must assume a larger responsibility and
take a more active part in world affairs.

Due to the remarkable progress of civilization, isolation is no
longer possible. International problems developing from ever-

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changing economic and political conditions demand consideration
and application of the principles of interdependent relationships as
the means of securing the general welfare of mankind.

I demand that the Nation do its duty and accept the responsibility that must
go with greatness. — Roosevelt.

The State Department. — The State Department is the "friendly
relations department" of our Government; by treaties and diplo-
matic negotiations beneficent relationships with foreign counties
are secured and insured, establishing a spirit of accord and amity
without which it would not be possible to carry on our part in world
affairs to the good of all concerned.

36. Beneficial to person and property. — The efficacy of our
Constitution lies in the fact that it contains a statement of fundamen-
tal purposes relating to human associations and plan for their accom-
plishment, susceptible of such interpretation as to make them appli-
cable to changing conditions.

Among the purposes set forth in the Preamble to the Constitution
are "domestic tranquillity" and "general welfare." The accomplish-
ment of these purposes is based upon observance of the principles of
interdependent relationships.

Law: Uniform acceptance and observance. — The security of per-
sons and property is one of the inherent rights of mankind. It is
guarded and guided by statutory laws, uniform in their restrictions
and benefits, so that every citizen is fully protected in his rights.

Uniform laws are valuable in their benefits in proportion to uni-
form acceptance and observance. May a man have complete personal
liberty? May a man do as he pleases? He may provided he is not a
member of organized society. To attempt such action as a citizen
constitutes him an outlaw in such ratio as his independence interferes
with the rights of others and breaks down the structure of govern-
ment. AMaatii)iii©^,iig|B]atantlly(m-\«Hilli5iiffl a violation of the piiodpI@
of interdependent relationships.

Experience has revealed the necessity for united action to assure
the greatest protection to the individual. Neither in person nor
property will the individual find security without the assistance of
his neighbor, community. State, and Nation. The higher the value
we place upon human life and welfare, and the greater our accumula-
tion of property, the more we must rely upon interdependent rela-
tionships based upon justice and inspired by mutual confidence and
reciprocal endeavor.

37. Beneficial to production. — Industry is essentially the sub-
jection of natural forces — the manipulation of natural material to the

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OmZENSHIP

uses of mankind; it brings into action the worker, the engineer, the
inventor, the organizer, the administrator, the combined energies of
whom are liberated and set in motion by finance.

Accumulation of capital. — Thrift is the foundation stone of effec-
tive economic interdependence. The individual must practice fru-
gality, engage in hard work, and acquire the habit of wise spending —
so living within his means as to enable a saving of a portion of the
product of his labor.

In industry wealth is the product of saving; it is secured in part
by the elimination of waste and the corresponding conservation of
materials and labor practiced by both individuals and groups, and
saving or the accumulation of capital is as much the duty of the
employee as of the employer.

Relations between management and men. — To derive the great-
est value from linieffdqpeniBEaitt re]ationsIii]p lastsc^n employer nnd
employee there must be created a spirit of good will and coopera-
tion in which there is a recognition of mutual worth and mutual
responsibility.

The atmosphere surrounding the relationship between management
and men must eliminate fear, apprehension, and uncertainty. Only
by the establishment of mutual understanding, confidence, and respect
can effective cooperation and teamwork be secured. That employee
renders best service who has an intelligent understanding of the
relation of his part to the whole.

88. Results in progress. — Bound together by the ties of com-
mon interest and mutual benefits, society has advanced from —

The crude hieroglyphic to the printed page.
The smoke signal of the Indian to the radio.
The tallow candle to the electric light.
The hollowed log canoe to the Leviathan.
The ox-drawn prairie schooner to the airplane.

89. A Nation of specialists. — We are a Nation of specialists
because experience has taught us that greater benefits will accrue to
one and all through each individual learning to do one thing well.

The physician looks after our health.
The teacher gives instruction.
The farmer grows the grain.
The lawyer attends to legal matters.

Others specialize in providing all the comforts and conven-
iences of home.
No one citizen builds his own house, manufactures the plumbing
equipment, generates the electricity, constructs the heating plant, or

20

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provides the fuel for its operation. He does not pave the street, put
in his own waterworks, provide police and fire protection, establish
his own school, church, hospital, or theater.

40. Interdependence of capital, labor, and consumer. — Indi-
vidual necessities, comforts, and conveniences as now enjoyed are the
product of accumulated capital and labor, represented in modern
organization, transportation, great factories, distant farms, tropical
plantations, the trappers of the frozen northlands, tho fishermen of
the seas, and delivered daily to our homes by an army of tradesmen
who administer, to our wants and are in turn dependent upon us for
their livelihood.

The telephone. — No better illustration of interdependence can be
found than in the story of that all-necessary convenience, the tele-
phone) It is difficult to imagine the diversified labor, the problems
of transportation, the world-wide accumulation of materials, and
the tremendous outlay of capital required in the manufacture of
this marvelous instrument which receives and transmits the human
voice regardless of distance.

Men toiling in the mica mines of India, in the platinum fields of
the Ural Mountains, in the forests and jungles of far-off Asia,
Africa, and South America, in the great forests of the Northwest,
in the iron, copper, and lead mines, and the great steel works of the
United States, produce the materials that go into the making of your
telephone and the exchange controls.

The following raw materials, gathered literally from the four
corners of the world, are used: Platinum, gold, silver, copper, zinc,
iron, steel, tin, lead, aluminum, nickel, brass, rubber, mica, silk,
cotton, asphalt, shellac, paper, carbon.

With the assembling of raw materials, and their fabrication in
great factories into the completed instrument, there is added the
work of organization and administration required in obtaining capi-
tal, franchises, building lines and conduits, installation of switch-
boards, and training personnel. Your telephone call to all points
of the compass is made possible by these materials and the labor of
nearly 1400,000 employees in the United States alone.

41, Public utilities. — Public utilities corporations build great
hydroelectric plants in one State for distribution of power to many.
Coal, copper, iron ore are mined and transported to places of greatest
advantage to industry. Railroad, telegraph, and telephone com-
panies invest billions of dollars in properties and conduct their
affairs to the benefit and profit of the Nation. Great dams are
constructed and the desert lands of many States made fruitful by

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OmZESSHIP

the vast irrigation systems treated. Capital is consolidated and
labor employed, farms enriched, cities builded, and our citizens
bound together in one cooperative, prosperous, happy union by the
magic power of interdependent relationships.

Business. — Business, to insure success, must keep in closest touch
with the ever changing affairs of social, economic, and political con-
ditions. Vast sums of money are spent on new products, improved
equipment, research laboratories, inventions, in creating new appe-
tites and new markets.

42. Beneficial to peace. — In America a degree of independence
is developed out of which is born the idea in the minds of many
that a citizen of the United States may be a law unto himself, re-
taining, however, the disposition to regulate the other fellow. If
he does not like the law he seeks a way to evade it, at the same time
shouting vociferously over the increase of crime and the lessened
influence of our courts. He demands the highest wages obtainable
and complains at the prices he must pay for the product of his
fellow laborer. He insists upon his right to independence and
liberty, yet is ever ready to restrict such action on the part of others.
That citizen who has not developed the spirit of cooperation, under-
standing and tolerance is at war with his fellow man.

The unity of good men is a basis on which the security of our internal peace
and the establishment of our Government may safely rest. It will always
prove an adequate rampart against the vicious and disorderly. — Washington.

Unselfishness. — Every American citizen must guard against the
spirit of selfishness, the inordinate desire for material gain, the
temptation to live beyond his means, and the tendency to find the
easiest way to obtain the most in satisfying his constantly increasing
wants.

Honesty — individual and collective, national and international —
inspiring confidence wherein there is neither room for trickery nor
unfair practices is the basis of the principle of interdependent rela-
tionships. Such honesty rests not so much upon legal rights as
upon the Golden Rule.

43. Cosmopolitan character of population. — The United States
in her philosophy of self-determination emphasizes the ideas and
ideals of human rights and human associations. In the fulfillment
of this policy she opened wide her gates to the peoples of the earth,
inviting them to share with her the blessings of liberty.

Somewhat less than half the racial stock of America's 108,000,000
white inhabitants are of British blood. Of the 95,000,000 whites,

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43

in 1920, 14,000,000 were born in foreign countries and 23,000,000
were of foreign or mixed parentage. There are 1,672.000 Germans,
1,600,000 Italians, 1,250,000 Russians, 500,000 Czechoslovakians, 465,-
000 Austrians, 370,000 Hungarians. There are 1,500,000 foreign born
over 10 years of age unable to speak the English language. This
foreign population supports over 1,000 newspapers published in 30
different languages.

There are no more untapped racial reserves.

Full privileges of citizenship. — The immigrant to America is par-
ticularly favored under the laws of the United States. Before the
native-born youth can exercise the right of franchise he must live
under the influence of our system of Government, acquire his educa-
tion, and enlarge it through associations and experience for a period
of 21 years from his birth to his majority. It is possible for the
immigrant (18 years or over), subject to certain restrictions to
issuance of first papers, with little education, without that knowl-
edge of our Government, association and experience, obtained only
through years of residence, to have granted to him the full privileges
of citizenship five years after his arrival.

Resultant duties. — In return for the opportunities and privileges
established through her own sacrifices and paid for with the enor-
mous exactions of treasure and human life, she expects — and has the
right to demand that those who accept her hospitality shall respect
her principles — that those who elect to live in the security and com-
fort of her homes and institutions shall give due honor and award
full allegiance to her Constitution and shall in no instance, either
by choice or through ignorant acquiescence, seek to despoil the land
in which were bred freedom, equality, and opportunity.

The cosmopolitan character of the population of America empha-
sizes the burden which rests upon every citizen to become fully
informed in the underlying principles and ideals of our republican
form of Government.

Class consciousness. — Class consciousness and class activity is the
result largely of the intrusion of ideas of government entirely out-
side of the fixed principles set forth in our Constitution and should
be no more tolerated in our country than we would expect our prin-
ciples, if introduced by expatriated Americans, to be accepted by
another nation.

Immigrant not all problem. — The immigrant is not all problem.
He has been one of the outstanding assets in the development of
America. Slowly, but surely, there is being assimilated and amalga-
mated in this country the bloods of practically all nations, in the

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CITIZENSHIP

development of a racial stock of exceptional worth in 'its vigor,
ability, and character.

44. Our opportunity. — One of our greatest problems is the edu-
cation, assimilation, and amalgamation of these various and numer-
ous foreign groups into an understanding, harmonious, loyal, and
upstanding American citizenship.

To this and succeeding generations is given the opportunity to
develop from our homogeneous character an outstanding race ex-
pressive of the highest principles, ideals, and traditions to which a
God-loving, humanity-loving, liberty-loving people can aspire. To
accomplish this great work there must be a composition of all dif-
ferences which tend to create class consciousness and class hatreds.
Tolerance, born of knowledge, understanding, respect, sympathy, and
harmony, engendered by the spirit of a common cause and purpose,
are essential in the interpretation of the principles of interdependent
relationships.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Why did independence give way to interdependence? In what did
it result?

Upon what has the development of civilization always depended?

What is the value of coordinate action ?

State some of the principal causes that led to the creation of
national relationships.

How did trade rivalry under the Articles of Confederation sepa-
rate the new States from each other?

In what way was this situation changed by the Constitution?

How does interstate commerce assure a more perfect union?

How did railways, postal service, telephones, telegraph, and radio
help to unite the Nation ?

What is the attitude of the United States toward the problem of
international relations?

What is the principal duty of the State Department?

In our complex civilization, may any individual live in complete
independence?

Could any State maintain itself upon its own resources? Explain.

How are "domestic tranquillity" and "general welfare" accom-
plished?

In what way does the individual find security in person and
property ?

What relations between management and men are essential to
successful production?

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CITIZENSHIP

What are some of tho results in human progress that have been
caused by the ties of common interest and mutual benefit?

What led the United States to become a nation of specialists?

Describe the interdependence of capital, labor, and consumer.

In what way does the telephone illustrate the principle of inter-
dependence? Business? Public utilities?

What is the foundation of peace and prosperity?

What principal race stocks have contributed to American life?

what is the duty of America to our cosmopolitan population?
Is patriotism wholly selfish ?

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SECTION III

LESSON 3. — CHARACTER, THE GREATEST ASSET OF

AMERICA

Paragraph

The greatest asset of America 45

Cooperation 46

Character 47

National character 48

The ideals of the American colonists.

Community life, church, and town meeting.

The pioneer spirit.

Tenacity of purpose.

Experimentalself-government.
Individual character 49

Moral worth.

Deeds an expression of character.

Public spirit.

No collective morality.

Desire for education and religion.

Foundation of character.

Daily performance necessary.
Physical character 30

Great resources.

Developed by pioneers.

Visions become realities.

Spirit of improvement and invention.

Success possible to every citizen.
Ethical character 31

Confidence.

High standards of commercial life.

Spirit of cooperation and compromise.

No class domination.

Spirit of benevolence.

Not materialistic.
Political character 32

Diplomacy.

45. The greatest asset of America. — Diversity of opinion as
to what is America's greatest asset creates a discussion which leads
into every section and every activity of our country. Each individual
is governed by the interest that lies closest to his heart.

The doctor declares: "The greatest asset of America is found in
our medical schools, hospitals, and our great accomplishments in

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45-47

saving life and insuring the health of our people, for without health
there could be no other great achievement."

The teacher asserts: "Our common-school system, our colleges,
universities, and our press constitute our greatest asset, for without
education industry would stop and our Government disintegrate."

The captain of industry states: "Industry is our greatest asset.
What would America be without New England, New York, Pitts-
burgh, Detroit, Chicago, and the thousands of other industrial
centers giving employment to millions while they supply the needs
of the world?"

Likewise the inventor, the chemist, the scientist, each makes the
claim that the fruit of his labor is the greatest asset of America,
for what great things in America would have been possible without
the creative genius ?

The farmer insists that the doctor, the teacher, the industrialist,
the scientist, and all the others would not get very far if he failed for
a single season to provide the means for clothing and food — to him
the greatest asset of America.

They all are right; there are elements of greatness in all the
varied endeavors of bur country, the coordination of which has
brought prosperity and wealth in such measure as to make us envied
of all people.

46. Cooperation. — Forty-eight States, extended between the At-
lantic and the Pacific, independent, self-governing Commonwealths,
rich in resources, engaged in their own affairs; congested industrial
areas of our great cities, pouring out their products to the enrich-
ment of the Nation; millions of farmers providing food and cloth-
ing; teachers, preachers, merchants, laborers, lawyers, and clerks,
contributing their part; all are working together in the spirit of
cooperation.

47. Character. — What unites a people composed of all the racial
stocks of the world? What composes our differences, harmonizes
our relationships? What inspires confidence, insures credit, and
promotes organization? What, in the last analysis, guarantees
protection of person and property, gives assurance of peace and
prosperity, and inspires America to greater adventures and larger
achievements?

The answer is not to be found in the sum of all her natural
resources, factories, farms, homes, schools, hospitals, and churches.
These are created by man and by man can be destroyed.

The security of our property, the continuation of our institutions,
the increase of our possessions and the perpetuity of the principles

27

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CITIZENSHIP

of individual rights, justice, and freedom, the observance of which
has made America, lie in character — the greatest asset of America.

48. National character. — The ideals of the American colo-
nists. — The national character of America is grounded in the Puri-
tan stock of the early colonies. From these original settlers, num-
bering in 1640 a total of 26,000, there has descended to the present
time nearly one-fourth of our total population. Up to 50 years ago
their descendants and immigrants from the same racial stock com-
posed over 80 per cent of our population.

The outstanding traits of their stalwart characters were defined in
the commonplace affairs of their daily lives. They made no play
for heroics, were not primarily seekers of fame nor fortune. Lovers
of liberty, they boldly fought to maintain their rights: Their domi-
nant trait was the worship of God, a God to be feared, yet a God of
justice. A God who punished, yet a God who loved. Bigoted and
narrow to the verge of superstition, intolerant of all faiths save
their own, they builded a character which to following generations
will ever prove their richest heritage.

A stern will born and bred of necessity, hard as the "stern and
rock-bound coast" near which they lived, deep and cold as the seas
that beat upon their rugged shores, they knew no compromise with
duty — it must be done. No easy way was sought nor excuse
accepted for duty unperformed.

Community life, church, and town meeting. — They established
schools, churches, and town meetings, always dominated and often
ruled with the iron rod of church authority. In time, bigoted reli-
gious intolerance gave way to religious liberty, yet not with the
slightest change in the high standards of moral and spiritual recti-
tude required of every member of the community.

Possessing pride of race, proud of their ancestry, they inspired in
the hearts of their children a reverence and respect for family and
race which left no room for lax conduct or easy habits. Severely
disciplined within their homes, carefully supervised in their educa-
tion, the children were taught the obligation of participation in com-
munity affairs and were obliged to submit to the severe restrictions
imposed by their elders through the laws enacted by the local town
meeting.

The restrictions of these laws and the severity of punishment
imposed for the slightest infraction are cause for astonishment in
these days of easy morals and lax law observance, yet their value as
conducive to upright living, strict morals, and honest endeavor is
strikingly evidenced by the pronounced influence of the New England

28

OITIZENSHO?

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48 •

community, the church and town meeting, in molding the national

character of America.

The New England town was founded for and grouped about the church, which
was the clubhouse of the time. But the glory of the New England town was
its town meeting, a combination of neighborhood, society, caucus, legislature,
and council meeting. This was the most successful political institution of the
time, served as a private school in debate, and a nursery of American states-
men. — National Ideals Historically Traced — A. B. Hart.

The pioneer spirit. — In defining the character of America we find
one trait so strong and pronounced as to manifest itself in every
period and department of our national development — the "pioneer

spirit. "

Mixed motives inspired immigration to America. Regardless of
why they came, the spirit of the pioneer seemed quickly to possess
them with its urgent demand to go forth and conquer the wilderness.

In that spirit the New England pioneers, and those from the
Middle Colonies and the South, peopled in succession the States
beyond the Alleghenies and the Cumberlands, advancing by succes-
sive steps until they reached the boundaries of the continent.

The pioneer from New England and his cousins, the Scotch-Irish
in Virginia and North Carolina, loved a struggle. To them the
wilderness held no terror too great nor hardship too severe to hold
them back. Life was a joyful adventure and the dangers were entic-
ing. Life held the stern duty of making provision for family and
posterity. Life was work, and the great forests were there to be
cleared. Life was full of promise; there were the vast free lands —
theirs for the taking. Life was the gift of God and. never forgetting,
they set the stamp of their God-fearing character upon each succeed-
ing community, in school, church, and local government.

People from New England, the Middle Colonies, and the South, flowed together
to form neighboring or joint communities, and thus varied the Colonial farmer
typo. This mixed population produced interesting combinations of local govern-
ment; Michigan, settled largely by New England people, set up the town meet-
ing ; in Illinois, first reached by southerners, the county system was established
in 1818, and later an option was allowed between town and county. — National
Ideals Historically Traced — A. B. Hart.

Tenacity of purpose. — The very compelling forces of hardship,
privation, danger, and isolation bred a spirit of unrestrained freedom
which has had a pronounced influence in forming our national char-
acter. Compelled to rely upon individual effort in providing and
protecting his means of livelihood, the early American quickly
acquired the knowledge of individual rights and the determination to

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OmZBNSHlP

maintain them. What was his, won by honest toil or by right of
discovery, he was ever ready to defend against all odds.

Their tenacity in what they undertook has never been surpassed by any
people, not even the Romans.

1 remember that half the Plymouth colonists died the first winter, and that
in the spring, when the long waiting Mayflower sailed again homeward, not one
of the fainting survivors went with her — and 1 glory in that unflinching forti-
tude, * * * our stiffest muscle is limp and loose beside the unyielding
grapple of their tough wills — Doctor Storrs.

This tenacity went far in possessing and saving to America the
whole region west of the Mississippi River. The future welfare of
the Nation, the preservation of representative government, and the
principles for which it stands lie largely to-day within the hands of
the citizens of the West, for into that section has traveled the center
of our population, and there is to be found over one-half of the
descendants of our Colonial forefathers.

Experimental self-government. — Our national character is em-
phasized in our ability to govern ourselves. Such ability did not
develop over night; neither can it be acquired for the asking. No
other nation has attained self-government in equal measure with the
United States. The Colonies struggled 150 years before they had
established a sufficient foundation to take the step that led to the
"Great Experiment."

Our present form of government would never have been possible
without this long period of preparation, involving study, experience,
mistakes, and a growing measure of success, exemplified in the wise
legislation inaugurated by several of the colonies, and in the increas-
ing spirit of independence prior to the War of the Revolution. Suc-
cess was made possible due to the collective fitness of the colonials
for the task of self-government.

The colonial was "a good farmer, an excellent schoolmaster, a
very respectable preacher, a capital lawyer, a sagacious physician,
an able editor, a thriving merchant, a shrewd peddler, and a most
industrious tradesman," able to comprehend the full measure of
human associations. Hence, with these qualifications, when inde-
pendence was Avon, a committee of chosen representatives called to
the arduous task of revising the Articles of Confederation, found
within themselves a collective knowledge which enabled them to pro-
duce that document, the Constitution of the United States, which,
Mr. Gladstone said, "is the greatest piece of work ever struck off
in a given time by the brain and purpose of man."

49. Individual character. — Moral worth. — In the discussion of
moral worths, it is primarily true that we weigh and evaluate the

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actions of the individual. However, individual acts do not form a
haphazard aggregate of unrelated deeds', for back of the act are
dominant principles that assure a certain continuity in human action.
With knowledge of the temperament and trend of mind of a given
man, his action under given circumstances may be fairly predicted,
due to the fact that behind the shifting play of emotions found in
the mental life of everyone there is a background of permanent
emotional associations and processes which change slowly, if at all.
This stable background of the moral life is character.

Deeds an expression of character. — Upon groat impulse one may
commit an act foreign to his nature. However, in the long run of
life, his deeds are an expression of his character. We base our esti-
mate of character upon known performance; we catalogue the indi-
vidual as good, bad, reliable, unstable, trustworthy, worthless. His
worth to society is assessed. We judge what measure of reliance
can be placed in him; how far he may be trusted; wherein lies his

weakness, and wherein his greatest strength.

Public spirit. — The secret of the remarkable progress of America
in the first 100 years of constitutional government lies in the fact that
her public-spirited men were striving to put the best into government,

not to take the most out of it.

No collective morality. — In the very nature of our Government,
the responsibility for its social, economic, and political standards
rests absolutely upon the character of its individual citizens. There
can be no collective morality, integrity, honor, that is not the sum of
the principles of the individuals of the community. State, or Nation.
If the majority are mercenary, the character of the Nation will be
ruthless. If the growing tendency to irreligious thought persists,

the Nation will become irresponsible.

Desire for education and religion. — Desire is, perhaps, the great-
est force in the determination of individual character. It overrules
the handicaps of environment, poverty, and physical defects. It
asks no favor of race, creed, or color. It has no determinate end. Its
power is to ennoble or debase — "As a man thinketh in his heart,

so is he."

The desire of our forefathers for education and religion, intensified

with each succeeding generation by the ever-increasing facilities for

intellectual development, has fixed the American character upon a

high plane of moral worth and honorable attainment.

Knowledge is being extended with a rapidity and scope never

before known in human history. By the magic of the facilities of

modern communication, its voice is carried to the uttermost coiners

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of the earth, challenging the present generation to newer and greater
fields of adventure and achievement. The right to education is our
heritage, established by our forefathers, guaranteed by the law of
the land, enriched by our free institutions.

Notwithstanding this privilege illiterates form a large proportion
of our electorate. The National Education Association tells us that
4,300,000 illiterate citizens were qualified to vote in the last presi-
dential election. Over 4,000.000 ignorant voters, unable to read any
discussion of issues or candidates!

The last census disclosed that 1,400,000 children between the ages
of 7 and 13 years were not in school during the period from Septem-
ber 1, 1919, to January 1, 1920.

Because of universal suffrage, the modern complexity of our na-
tional life, and the acknowledged principles of the right of private
judgment — an open-mindedness receptive of the revelation of truth,
a "thoughtful" citizenry is necessary.

On the diffusion of education among the people rests the preservation and
perpetuity of our free institutions. — Daniel Webster.

Foundation of character. — The character of the individual and
the Nation is founded upon religion and education — which, united
with that force we call "will," give to every individual the means
for high attainment.

Submitting yourself to these impelling influences, resourcefulness
and unconquerable energy take command. By their power you win
self-mastery. The joy of work becomes a reality. Labor is dignified
by the pride of accomplishment. Obstacles and handicaps are but a
challenge to greater effort. Discipline becomes self-imposed.

Religion laid the foundations of our American Government. It neither seeks
nor claims any justification for its existence save righteousness. It had its be-
ginning, it found its inspiration, in the reUgions beUefs of the men who settled
our country, made it an independent Nation, and maintained its institutions and
laws. If it is to endure it will be through the support of men of Hke mind and
Uke character. — President Coolidge. ,

Daily performance necessary. — Expressed in terms of unselfish
devotion to ideals, our attitude to others, our sense of responsibility,
our willingness to give full service, loyal cooperation, our faithfulness
to each other, and our reverence for religion, embodied in the daily
performance of every task, "character" is the greatest asset of
America.

50. Physical character. — Great resources. — Napoleon asked
Talleyrand, "What is America?" To which reply was made, "It

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is a body without bones." An American adds: " The bones have
been developed, and they are bones of steel."

Possessed of a raw continent, millions of square miles in area,
composed of boundless prairies, vast forests, mighty rivers, great
plains, and rugged mountains, containing fertile soil, rich natural
resources in minerals, timber, and water power, the American, lack-
ing tools, supplies, and capital, was forced by the very nature of
his task and environment to a life of hard labor, long hours of toil,
frugal living, and self-dependence with attending hardships and
dangers. Out of these combined conditions was developed a type of
hardy pioneer unequaled in the history of mankind.

Developed by pioneers. — In her commercial life America has
stepped boldly forth to the great task set before her. Slowly at
first, groping her way along great rivers and through deep forests,
she began the work of conquering the wilderness, which won as the
fruit of her enterprise, first, the full possession of this great domain,
and then, for her 300 years of toil, the greatest treasure house among
the nations of the earth.

Visions become realities. — Forced to work by the very necessity
of finding the means of existence, accepting danger and hardship,
privation and suffering as a part of the task, America gave herself
to creating material wealth.

Gaining strength and wisdom with succeeding years, America has
builded achievement upon achievement. No enterprise has been
too great for her aggressive spirit. Her dreams and visions have
become realities by the force of her will and the magic of her creative
ability.

Spirit of improvement and invention. — Ever willing to adopt new
ideas, to develop and improve, to tear down and rebuild, to scrap the
machine of yesterday for the improved equipment of to-day, oppor-
tunity was never neglected to find a better way to do a larger
business.

Success possible to every citizen. — Driven first by necessity, the
joy of accomplishment became the spur to greater achievements.
The way to comfort, to competency, to wealth was open and free to
every citizen, limited alone by individual ability, courage, and de-
termination. Out of great opportunity, with freedom to all, there
has been bred a race of men and women of sterling character and
outstandingindependence.

51. Ethical character. — Confidence. — American business is
based upon the character of its people. J. Pierpont Morgan used to
say he banked more on a man's character than on his money. Char-

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acter is the basis of confidence. Confidence is the basis of credit.
Credit, above any other element, is the source of stability in commer-
cial life. Our building industry, amounting to hundreds of millions
annually, is dependent upon borrowed capital from the time of the
first drafted plan to completion of each structure. The vast commer-
cial enterprises of the United States are made possible by our system
of credit based upon confidence in the integrity of the people.

The ethical character of our commercial relations is based upon
respect for and confidence in the nobler things of life and the unfail-
ing observance of business ethics.

High standards of commercial life. — America is a nation of cor-
porations. Every enterprise of any consequence is incorporated.
Founders or owners of a given business invite employee and public
to share the risk and the profit. The workingman as a shareholder
is rapidly becoming a capitalist; in number they have increased to
several million and their investments are assuming astonishing pro-
portions. By this means, adjustments of differences between capital
and labor are becoming easier as differences arise. The employer in
recognizing the employee as a fellow man and not as a commodity
opens the door to mutual understanding and square dealing.

As a stockholder, the employee feels the interest and responsibility
of a partner. Greater attention is paid to the work, quality is
improved, waste eliminated, and profits increased to the mutual
advantage of all. The fact that labor is being less exploited and more
fairly treated with each succeeding year is not only indicative of
economic evolution but also a marked evidence of the high character
common to our commercial life.

Spirit of cooperation and compromise. — One of the most en-
couraging signs of continued prosperity in America is the constantly
growing tendency toward compromise and cooperation in the affairs
of capital and labor, based upon mutual confidence. Such differences
as are bound to arise are, as a rule, disposed of to the general good
of all.

No class domination. — No class is permitted to dominate in
America. Public opinion, which is always representative of public
character, will not permit the assumption of power. Whether it be
capital, labor, farmer, group, or section, public character in its
dominant sense of fair dealing defeats the effort to acquire unfair
advantage.

Spirit of benevolence. — Nothing is more characteristic of modern
American life than the pouring out of private wealth for public
service. Nowhere are so many philanthropic agencies at work.

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There is that in American democracy which creates the spirit of
public service through gifts to the public.

In respect to aid and contributions in world disasters America is
one of the first in the field of distress and one of the last to leave.

Not materialistic. — The Old World, looking upon the intense ac-
tivity of this New World, seeing us ever engrossed in material affairs,
with little time for leisure, even making hard work of our play in our
overanxiety to win at any game, whether it be work or play, has
scoffed at our lack of art, literature, and culture and called us a
nation of dollar chasers.

Our justification for our so-called gross materiality lies in the fact
that we were a new nation — new in a wilderness to be conquered; new
in a land without homes, towns, or cities, without schools or churches,
without transportation or communication. Under these circum-
stances there was neither occasion nor opportunity to write music,
paint pictures, or sculpture in marble. Our music was in the sweet,
sonorous song of the mighty forests and the rushing streams; our
pictures were painted daily in the mists of the morning and the
waving fields of grain. Our monuments and memorials were carved
from virgin forests, builded in great cities, in rambling farmhouses
set in emerald fields. We were kept too busy providing the necessi-
ties of life to find time for the finer accomplishments.

Now, lasting monuments depicting the strength, the majesty, and
the beauty of our country are being erected; our large and well-kept
parks are ornamented with beautiful sculptures; our colleges, uni-
versities, and institutions of music and art are comparable with those
of any other part of the world; our public galleries and museums
possess priceless works of art.

52. Political character. — Diplomacy. — America is slowly ret
surely winning the confidence of the nations of the world. The
desire to arbitrate rather than resort to armaments has distinguished
America in her international policy, desiring to adjust all differences
within the principles of justice and equity. Her commercial treaties
are written in terms of square dealing. Backed by the guaranty of
the American character, her obligations and her dollars are eagerly
accepted wherever they may be offered.

QUESTIONNAIRE

What is the result of the coordination of the "varied endeavors"
of our country?

In what manner has the spirit of cooperation influenced the
development of America ?

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Upon what does the perpetuity of our fundamental principles
depend?

What are the main elements in the Puritan character?

What place in our early colonial life was occupied by the "town
meeting"? What was its later influence?

State the chief characteristics of the pioneer.

Upon what is our estimate of character based ?

What was the secret of our remarkable progress in the first 100
years of the constitutional Government ?

What depends upon the character of our individual citizens?

Name several factors upon which our national character is based.

Why is religion an essential characteristic of the American people?

Are all American citizens educated? Explain.

How does public education affect American political institutions?

Why, under our form of government, is a "thoughtful" citizenry
necessary ?

In what manner is the gospel of hard work related to the American
character ?

Upon what is the ethical character of our commercial relations
based?

To what is the success of our vast commercial enterprises due?

Why is the spirit of benevolence characteristic of America?

Is America materialistic ? Explain.

In what is the political character of America expressed?

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SECTION IV

LESSON 4. — GREAT AMERICANS AND THEIR
ACHIEVEMENTS

Paragraph
The value of biography 53

Fields of achievement 34

George Washington 55

Military leadership.

Political leadership.

Farewell address.

The Nation's gratitude.
Benjamin Franklin 66

Printer, publisher, philanthropist.

Scientist.

Political philosopher.

Diplomat.

Member of Constitutional Convention.
John Marshall 57

Soldier.

Member of assembly.

Ratification of the Constitution.

Member of Congress.

Interpretation of the Constitution.
Thomas Jefferson 58

Declaration of Independence.

President of the United States.

Louisiana Purchase.

Achievements.
Daniel Webster 59

Tampering with the Constitution.

Representative government.

Reply to Hayne.
Abraham Lincoln 60

Limited education.

Handicaps.

Lawyer.

Preservation of the Union.

The nation incarnate.
The winning of the West 61

Northwest Territory.

Slow development.

Daniel Boone.

Settlement of Kentucky.

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Paratcrapb
George Rogers Clark 62

Military expeditions.
His monument.
Lewis and Clark 63

The expedition.

Claim of United States to territory established.

The new country.
Rev. Marcus Whitman 04

Western emigration

Sterling qualities of racial stock.

Boundary adjustment.
Gen John C. Fremont 65

Exploration of the Southwest.

Mexican War.

A contemporary.

Territorial acquisition.
Eli Whitney, a pioneer of modern industry 66

Invention of cotton gin.

Development of cotton industry.

Influence on country.

Interchangeability of mechanical parts.
Robert Fulton, a pioneer of steam navigation 67

Other inventors.

Legislative grant

The "submarine."

The Clermont.

Progress in water transportation.
Samuel F. B. Morse, a pioneer of modern communication 68

Opening of the Erie Canal.

Invention of the telegraph

Appropriation from Congress.

Improvementand amplification.
Capt. John Ericsson, pioneer of the modern battleship 69

The Monitor.

The navy and merchant marine

Maj. Walter Reed, conqueror of yellow fever 70

Maj. Gen. William C. Gorgas, conqueror of malaria 71

53. The value of biography. — The history of any nation, in its
ideals and achievements, its motives and spirit, invariably reflects
the character of its leaders. The stories of the lives and accomplish-
ments of its great men are the windows through which is revealed
the soul of the nation.

The biographies of the leaders of America should be carefully
studied as the means of best understanding the controlling factors
in the development of our country in any given period. In these
stories are revealed the combat of minds, the clash of opinions, the
cunning of politicians, the ruthlessness of self-seekers, and the saving

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forces of those dominant leaders who inspired the people to follow
them in the establishment of the ideals out of which have been created
the splendid achievements of our people.

In the lives of our great men are to be found the elements of right-
eousness, courage, justice, unselfish devotion to duty, self-reliance,
initiative, and stubborn determination, the ingredients from which
was brewed the virile, aggressive, and generous spirit of America.

With each succeeding period of our progress in government, indus-
try, agriculture, education, medical science, we have had the leader-
ship of men and women devoted to public service with little thought

of personal gain.

In this spirit our Government was estabhshed. They who had

power to assume control dared to commit that control to a free people,
knowing that the ideals of liberty, justice, and individual right had
been indelibly stamped upon the very souls of their countrymen.

In like spirit succeeding generations have responded to the call of
their leaders for the preservation of our Nation. Creative and
destructive forces are in eternal conflict. The experience of the
past gives us wisdom to accomplish the tasks of the present.

Eternal vigilance is the price of liberty.

64. Fields of achievement. — The ideals and accomplishments
of our great Americans were to establish a government that was
fit to be intrusted with all the powers that a free people ought to
delegate to any government as the safe and proper depository of
national interests, controlled not by the passions but by the reason
of the people, to develop the natural resources of the country, and
to open up the way of opportunity to all.

However, great Americans have not confined their achievements
to the field of government and protection of our institutions Many
of the great industries, much of medical science, communication, and
transportation found first expression in the keen minds of our
pioneers. In the biographies of these men are incidents as thrilling,
full of daring, and productive of rich achievements as are revealed in
the lives of the mighty army who conquered the wilderness and won
for the United States in succession the Colonies, the Northwest
Territory, Louisiana, the Oregon country, Texas, California, and

the great Southwest.

55. George Washington. — This noble first citizen of America
is the outstanding character in the history of our country. From his
early youth he demonstrated those qualities of leadership which,
with the experience gained in his great achievements, made him the
dominant personality of his time.

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Military leadership. — At the early age of 23 years he was placed
in command of the Virginia Rangers. He became the hero of Gen-
eral Braddock's ill-fated campaign against the French and Indians.
After General Braddock's failure to accept his advice, which caused
his death and the defeat of his troops, it was the superior ability of
Washington which saved the British from rout and possible an-
nihilation. As commander in chief of the Continental Army, he took
command of a disorganized, undisciplined yet loyal body of raw
provincials. Ragged and starved, half frozen, and poorly equipped,
by the force of his character he brought them to a condition of train-
ing and discipline that gave final success to the Colonial cause.

By the charm and strength of his personality he won the admira-
tion and enthusiastic support of tli@ grtat ^mmam ^neral. Von
Steuben; the brilliant Frenchman, Count de La Fayette; and the
gallant Pole. Kosciusko.

Political leadership. — The conclusion of the war found General
Washington so exalted in the hearts of his countrymen as to make
him the virtual ruler of the new nation, created largely through his
military genius and indomitable will. Foregoing all personal ambi-
tions other than that of molding a free people into an enduring
nation, he gave himself with equal faithfulness to the work of peace
and orderly government.

Serving without pay in all his public career, his life of unselfish
devotion rightfully won for him the title of "Father of His Coun-
try." When charged by an unfriendly Congress with usurpation of
power, he replied: "A character to lose, an estate to forfeit, the ines-
timable blessings of liberty at stake, and a life devoted, must be my
excuse."

Inspired by the influence of his character and his qualities of
statesmanship, such men as Hamilton, Jefferson, Madison, Randolph,
King, Marshall, Monroe, and the venerable Franklin addressed them-
selves with him to the task of constructing a new government, which
in the following generations was destined to become an ever-growing
memorial to their wisdom and patriotic devotion to the ideals and
rights of humanity.

Farewell address. — The wisdom, sagacity, and vision of Wash-
ington gave the United Colonies a republican rather than a demo-
cratic form of government. In the almost inspired words of his
"Farewell Address" — in the framing of which he undoubtedly had
the assistance of Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, two of
the finest minds of that period — he gave counsels concerning the
pitfalls which have destroyed other popular governments of history.

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As far as these counsels have been observed the Nation has enjoyed
peace, prosperity, and happiness.

The Nation's gratitude. — George Washington, born February 22,
1782, died September 14, 1799. Within the scope of his 67 years he
was surveyor, farmer, soldier, statesman, commander in chief of the
Continental Army, and twice President of the United States of
America. '

More than to any other, we owe our everlasting debt of gratitude
to George Washington for American independence and the Consti-
tution of the United States.

58. Benjamin Franklin. — Benjamin Franklin manifested the
qualities characteristic of the American. Genius he possessed, but it
was the genius of hard work. He was a self-made man. At the age
of 17 years, he came from Massachusetts to Philadelphia, which
became his lifelong residence.

Printer, publisher, philanthropist. — A journeyman printer by
trade, he ultimately became the author and printer of Poor Richard's
Almanac, a publication of homely philosophy which contains many
gems of wisdom and good advice as applicable to-day as in his time.

Franklin was identified with the Pennsylvania Gazette. He
founded the Saturday Evening Post, the University of Pennsylvania,
and the Philadelphia Public Library. He was the first postmaster
general of the Colonies.

Scientist. — With all these activities he still found time to devote to
science. The flash of lightning in a thunderstorm caused him to
wonder rather than to fear. In it he recognized a mightly force;
his philosophic mind concluded that in some way the flash of lightning
(electricity) could be controlled and brought into the service of man-
kind. It pays to think. Creative minds, as exemplified in Franklin,
rather than manual labor, have produced the great achievements of
all time.

Political philosopher. — Benjamin Franklin was too busy to be
idle. Absorbed with the affairs and welfare of the Colonies, he
proposed in 1754 that the Colonies be formed into a Union. Franklin
believed that had this proposition been accepted, a separation from
the British Empire would never have taken place. Twenty years
later a call for a general congress of the Colonies was issued by
Virginia, at the instigation of Franklin, and held in Philadelphia
in May, 1774.

Benjamin Franklin took an active part in framing the Declara-
tion of Independence, of which he was one of the signers.

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Diplomat. — Two years later he went to France, where, in fur cap
and homespun clothing, he, the typical American commoner, created
a wave of enthusiasm which won the French to the cause of the
Colonies.

Member of Constitutional Convention. — At the age of 81 years
this old young -hearted philosopher took a most prominent part in
the deliberations of the constitutional convention held in Philadel-
phia from May to September, 1787. His wisdom and counsel often
prevailed in those long and stormy sessions. His love of country
and faith in democracy gave him a vision of the future greatness of
America that few in his time possessed.

67. John Marshall. — The life work of John Marshall is inti-
mately blended with the Constitution. He ranked high as a soldier,
legislator, diplomat, historian, and statesman. As a jurist and
magistrate, he ranks first. For 34 years he served as Chief Justice of
the Supreme Court of the United States, leaving a record for con-
structive results in the Government of the United States second only
to that of Washington.

Soldier. — He began the study of law at the age of 18 years, but
soon left his studies to enter the Revolutionary Army. His experi-
ences, with their heroisms and hardships, "broadened his views and
quickened his insight in governmental questions." He said, "I
entered the Army a Virginian and left it an American."

Member of assembly. — After the war he was elected a member of
the Virginia Assembly. During his remarkable career he served in
the legislature for eight sessions. He continually emphasized his
conviction that for efficiency a strong central government was
necessary.

Ratification of the Constitution. — As a member of the State con-
vention, in 1788, which met to discuss the ratification of the Con-
stitution of the United States, through the power of his convincing
logic, the ratification of the Constitution was accomplished over the
determined opposition of its enemies.

Member of Congress. — At the urgent request of Washington, he
became a candidate and was elected to Congress, where he became
the greatest debater on constitutional questions.

Interpretation of the Constitution. — In 1829, through his wisdom
and moderation, he did much to prevent radical changes in the State
constitution of Virginia, thwarting the attempts of politicians against
the independence of the judiciary. Because of his exceptional under-
standing of the philosophy of the Constitution of the United States,
his counsel was of prime importance.

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His deep convictions and illuminating arguments contained in his
decisions concerning constitutional questions, at a period when the
powers of the Constitution were ill defined, were of inestimable value
in the formation of a well-organized Federal Government. "He
made the Constitution live. He imparted to it the breath of immor-
tality. Its vigorous life at the present time is due mainly to the
wise interpretation he gave to its provisions during his term of
office."

The most notable products of Marshall's unprecedented judicial career may
be summed up under two heads In the first place, he established the supremacy
of Federal law within the entire circle of its jurisdiction, no matter whether it
was opposed by the Congress or by a State legislature in the form of unconstitu-
ttona) @Ba@tnisntiii m ^ tue ftmdmt giving ''iu^nuMnss ntffl wiaiDomiftsi \y
law"; or by State supreme courts attempting to resist the mandates of the
Supreme Court; or by the governors of States attempting to resist such
mandates; in the second place, in defining the character of "the American
Constitution." — Origin and Growth of the American Constitution — Hannis Taylor.

68. Thomas Jefferson. — By reason of his ability as a thinker
and speaker, Thomas Jefferson quickly gained a place of leadership,
first in Virginia, then in the Colonies, where he was constantly em-
ployed in fighting oppressive British regulations and interference
in the affairs of his country. Staunch in his defense of the rights of
the people, he caused Virginia to pass many laws of a revolutionary
character, among which was the abrogation of the rights of nobility,
entailed estates, and the absolute right of religious liberty.

Declaration of Independence. — He was a member of that famous
group which, upon call of the resolution proposed by Richard Harry
Lee, wrote the Declaration of Independence. Although the young-
est, his dominant personality and exceptional ability caused him to
be chosen chairman of that committee, which included such stalwarts
as John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sherman, and Robert R.
Livingston. The instrument practically as written by Jefferson was
unanimously adopted to become for all time one of the immortal
documents relating to human rights and self-government.

President of the United States. — In the trying days during and
following the Revolutionary War Thomas Jefferson was a member
of the Continental Congress, Governor of Virginia, ambassador to
France, succeeding Franklin, and recalled to become Secretary of
State in President Washington's Cabinet, where he bitterly opposed
the policy of Alexander Hamilton in his endeavor to extend the
powers of government over the people.

On a platform baaed upon his ideas and policies, he was elected
the third President of the United States as a Democratic-Republican

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over his opponent, who as a Federalist espoused the principles of
Hamilton.

Louisiana Purchase. — During the first, years of his two terms as
President, he completed the negotiations with France for the pur-
chase of the vast domain, over 900,000 square miles, lying west of the
Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, known as "the
Louisiana Territory." The purchase price of $15,000,000 was, at that
time^ considered exorbitant and created much adverse criticism in
which Jefferson was denounced as an "imperialist," and as having
forsaken his democratic principles. The reasons for this action on
his part were that he saw the advantage of gaining control of the
Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans, and that by this pur-
chase the United States would be left unhampered by foreign coun-
tries in developing her republican form of government.

Achievements. — The outstanding events of his public life are to be
found in (1) the writing of the Declaration of Independence; (2)
enactment of the statute for religious liberty; (3) founding the
University of Virginia; and (4) the purchase of the Louisiana
Territory.

69. Daniel Webster. — Daniel Webster belongs to the first gen-
eration of Americans who knew no other form of government than
that established by the Federal Constitution. So intimately is his
name associated with that great document that he has become known
to history as the greatest expounder of the Constitution.

Tampering with the Constitution. — When but 20 years old, he
delivered an address which contained the following:

The experience of all ages will bear us out in saying that alterations of politi-
cal systems are always attended with a greater or less degree of danger. The
politician that undertakes to improve a constitution with as little thought as a
farmer sets about mending his plow is no master of his trade. If the Constitu-
tion be a systematic one * * * its parts are so necessarily connected that
an alteration in one will work an alteration in all, and the cobbler, however
pure and honest his intentions, will in the end find that what came to his hands
a fair, lovely fabric goes from them a miserable piece of patchwork * * *.

Representative government. — As a further caution against a pro-
nounced tendency, he declared:

The true definition of despotism is government without law. It may exist in
the hands of many as well as one. Rebellions are despotisms, factions are
despotisms, loose democracies are despotisms. These are a thousand times more
dreadful than the concentration of all power in the hands of a single tyrant
The despotism of one man is like the thunderbolt which falls here and there,
scorching and consuming the individual on whom it lights; but popular commo-
tion, the despotism of the mob, is like an earthquake, which in one moment
swallows up everything. It is the excellence of our Government that it is placed

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in a proper medium between these two extremes that it is equally distant from
mobs and from thrones

Webster clearly understood our representative form of government
and the importance of avoiding the dangerous extremes of either
hereditary (autocratic) government or direct (democratic) govern-
ment.

Reply to Hayne. — Webster's replies to Hayne in the United States
Senate are considered as the greatest debate that has ever occurred in
any legislative body in the history of the world. His second reply
began with the following words:

Mr President, when the mariner has been tossed for many days in thick
weather and on an unknown sea he naturally avails himself of the first pause
in the storm, the earliest glance of the sun, to take his latitude and ascertain
how far the elements have driven him from his true course. Let us imitate this
prudence and before we float farther on the waves of this debate refer to the
point from which we departed that we may at least be able to conjecture where
we now are.

This indicates a wholesome state of mind with which to approach
important discussions concerning the philosophy of our Government
as expressed in the Constitution. Before we drift farther toward
direct action and socialistic tendencies, we should return in study and
thought to the work of the men who wrote the Constitution and ascer-
tain how far we are departing from the course therein laid down.

60. Abraham. Lincoln. — George Washington gave us the Union.
Abraham Lincoln saved the Union.

Log cabins were common in this country 100 years ago. It was not
a log cabin that gave distinction to Abraham Lincoln, although he
was born in the poorest of such cabins on February 12, 1809.

Limited education. — His honors were not. conferred upon him be-
cause of a university education. Two short terms in a Kentucky
school, followed by three in Indiana, less than a year in all, does not
give much foundation for scholastic attainments.

Handicaps. — To study the life of Lincoln makes one almost believe
God purposely placed every conceivable handicap upon him just to
prove his staying qualities, and to set an example in purpose, prin-
ciple, and perseverance that would act as an inspiration for young
and old possessed of the ambition and endurance, the vision and
character, necessary to success.

Abraham Lincoln was homely, yet he possessed the beauty of soul
dedicated to relieving the burdens and sorrows of humanity.

He was a rail splitter. In his rugged physical strength he was as
gentle as a woman.

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His was a lowly birth, yet "his spirit is the richest legacy of the
United States."

Lawyer. — He was a "saddlebag" lawyer, yet, with a copy of Black-
stone, a Webster's Dictionary, and the fundamental law of God and
human rights in his heart and head he won his way to the respectful
consideration of all opponents.

With his sense of humor and ability as a story teller there was in
him a supersense of justice, and he often fitted a story to emphasize a
truth that otherwise might have been forgotten. '

Preservation of the Union. — "A house divided against itself can
not stand." Upon that issue — the preservation of the Union — Abra-
ham Lincoln was elected President of the United States. Tolerant
with all who opposed, kind to all who hated, charitable to those who
denounced, he held firmly to the single purpose of saving the Union,
in the belief that in union only could our Nation endure.

Tho beauty of diction, the reverence, sympathy and love, the mag-
nanimity and charity, and the vision of the worth of the price paid
for the preservation of our Union, as set forth in his Gettysburg
speech, will make him acclaimed after all other orators are forgotten.

The nation incarnate. — He was the nation incarnate. In all its
struggles, its doubts, its agony, and in the solemn days of victory
Abraham Lincoln lived alone for his country.

No one man has ever rendered greater service nor paid a greater
price for faithful performance. As he has given us a rich legacy
in his spirit and example, so he has left us a great responsibility —

That we highly resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that this
Nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom; and that government
of the people, by the people, and for the people shall not perish from the
earth.

81. The winning of the West. — In a brief space of time, 50 years,
was accomplished the stupendous task, entitled by President Roose-
velt "the winning of the West," an accomplishment made possible
by the sturdy character of the men and women who so fearlessly
and laboriously carried on once they set their faces toward tho
golden West.

Accustomed to frugality and hard labor, inured to hardships and
privation, stern in self-discipline and faith, mighty in determination
and self-reliance, they not only left to posterity an inheritance of
fertile land, virgin forests, great water resources, and untold mineral
wealth, but, greater than the sum of all material gain, they passed
on to this and succeeding generations the principles and traditions
of independence, liberty, and justice, an example of the worth of

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clean living, high purpose, and great faith that should be an inspira-
tion to every loyal American.

In the original grant of charter to the several Colonies by Great
Britain, the western limits were practically undefined. Several of
the Colonies claimed territory extending westward as far as the
Mississippi River and north of the Ohio to the Great Lakes.

Northwest Territory. — In the compromises made, composing the
differences between the Colonies, it wag agreed to define the western
boundaries of such Colonies to more restricted areas, dedicating the
disputed territory to the United States, to be known as the "North-
west Territory," which at the time was occupied by French and

British trading posts.

This area included what are now the States of Illinois, Indiana,
Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin. All territory lying west of the
Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains, from the Gulf of
Mexico to an undetermined northern limit, was then a possession of
Spain known as the "Louisiana Territory," transferred by Spain to
France and then sold in 1803 to the United States.

With the exception of a few venturesome spirits who found their
way across the mountains south of the Ohio River and as far west
as the Mississippi, this land of ours was an unknown wilderness to
the settlers of the Colonies. Alive with deer, buffalo, and small
game, rich in timber, fertile of soil, watered by numberless rivers
and lakes, America at the close of the War of the Revolution still
awaited discovery.

Slow development. — The thrilling story of the winning of the
West is a series of events accomplished not by military force but
rather by the efforts of a host of hardy pioneers who, with indom-
itable fortitude and incredible labor, won in succession the swamps,
rolling prairies, forests, plains, rugged mountains, and the fruitful

Pacific slope.

No single individual dominated this vast domain. It was the rank
and file who conquered in this battle of the wilderness. Its conquest
was not quickly accomplished. As in all great movements, leader-
ghij^ w%^ ^^oped, with hem and flKoeesaimaiix^thoHKitainKit&Diiffled
with some particular period or section.

Daniel Boone. — A native of North Carolina, born and developed
tinder conditions' that gave him physical strength and endurance
beyond the average, courage, daring, and self-reliance, he was pecul-
iarly fitted for what he declared to be the mission of his life —
"ordained of God to settle the wilderness." He was the highest type
of wilderness explorer. Living to the age of 86, he will continue to

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live throughout the annals of our history as an outstanding type of
the earliest American. He exemplified in his life the value of clean
living, high principles, and hard labor.

Settlement of Kentucky. — Undaunted by the unknown dangers of
great swamps and forests, matching wits and woodcraft with the
roving bands of hostile Indians, he led the first group of settlers
across the Blue Ridge Mountains into the rich country of Kentucky.
Here, amidst untold hardships, privations, and danger, there was
set up the beginning of what has grown to be a mighty State, rich
in natural resources and richer still in the treasure of its manhood
and womanhood, descendants of the sturdy stock of Daniel Boone
and those who followed him. These hardy pioneers bred into the
succeeding generations that strength of purpose, endurance, initia-
tive, and determination which has contributed so much to the
richness and virility of American character.

62. George Rogers Clark. — Capt. George Rogers Clark saved
the settlers in Kentucky from massacre by the Indians and was the
hero of the conquest of the Northwest Territory, now represented
by Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Michigan, and Wisconsin.

Military expeditions. — He led his small force of less than 200 men
against the French outposts of southern Illinois. With their capture
he turned his attention to the British garrison at Fort Sacksville on
the Wabash River at Vincennes, Ind.

In the capture of this fort Captain Clark and his sturdy band
accomplished one of the most difficult marches in military history.
Crossing the "drowned lands" of southern Illinois in the month of
February, 1779, they carried on through water oftentimes above their
waists, without provisions or supplies other than that carried upon
their backs. Through a wilderness untraveled and unknown by
white men, this small band of backwoodsmen took the British by sur-
prise, demanded and received the unconditional surrender of the gar-
rison. By this remarkable exploit America was forever rid of
foreign domination, and title to this region was given to the United
States.

His monument. — Capt. George Rogers Clark was among the great-
est of the forefathers of the mid-West. By the inspiration of his
spirit, fortitude, and courage, this handful of men acquired posses-
sion of this inland empire of America. By acts of heroism, serving
without pay, and assuming the debts contracted in this campaign.
Captain Clark magnified his devotion to his country. The memorial
to his self-sacrificing service is not to be found in tablets or statues
of bronze, but rather in the great Commonwealths that now comprise
this territory — the heart of America.

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63. Lewis and Clark. — In May of 1804, Capts. Meriwether
Lewis and William Clark proceeded to St. Louis, Mo., in obedience
to the following order issued by President Jefferson by authority of
Congress:

Go up the Missouri to its sources; find out, if possible, the fountains of the
Mississippi and the true position of the Lake of the Woods: cross the stony
mountams, and having found the nearest river flowing into the Pacific, go down
it to the sea. ,

The expedition. — Outfitting in St. Louis, Captain Lewis and Cap-
tain Clark, with four sergeants and twenty-three privates of the
Regular Army, and an Indian interpreter, began the long, tedious
journey up the swift current of the Missouri, reaching its headwaters
approximately one year later. Crossing the Rocky Mountains,
through the Bitter Root Range, they found the Clearwater River.
Proceeding down its course through exceedingly rough country to
tho Snake River, in what is now Idaho, they continued on to the
Northwest to the junction of the Snake with the lordly Columbia.

Launching their canoes upon the broad reaches of this most beauti-
ful stream in October, 1805, they drifted down to the Pacific Ocean,
reaching their destination November 7, one month later. Returning
from there to St. Louis, with their surveys and maps of the regions
explored, they completed the required journey in a little over two
years' time.

Claim of United States to territory established. — How little was
known of the great domain secured to the United States in the pur-
chase of the Louisiana Territory is revealed in part by the wording
of the President's order. How much was learned and its importance
to the Nation was contained in part in the report those two intrepid
Army officers gave upon their return. The most important result
obtained was the firm establishment of the claim of the United States
by overland exploration, its first claim being made through the
earlier discovery of this north Pacific country by Capt. Robert Gray,
of Boston, who sailed his ship from the Pacific Ocean up a great river
in 1792, naming it the Columbia, in honor of the three hundredth
anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus.

The new country. — The Lewis and Clark expedition gave the peo-
ple their first idea of the vast area, enormous natural resources, and
grandeur of the Pacific Northwest. They were the forerunners of
what soon became a mighty host of emigrants into the land of the
setting sun

64. Rev, Marcus Whitman. — Thirty years after the Lewis and
Clark expedition Rev. Marcus Whitman packed all his earthly
possessions in a wagon and, with his bride, trekked across the plains

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-and mountains, over what became known as the Oregon Trail, to the
Walla Walla country as a missionary to the Indians.

Impressed with the beauty and richness of the country, he seemed
to have lost sight of his special mission, as seven years later he took
the trail back to civilization, there to urge his countrymen to follow
him in the possession of this new land.

Western emigration. — Acting as guide for this band of emigrants,
recruited largely in New England, he led them ever westward in the
all but impossible journey of nearly 4,000 miles. The story of the
hardships and perils, the labor, sickness, and starvation, the fight
with Indians and nature, serves again to prove the sturdiness, self-
reliance, and courage of the pioneers of America.

Sterling qualities of racial stock. — Every advancing step in the
progress of our Nation emphasizes the sterling qualities of the racial
stock that, handed down to succeeding generations, has given the
urge and the will to do, the fruits of which are to-day enjoyed by
a prosperous and happy posterity.

Boundary adjustment. — These men and women, who BO bravely
followed Whitman over the Oregon Trail, saved that great country
to the United States. The cry in 1846 was "The British must go —
The whole of Oregon or none — 54-40 or fight." In the spirit of fair
play and justice, the differences with Great Britain were adjusted,
the boundaries were fixed, and another great step in the expansion
and settlement of our Nation was accomplished.

85. Gen. John C. Fremont. — As a junior officer of the United
States Army, at the age of 29 years, Fremont was designated by the
Secretary of War to explore a route from western Missouri to the
"South Pass."

Exploration of the Southwest. — In accomplishing his mission he
followed the Arkansas River to its source in the Rocky Mountains.
On a later expedition he made his way through Utah to the Great
Salt Lake and then through the deserts of Nevada and across the
Sierra Nevada, where he found his journey leading through the
mammoth trees and along the roaring torrents of the California
country, reaching the Mexican city of Monterey, some 130 miles
south of San Francisco on the Pacific Ocean.

Mexican War. — Through exercise of diplomacy he was able to re-
main in this vicinity until after the outbreak of the Mexican War,
when he headed a revolt against that Government and freed the
territory of California from Mexican authority, becoming the gov-
ernor of the territory which was ceded to the United States by treaty
following the conclusion of the war with Mexico.

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A contemporary. — Contemporary with Fremont, another brilliant
young Army officer. Colonel Kearney (afterwards brigadier general),
fought his way across the plains of Texas to Santa Fe, N. Mex., and
after its capture continued across the deserts of New Mexico, Ari-
zona, and southern California to a union of his small army with
Fremont in California.

Territorial acquisition. — As a result of the splendid work of these
men coupled with the success of Generals Scott and Taylor in old
Mexico, there was added to the domain of the United States the
last of the great southwestern area, a territory of nearly 1,000.000
square miles, a section of our country which within one year there-
after became the goal of the adventurous spirits of the world due
to the discovery of fabulous gold deposits along many of the water
courses flowing to the Pacific Ocean from the western slopes of the
mountains bordering eastern California.

66. EH Whitney, a pioneer of modern industry. — Invention
of cotton gin. — A school-teacher from Massachusetts living in
Georgia in 1793 invented a machine called the cotton gin, by use
of which a negro could easily clean 300 pounds of cotton a day,
demonstrating thereby, as no previous invention had done, the value
of machinery in replacing or augmenting manual labor. The whole
question of cotton production and cotton manufacture was changed
through the use of this invention.

' Previous to the invention of the cotton gin, cotton yarns were spun
and woven into cloth by hand in private homes. Necessarily, by this
slow method of manufacture, but small quantities of cotton were
used.

Development of cotton industry. — So rapid was the development
of the industry, stimulated by this new "gin," that within the next
20 years exports of cotton to Liverpool increased tenfold.

As a result of this invention a cotton factory was erected in Massa-
chusetts to produce cloth like that made in England. Here was
constructed the first loom operated by water power in America. In
1814 there was builded at Waltham, Mass., the first cotton mill in the
world, in which the raw material direct from a Whitney cotton gin
was spun into thread, woven into cloth, and printed with colors, all
under one roof.

' Influence on country. — The production of cotton was stimulated
and made one of the leading industries of the country. Cotton ex-
ports enormously increased; allied industries developed; communities
grew rapidly into cities.

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The invention of the cotton gin created unforeseen social, economic,
arid political conditions; it largely put a stop to the discussion of
slavery; the southern planters and northern manufacturers of cotton
found it to their mutual interest to keep the negro in bondage, since
by his labor they were rapidly growing rich.

Due to climatic conditions the manufacture of cotton goods was
carried to New England, thus opening a new channel of employment,
causing in following years a radical change in the nationality of tho
citizens of these Northern States.

Interchangeability of mechanical parts. — While Whitney was
the inventor of the cotton gin, because of the theft of his model and
tools from the shed in which he conducted his experiments, he was
not enabled to perfect his invention.

He instituted the interchangeability of parts which has greatly
influenced modern industry. In 1798 he secured a contract from the
Government for the manufacture of firearms, being "the first to
effect the division of labor by which each part was made separately."
It was from this invention that he made his fortune.

67. Robert Fulton, a pioneer of steam navigation. — It is
proper and fitting to designate Robert Fulton as the pioneer of
modern transportation by reason of his success in driving the Cler-
mont, in the year 1807, against the current of the Hudson River from
New York City to Albany.

Other inventors. — It is true that no less than eight men had at
various times and places propelled boats by steam power prior to
this accomplishment by Robert Fulton, yet none of them carried out
their experiments to a successful issue.

Fulton's success was largely due to his cleverness and ingenuity
coupled with the fortunate circumstance of a partnership formed
with Robert Livingston, a man of wealth, also interested in solving
the problem of steam navigation.

Legislative grant. — Livingston was so sure of final success through
his own various experiments as to induce the Legislature of the State
of New York to pass a bill granting exclusive right to navigate tho
waters of that State by steam power upon condition that a boat of 20
tons be driven by steam at a minimum speed of 4 miles an hour
against the current of the Hudson, this feat to be accomplished within
one year from the date of grant. He failed in his effort. Later ho
was appointed minister from the United States to France.

The "submarine". — In 1803, while in Paris, Fulton demonstrated
his "submarine" in the River Seine. Encouraged by the success of
this experiment, Fulton and Livingston ordered a steam engine from

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Watt & Boulton in England, to be shipped to America, where Fulton
found it on his return in 1806.

The "Clermont." — In the following year the Clermont was built
and launched in East River. Its successful trip opened the way to
a complete revolution of water transportation. Within the next few
years, so rapid was the adoption of this new method of travel, steam-
boats came into use upon the principal rivers and the Great Lakes,
rendering splendid assistance in establishing easy communication
between distant sections of our country traversed by the great
waterways.

Progress in water transportation. — To fully appreciate the value
of tho contribution made by Fulton and Livingston to the economic
development and enrichment of America, one has only to review
the remarkable progress made in water transportation, contrasting
the present accomplishments with those of 100 years ago.

Through his vision, patience, and persistence he found success
where others had failed, and in so doing opened the way to the rapid
development of this mighty agency in the advance of civilization.

68. Samuel F. B. Morse, a pioneer of modern communica-
tion. — Without our present facilities of communication, modern
civilization could not continue. Deprived of telegraph, telephone,
and radio, the wheels of industry would be stopped and the economic
welfare of nations destroyed. We can not too greatly emphasize this
benefaction conferred upon all people through the accomplishment
•of Samuel Morse and the brilliant men who followed him with im-
provements upon his basic invention, the telegraph.

Opening of the Erie Canal. — Morse trained himself to think. Of
all the thousands whose attention was engaged by the opening of
the Erie Canal in 1825, he alone caught the significance of the passage
of time in relaying the message heralding that event. The signal was
delivered by cannon placed at intervals between Buffalo and New
York City, the successive reports of which, conveyed from one em-
placement to the next, consumed one and a half hours of time in de-
livering the message a distance of 500 miles.

Invention of the telegraph. — Reason and logic compelled him to
believe that electricity made to travel many miles over a copper wire
in an instant of time could by some method be interrupted in its
passage so as to produce certain signals susceptible of interpretation.

Busy in his profession as an artist in London, Italy, France, and
at home, the idea of the control of electricity ever persisted in his
mind. With the passage of years his patience was rewarded with the
invention of a crude telegraphic instrument and a system of dot and

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dash signals to be used therewith. Forming a partnership with
Alfred Vail, they labored together in the perfection of the device
until their funds were exhausted.

Appropriation from Congress. — Undismayed, their persistent
appeal to Congress for assistance was finally rewarded with an appro-
priation of $80,000 for the erection of a telegraph line a distance of
40 miles between the cities of Baltimore and Washington. With the
completion of its construction, on the morning of May 24, 1844, in
the presence of the chief officers of the Government, in the Supreme
Court room of the Capitol, Professor Morse, operating the key of
his instrument, successfully transmitted to the wonder of all present
that first and memorable message, "What hath God wrought?"

Improvement and amplification. — Morse was a man of vision.
He predicted the day when telegraph lines would span the earth and
bridge the seas, yet even his far-seeing mind could never have en-
compassed the stupendous results which have come from his creation
as a rich boon to all mankind.

Men great in scientific accomplishments have followed with im-
provements and amplifications upon his invention. Alexander Bell
and associates applied his principle in perfecting the telephone;
Thomas Edison improved the technique as telegraph operator and
inventor, following his own powers of deduction into still broader
fields. Marconi and others enriched his creative efforts in the field of
wireless communication. Each passing year witnesses other improve-
ments and accomplishment, all a living testimonial to Samuel Morse,
the man of vision, who, standing apart from the crowd, sold himself
to a great idea, persisted against all odds until his efforts were
crowned with success.

69. Capt. John Ericsson, pioneer of the modern battle-
ship. — John Ericsson, a native of Sweden, directed his inventive
genius to improvements in steam navigation. He claimed the inven-
tion of the screw propeller but was unable to prove priority.

Coming to the United States in 1839, he built the first screw
propeller warship, the Princeton. This was the first steamship ever
constructed with her boilers and engines below the water line, and
was the beginning of the steam marine of the world.

The "Monitor. " — Ericsson would probably have remained un-
known to the nation at large had it not been for his achievement
during the Civil War. Using the revolving turret patents of Theo-
dore Ruggles Timby, he combined a structure with all machinery
below the water line, leaving the turrets alone exposed to attack.
This small vessel, known as the Monitor, called in derision "The

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Yankee Cheese -Box," in its victory over the Merrimae made Ericsson
famous in a day.

The navy and merchant marine. — This caused a revolution in
naval development among the world powers, increasing the effective-
ness of fighting ships, thereby greatly strengthening the offensive
and defensive forces of nations in proportion to their naval tonnage.

Through the genius of John Ericsson, the modern navy and mer-
chant marine has become one of the greatest factors in the develop-
ment and security of nations.

70. Maj. Walter Reed, conqueror of yellow fever. — Maj.
Walter Reed, a surgeon in the United States Army, conducted a long
series of experiments in Cuba and discovered the source of yellow
fever to be in the Stigomyia mosquito. The dream of his youth had
been to bo permitted to alleviate in some degree the sufferings of
humanity, and all his efforts, without a thought of self, were spent
in striving toward this goal. Within a few months after this dis-
covery, Habana, which had been ravaged by this disease for more
than 150 years, was cleared of the disease.

71. Maj. Gen. William C. Gorgas, conqueror of malaria. —
Through the efforts of Maj. Gen. William C. Gorgas, who was in
command of the medical and sanitary organizations of the United
States Army in Panama, this pestiferous district was converted into
a healthy region. The French enterprise on the Isthmus of Panama
was completely wrecked by the fevers common to that region; 75 per
cent of the employees from France died from the disease within a few
months after they had landed on the Isthmus. As a result of the
intensive efforts of Doctor Gorgas the situation was conquered and
Panama has become one of the healthiest spots on the continent.

QUESTIONNAIRE

What is the value of biography?

What in general were the ideals and accomplishments of the great
Americans i

Describe briefly the influence of George Washington on the Nation.

Who was Benjamin Franklin and in what way did he influence the
development of the country ?

In what way did John Marshall contribute to national welfare?

What advantages did Thomas Jefferson secure for the United
States by making the Louisiana Purchase ?

Against what modern movements did Daniel Webster counsel?

To what principal task did Abraham Lincoln set himself?

Who was Daniel Boone, and what did he accomplish ?

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As the result of the expedition of Capt. George Rogers Clark in
the Northwest Territory, what States were added to the Union?

What was achieved by the expedition of Lewis and Clark?

How did the efforts of the Rev, Marcus Whitman terminate in
reference to the Oregon country ?

Who was Gen. John C. Fremont and of what value were his

services?

Who were the real conquerors of the West?

What were the main steps in our national development accom-
plished by far-seeing American statesmen?

What principal changes were brought about by Whitney's inven-
tion of the cotton gin ?

What was Whitney's greatest invention? Why?

What were the principal contributions of Robert Fulton in modern
development?

Who invented the telegraph?

Who improved and amplified this invention?

For what are we indebted to Capt. John Ericsson?

Who made the discovery that stopped the ravages of yellow fever

the world over ? ,

Who eradicated tropical anemia and malignant malaria from

Panama?

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SECTION V
LESSON 5. — ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF AMERICA

^, . • . • • Paragranb
The colonial spirit 72

Colonists largely representative 73

A continent to conquer 74

Limited facilities.

Chief pursuits, agriculture and seafaring.
The federation of the colonies 75

Encouraged by constitutional provisions 76

The money clause.
The post-office clause.
The commerce clause.
The taxing clause.
The naturalization clause.
Fixed terms of office.

Free land and opportunity 77

"Westward Ho!"

Influence of the Civil War 78

Capital control 79

Need for cheap labor.

The new immigration.

Citizen control 80

Adaptation to abnormal conditions 81

Labor advancement 82

Mass production and high wages 83

Steady employment 84

Intensive efforts of industry 85

The rreditor Nation 86

Production the basis of wealth and wages 87

Mechanized industry 88

Higher self-appreciation 89

Employee becomes employer 90

High standards of living — — — 91

Ability to purchase.

Is America worth saving? 92

72. The colonial spirit. — Three hundred years ago America was
a wilderness. Her total white population consisted of a few hundred
men, women, and children, established in several small communities
along the Atlantic seaboard. For the most part they were a God-
fearing people, led to America by the vision of a new land in which
they could work out ideals and visions inspired by their deep re-
ligious convictions. Along with these groups were others of more

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worldly persuasion, who came in the spirit of adventure or to escape
political conditions, which, in the changing reign of the rulers of
England, made their move advisable.

73. Colonists largely representative. — As a whole the colo-
nists were largely representative of the life, thought, and aspirations
of that period; they were not supermen and women any more than
they were of the vicious type. They were moved by the impulses
common to humanity, chief of which is always that of self-pres-
ervation.

74. A continent to conquer. — Here they found a vast and
unknown continent in the possession of roving tribes of Indians; a
wilderness of great forests, mighty rivers, and boundless prairies.
Their's for the taking, if they possessed the ability and courage to
conquer the all but insurmountable obstacles and dangers.

Limited facilities. — Forced by lack of any other means than those
contained in hand and brain; lacking all facilities of communication,
transportation, or manufacture, other than such contrivances as the
sailing vessel, the ax, spinning wheel, wooden plow, and flint-lock
rifle, their progress in the first 150 years was necessarily slow and
restricted.

Chief pursuits, agriculture and seafaring. — The colonists labored
under the burden of heavy restrictions imposed by the mother country
which prevented the establishment of home industries. As their
first occupation they engaged in tilling the soil that they might have
food and clothing.

During her first 150 years of existence, America grew to be a
people of some 3,000,000 souls and was forced to confine her develop-
ment to agriculture and seafaring pursuits. Building up a sea-
faring trade, she transported the raw material of the new land
to England, France, Holland, and Spain, there to be exchanged for
the necessities of life not produced by their own handicraft.

75. The federation of the colonies. — Industrial progress came
with the establishment of the new Nation, "The United States of
America." Lacking capital, other than that of character, courage, and
concentrated labor, the bankrupt colonies were welded into a union
of action which has led our Nation by successive stages to its present
attainments, the marvel and wonder of modern time.

76. Encouraged by constitutional provisions. — In the Gov-
ernment set up under the Constitution provision was made for a
freedom of action which gives full play to every citizen in the exer-
cise of his rights and powers. The wisdom of the law of our land
is emphasized with each passing year. The remarkable economic

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development of America is based upon the liberties and restrictions
granted as the equal right of all her citizens. Outstanding among
these provisions are —

The money clause. — The money clause establishes credit through
the sole power vested in the Federal Government to coin money,
incur national obligations through issue of bonds or notes of in-
debtedness, establishment of our national bank, and later our Federal
reserve bank system, forbidding any State from incurring financial
obligations with foreign powers or other States.

The post-office clause. — The post-office clause, through which com-
munication is regulated between the States and with the world at
large, is a duty alone of the National Government. In this clause
are found the rules and regulations governing mail, telegraph and
telephone lines, and the radio. Strict regulations hold all account-
able for matter transmitted by mail, as to its truthful or fraudulent
character; rates are fixed by the Government with equal application

to all.

The commerce clause. — The commerce clause set up an agency of
exceptional worth by reason of the freedom granted in interstate
traffic, the elimination of barriers, duties, or restrictions which might
otherwise be created in exchange, sale, and shipment from State to
State. Citizens of any State have equal rights as citizens of the
United States, subject only to such local laws as apply to all citizens
of the State within which business is transacted.

The taxing clause. — The taxing clause permits taxes to be levied
for the requirements of government only; such taxes to be uniform
in application and subject to revision as necessity governs.

The naturalization clause. — The naturalization clause establishes
one class of citizens only; with equality to all and privilege to none.
Under this and the immigration acts our Nation is assured a strength
and unity of purpose and action and an equality of citizenship that
could not otherwise be attained.

Fixed terms of office. — Fixed terms of office: Our system of gov-
ernment by which definite terms of office are assured gives stability
to business in the fact that in no crisis can an administration be
overthrown in a day, through dissolution of Congress or the resigna-
tion of the Cabinet. Parties may rise and fall without serious effect
upon our economic life.

77. Free land and opportunity. — Other important factors in
our economic development were free land and diversified natural
resources. In these America has been particularly blessed. Lack
of capital prevented none from making progress in America. For

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the first 250 years the immigrant to our shores knew that the door of
opportunity was wide open. Landing with barely enough money to
pay transportation to this chosen destination, and with no hindrance
other than that of being a stranger in a new country, both land and
employment were to bo had for the asking.

Westward Ho! — Through the liberality of our Government and
the vast and areas open for settlement there was established and
developed the largest and richest agricultural territory now under
cultivation in the world. For nearly 100 years following the War
of Independence the cry was "Westward Ho!" By families and
by groups the creaking ox-drawn schooners wended their way slowly
toward the setting sun. Driving the Indians and wild game before
them, they cut the forest, broke the sod, planted, harvested, built
home, school, church, and town, preparing the way for tho next step
in our progress — the railroad.

78. Influence of the Civil War. — Before any great railroad
development had taken place the peaceful life of our country was
interrupted by the Civil War. It is questionable if that struggle,
with its frightful loss of life and treasure, would ever have taken
place had railroads been constructed linking the North and the
South. In 1860 there were only some 30,000 miles of railroad in
America, nearly all of which ran east and west, by reason of the fact
that our great rivers flow from the north to the south, and our rail-
roads could not then compete with river transportation. In 1860 no
railroad was built farther west than the Mississippi River. West of
that stream the country was almost entirely given over to the great
herds of buffalo and roving Indians.

With the close of the Civil War the impetus given industry by the
necessity of making war materials, the development of steel, and a
growing appreciation of the value of rail transportation caused a
marked advance in our economic life. Tho acquaintance of masses
of men from every section of tho country and the close ties formed
by their association through the war added its force to the awakening
of a new era.

79. Capital control. — Capital saw great opportunity for profit
through development of our vast natural resources. Foreign capital
was attracted. Combinations were formed. These groups were able
to obtain concessions and rights, quickly developing a power of con-
trol over industry which placed in the hands of a comparative few
the economic life of America.

Need for cheap labor. — With capital consolidated, only labor was
required for this exploitation of our natural resources. America was

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too vast in area and too small in population to furnish the labor. By
then-existing immigration laws the doors were open — the world
might enter. Capital needed labor, and it must be cheap labor.

The new immigration. — "The man with the hoe" was invited and
urged to find in free America his great opportunity. He came by
thousands, then tens and hundreds of thousands.

The former class of immigrant had come to America to take up
land and become farmers and builders of homes and communities.
They were followed by the thousands who worked in the noise and
sweat of our great steel mills, in our coal mines, and in the factories
which quickly built up within our cities large congested areas, with
great sections almost entirely composed of single nationalities. Labor
was exploited, voted, worked, or left unemployed.

80. Citizen control. — Following the war with Spain in 1898 a
change was inaugurated. Led by far-seeing men who recognized the
danger to our free Government in the increasing power of capital,
the people developed a system of control through Congress which
broke or checked its combinations. Industry had greatly developed
during this period. Wealth had been amassed as never before. Yet
(he economic life of America had suffered — equality of opportunity
was largely restricted and classes with intense class hatred were
created.

81. Adaptation to abnormal conditions. — In 1917 there came
a national emergency. One class alone — the "American citizen" —
took precedence. America astounded the world with her ability to
adapt herself to abnormal conditions, converting her peacetime fac-
tories and equipment to war-time requirements.

82. Labor advancement. — During the World War the wage
earner learned to put his excess money into Liberty bonds. He
caught the idea of investment, acquired the habit of systematic saving,
discovered the strength that lies in consolidating the small savings of
the many. He began to understand the meaning of capital, lost his
fear of it, and found a way to have a part in its benefits.

83. Mass production and high wages. — The conclusion of the
war found America committed to mass production, mass cooperation,
and mass saving. These were some of the blessings that accrued out
of the hell of war. Industry awakened to the astonishing fact that
high wages to labor increased rather than diminished profits, by the
simple process of increasing the buying power of millions of em-
ployed.

84. Steady employment. — Industry learned the value of steady
employment. It sought ways of regulating production to give work

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the year around. Seasonal employment ate up savings, weakened
buying power, destroyed credit, increased cost of production caused
by idle equipment and accumulated stocks.

85. Intensive efforts of industry. — Industry set up research
bureaus, stimulated inventors, chemists, and scientists to greater
efforts in a search for better machines and methods, the elimination
of waste in materials, and in developing by-products therefrom.
Through these intensive efforts production per man power has been
largely increased, new products created, markets enlarged, and indus-
try stimulated.

86. The creditor Nation. — In the earlier history of American
industry foreign capital was invested by millions of dollars in our
great enterprises. We were a debtor Nation. To-day we are the
creditor Nation.

87. Production the basis of wealth and wages. — There is
no actual wealth in materials, metal, or money until they are adjusted
to the use, needs, or wants of mankind. Production is the basis of
wealth.

In no other country do wages approach the sum paid the individual
workman of America. The contributing factors to this highly satis-
factory situation are summed up in the word "production." Ameri-
can production per man power ranges from two and one-half to thirty
times that of other nations.

88. Mechanized industry. — Industry in America is mechanized
and specialized to a degree not approached by any other country.
Our automatic labor-saving and power-driven machinery is the
wonder of Europe. Our mass production, made possible by special
machinery and highly trained operators, astounds the world with its
magnitude, quality, and low cost.

89. Higher self-appreciation. — Modern methods of industry
discipline the lazy, wasteful, and disloyal workmen; speed up pro-
duction; work out short cuts; improve quality; and eliminate waste;
thereby contributing largely to lower costs through greater efficiency.
At the same time there is engendered a higher appreciation in the
employee of his worth to himself, his employer, and his country.

90. Employee becomes employer. — A keener sense of pride
awakens ambition, a quickened intellect inspires study, a broader
view of life reveals opportunity, creates hew desires expressed in
higher living standards and a rapidly growing participation in in-
dustry as a partner thranngh puschase of stock in difSaRmtteoritaprisos.
Through quickened intelligence and systematic saving, the employee
of to-day becomes the employer of to-morrow. At a dinner in New

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York given in 1927 to a group of British workers investigating
American industry, every American captain of industry present save
one came up from the overall stage.

91. High standards of Uving. — Human needs are few by com-
parison with human wants. Were it not for ever-increasing desires
for the comforts, conveniences, and luxuries of life, modern industry
would be unable to sustain itself. Civilization is the result of
human demands, the combination of spiritual and material aspira-
tions. In no other nation have these aspirations been so fully
satisfied.

The standard of living established by any group or nation is based
upon the distribution of wealth. The closer together we bring the
extremes of wealth and poverty, the higher the attainments and
general welfare of the people.

Ability to purchase. — Power of consumption is based upon the
ability to purchase and pay for the desired commodities. In Amer-
ica the employee receives 72 per cent and the employer 28 per cent
of the income of industry, constituting a range of wealth distribu-
tion which fixes our living standards at the highest point known in
the world.

92. Is America worth saving? — The remarkable development
of American industry has proven beneficial to all — not only to
employer and employee, but also to the world.

America has amassed unbelievable wealth which is being spent for
the good of mankind. In its large range of distribution it has fixed
our standards of living at the highest point known to civilization.

We may therefore answer — Yes! America is well worth saving!

QUESTIONNAIRE

What facilities for economic development were available to the
early colonists?

What were their chief pursuits? Explain.

In what manner did the Government, set up under the Constitution,
encourage economic development?

Name other important factors in our economic development.

Describe the impetus given to our industries by the Civil War.

What led to the demand for "cheap labor"?

In what way did "the new immigration" compare with the
colonists?

How did the people control industry?

Explain America's adaptation to abnormal conditions during the
World War.

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Describe the benefits to labor through high wages and steady
employment.

How do research bureaus aid industry?

What is meant by the "creditor nation"?

Upon what does prosperity depend? Explain.

Is mechanized industry beneficial to the people?

How do modern methods of industry affect labor ?

What are some of the benefits of mechanized industry ?

How do America's standards of living compare with those of other
nations?

What is the range of wealth distribution in America?

What conditions and qualities have made possible the creation of
the great wealth of America?

What can you do to assist in the further economic development of
America?

Is America worth saving? Why?

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93

SECTION VI

LESSON 6. — INDIVIDUAL INITIATIVE

Paragraph

Mankind a mass of individual ego 93

Two forms of government 94

Collectivistic government 95

"Equality of condition."

Denial of personal rights.

Confiscation of private property.

Religion outlawed.

Abolition of the family.

"SociaHsm" kills.
Individualistic government 96

"Equality of opportunity."

Right to private property.

Economic freedom.

Political rights.

Protection to home and family.

Respect for religion.

An American institution 97

Constitutional guaranties 98

Aristocracy of brains 99

The four fs 100

Individuality.

Independence.

Initiative.

Intelligence.
The price of success 101

Work.

Education.

Ideals.
The citizen's privilege 102

93. Mankind a mass of individual ego. — Psychology and

social science have discovered that mankind is made up of a mass of
individual ego, each revealing similar characteristics of instincts,
idiosyncrasies, and manifestations of selfish interests — in the control
of which his intelligence has developed forms of government.

From earliest childhood self-assertion, self-determination, self-
preservation manifest themselves.

It is human nature for the strong to take advantage of the weak,
whether it be strength of body, strength of mind, or strength of a

110834°— 28-

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group; that group may be a minority in numbers, yet all-powerful
by reason of the forces under its control.

The chief purpose of government is that of controlling this instinct
and directing it into channels through which society will gain the
greatest benefit.

94. Two forms of government. — One form of government gives
the State the supreme control and places all its citizens upon a
common level of "equal condition"; the other recognizes the rights
of the individual as greater than the government, and emphasizes
the superiority of "equality of opportunity" in contrast with "equal-
ity of condition."

95. CoUectivistic government. — "Equality of condition". —
In this system of government stress is laid upon the proposition that
"all men are created equal," meaning that no man has a right to
that which is denied to another; that any system of government fail-
ing to meognize fflmdl sQnf&rnnttotMEs""i^^P is liinrong, and there-
fore an enemy of society and a foe of mankind.

The ignorant, illiterate, physically and mentally deficient, the
lazy, improvident, and reckless have equal right with the alert,
aggressive, busy, educated, high-minded, orderly citizen who aspires
to the best and is willing to pay the price of attainment through
self-discipline, hard work, and careful management.

It is not in human nature to recognize "equality of condition"
except to acquire a personal advantage. One may be willing to
divide another's property with the third and fourth individual pro-
viding the share remaining to him is something more than he
formerly possessed.

Denial of personal rights. — "Collectivism" is the denial of per-
sonal rights. The State (community) becomes the chief concern of
all. It claims that the "law of equality," once applied, would destroy
every human desire for individual dominance, making society safe,
content, comfortable, and happy.

This "ideal" is to be accomplished by the application of force
under the direction of leaders, in the selection of whom the people
will have little or no choice. It is necessary, at first, to enforce
the will of community interests until the people become educated and
submissive to the new order.

Denied all personal rights "collectivism" gives its "instructions"
where to live, where to work, what to do, what to think, and what to
say. for the State is the law.

Confiscation of private property. — "Collectivism" declares that
the possession of property has developed protection of property

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through governments, courts, police power, and public opinion,
making it difficult for one to acquire private property except by
work. Private property must be abolished so that all will live on a
plane of "equal condition." As a matter of fact, however, "human
nature" will see to it that the "equal condition" will very quickly
become an equal condition of misery, want, and discontent.

Religion outlawed. — The collectivistic government proceeds
against "imperialism" by outlawing the church. The church at the
behest of capital "fed the people the opium of religion," making
them willing slaves to do the will of their capitalistic masters. In the
interest of the new order there must be left no place for religion, lest
the people gain courage to throw off the yoke of their new-found
freedom.

Abolition of the family. — With personal rights, private property,
and tho church abolished, to make subjection complete "the state"
declares that in pure "collectivism" there can be no family ties, for
children, like all other property, are an asset of the community and
must be robbed of family love and obligation as a necessary step to
loyalty to the state. Marriage may be practiced if conscience insists,
but is not demanded in the interest of the new society, for with the
abolishment of personal rights, private property, church, and home,
society no longer possesses a moral, ethical, or spiritual code.

"Socialism" kills. — The doctrine of "socialism "is "collectivism."
It tears down the social structure, weakens individual responsibility
by subjection to or reliance upon the state in all material, social, and
political matters. It compels the thought that at his best man is no
better than the worst; he loses his self-respect and his keener sense
of moral and ethical values. Ambition is nullified by restriction of
choice in occupation and reward of attainment. Initiative, the very
backbone of all progress, is smothered in the morass of impersonal
service, mass servility, and mob inertia.

"Socialism" aims to save individuals from the difficulties or hard-
ships of the stmggle for existence and the competition of life through
calling upon the state to carry the burden for them.

"Equality of condition," the ruling law of "collectivism," is the
death knell alike to individual liberty, justice, and progress through
the destruction of individual and national character.

When the citizens of a nation, seeking comforts and pleasures, find
no joy or satisfaction in hard work, the years of that nation are
numbered. Free bread and the circus marked the declining days of
Home. A surfeit of food, clothes, comfortable homes, and much time

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for idleness can easily become the first step to the overthrow of
civilization. '

96. IndividuaUstic government. — "Equality of opportu-
nity" — "Equality of opportunity" carries with it the absolute right
of every man to keep what is his own. There can be no confiscation
of property without due process of law and just recompense to the
rightful owner. Upon this foundation have been based most of the
great accomplishments of the pastas well as assurance for still greater
achievements.

Right to private property. — Each citizen enjoys the right to pri-
vate property. Granted the privilege of working for one's self ambi-
tion is ffiied, initiatihpe is endQunageiS^ Udbnr is nott mg^jiticted, and the
hard thinker and hard worker gets the reward denied the lazy and
indifferent, creating thereby classes, caste, poverty, and wealth.

Economic freedom. — The individualistic form of government, pro-
motes and guards the individual amid the difficulties and hardships
of his struggle for existence and in the competitions of life.

The workman is protected because the nation needs his labor and
the employer is protected because the nation needs his industry.

The productive power of free initiative has full play and a sure
reward. Under its protection he finds joy and satisfaction in the
fruits of his labor. There is incentive to invention, improvement, and
the establishment of families and homes.

Political rights. — It protects the citizen in his personal freedom.
Equal political rights are assured. He has a voice in the Govern-
ment which is "of the people, for the people, and by the people."

When a people are free to undertake things and take advantage of
the opportunities open to them wealth, character, and national
strength are developed.

Protection to home and family. — The social unit of civilization is
the family. Under this form of government the institution of mar-
riage and the rights of childhood are respected, the home and the
family are protected, and womanhood is inviolable.

Respect for religion. — The "individualistic" form of government
believes in the exercise of religious freedom and shows tolerance
toward and respect for all religious beliefs.

The American Government rests upon the deep religious convictions
of her people. If it is to continue it will be through unceasing respect
for and confidence in the nobler things of life.

97. An American institution. — In the governments of the Old
World, conditions which built up a fixed caste system and created an
impassable barrier between certain groups of society gave exceptional

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advantages to the favored and denied to the masses all but a bare
existence.

The early settlers of America, who came to escape the oppression
of this order of society, at first incorporated into the local govern-
ments of the Colonies the policy of religious intolerance and class
mle. It required 150 years of local experiment in colonial govern-
ment before the inalienable rights of mankind were sufficiently under-
stood and evaluated to develop the necessary public opinion and
power to change the prevailing form of "State" government to that
of a "Republican" form, under which "equality of opportunity"
became an American institution.

"Individualism," an experiment in government, was unknown
prior to the independence of America, and has proved its worth by
its marked achievements.

It tolerated no restriction, recognized no exceptions, and demanded that the
son of the farmer or frontiersman have the some opportunity as the son of the
merchant prince or land-owning aristocrat.

98. Constitutional guaranties. — The American citizen knows
that he and his children may attain any goal to which intelligence,
courage, and ability may lead. No overlord will ever bother or
hinder their advancement. No succession to power or property is
vested in titles of nobility to be transmitted through succeeding gen-
erations to favored families. The rich of to-day may be the wage
earners of to-morrow, while the story of the rise of the exceedingly
poor to affluence and power is as common as it is true.

The young American's future depends upon himself. He may in-
herit a fortune; his sense and ability alone will enable him to keep it.
He may be born in the cabin of the miner or the shack of the
mountaineer, yet if within him there burns the unquenchable fires of
ambition, courage, and indomitable will there are none who may stop
him on the road to success.

No person shall * * * be deprived of life, liberty, or property without
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without
just compensation. — Constitution of the United States.

99. Aristocracy of brains. — The only aristocracy that America
will ever recognize is that of "brains" — "the tools to him who can
handle them." The tribute in honor and the reward in wealth
accorded to brains in this land of opportunity are not equaled in any
other country. Brains ask for no "equality of condition," want
only "equality of opportunity."

100. The four "I's." — Socially, economically, politically, the
world is rapidly changing and in its evolution it requires for its

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leadership men of individuality, independence, initiative and intelli-
gence.

Individuality. — Under the guaranties given by the Constitution
there has been developed in the American character a striking indi-
viduality, which stamps him an American wherever he may be
found. It is that quality which inspired him to the conquest of the
great American wilderness and the development of her resources.
The urge of individuality has driven him in every undertaking
not only for pecuniary reward but for the equal reward of stamping
his achievement with his own personality. This distinctive bearing
of the American commands attention and wins the confidence of all.

Conscious of his own strength, he asks no other favor than
equal opportunity. When he marries he seeks no dower with his
bride. He accepts his place in life with dignity born in the con-
sciousness of his own power to better it. Be it ever so humble,
his home is marked with his personality. His children bear the
impress of his character, giving assurance that life can contain no
difficulties too great for them to master. His is the consciousness
of the free born, whether born in the crowded tenement of a con-
gested city, the lonely prairie home of a western farmer, or within
the sumptuous palace of a millionaire. Imbued with the spirit of
the Nation, he stands upon his own feet and gladly enlists as a
soldier in the battle of life.

Independence. — The American is the personification of independ-
ence. He asks no favors of government or men. He demands his
rights and is always ready to uphold them. He has cultivated the
habit of self-reliance and is ready to undertake any legitimate enter-
prise which, in his judgment, has a reasonable chance of success.
Resourceful and unafraid, he has ventured into every field of en-
deavor, cheerfully paying the cost of his failure and as cheerfully
sharing with others the rewards of his success. In the spirit of
independence America has won her way to leadership in times of
peace, and in times of war to a place of honor and respect among the
nations.

Initiative. — Out of independence has grown a force of individual
initiative which has made our great achievements possible. Initia-
tive might well be termed the generator from which has come the
power for all our accomplishments. Tradition looks always to that
which is old in habits, customs, culture, government, institutions,
families, and structures. Initiative is forever putting off the old
and putting on the new. It is the mother of creative genius, ex-
pressed in science and invention.

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Without initiative, civilization would first stagnate, then fall

rapidly into dissolution.

In no community in the world is freedom of initiative enjoyed as

fully as in America. Government, laws, customs, traditions operate

to enhance that freedom.

Intelligence. — So far our minds have grasped each successive prob-
lem afld IflHfld fis fe thi means ef maesdang eaeh ada§9 gSffl]^lg51^
of modern civilization. With multiplied wants and ever-expanding
fields of endeavor, the demand for intelligence increases. Machines
are taking the place of hands, increasing production, shortening hours
of labor, eliminating the exhaustion of toil, giving more time to self-
betterment, recuperation, and recreation.

Markets become world-wide, competition grows keener, interna-
tional affairs demand care and diplomacy; nations are awakening;
tho magic of science in transportation and communication has made
us largely a family of nations with divergent aspirations, varied

needs, and growing demands for self-expression.

lOI. The price of success. — The price of success, whether of
individual or nation, is found in work, education, and ideals.

Work. — The world grows more busy with each passing year. Its
machinery is never idle. Its burdens are too great to be encumbered
with dead weight. Backward individuals and backward nations
will surely be crushed beneath the Juggernaut we call civilization,
unless they take a more active and intelligent part in its affairs.

There is more and greater work to be done with each succeeding
generation. The achievements of individuals in the past are a chal-
lenge to the youth of to-day. There are still further fields of explo-
ration, adventure, and accomplishment, and a multitude of past
achievements to be perfected. Every man possessed of the will to

work finds his opportunity awaiting him.

Education. — Education he must have. The time is past when hope
of success can be offered to the ignorant. With each succeeding year
the necessity for special accomplishments and particular fitness is
more pronounced. Science has so far advanced as to become broken
into many divisions, each requiring special training. Applied to
every branch of government, industry, and even society, the demand
is for education, that intelligence may be developed and applied to its
full capacity; for in no other way may progress be assured, and

progress is the purpose of life.

Ideals. — Work and education are not sufficient to equip either the
individual or nation for the accomplishment of the purposes of life.
There must also be the inspiration and governing force of ideals.

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Without ideals there Can be no lasting achievements. Without ideals
there can be neither understanding, tolerance, justice, nor brother"
hood between individuals or nations. Without high ideals there can
be no worth-while aspirations, no true nobility of character, no spirit
of unselfish service, all of which are essential to real progress.

102. The citizen's privilege. — Emerson said, "Hitch your
wagon to a star." The citizen should demand of himself and for
himself tho best that life affords, and devote his energies in an ever-
growing measure to public service, for the real joy of life is service
to our fellow men.

This is the land of "equality of opportunity." The citizen alone
can determine the measure of his participation in freedom's field.
What he does and how he does it will be dependent upon his will to
work, the thoroughness of his education, and the quality of his ideals.

' We are a country of 118,000,000 people, speaking one language, having an
enormous consuming power and an adequate transportation system for prompt
distribution. We are not restricted within our wide limits by artificial barriers.
We produce where it is most advantageous and distribute to the consumer
where he may live. Here in the East we may eat the apples and use the
timber from the Northwest, and the Pacific slope may buy cotton cloth from the
Carolinas and motors from Detroit. Nowhere in the world does there exist
so large, so varied, and so unrestricted a market as the United States.

There is a force underlying these factors and one which to me is all im-
portant. I mean the initiative and energy of the American people. We are
wilHng to work. We have that divine restlessness which will not permit us to
accept things as they are but drives us to find something better. We are con-
stantly improving our machinery, our methods, ourselves. Here no man accepts
the level into which he has been born as fixing his status for life. Ability is
quickly recognized; to rise is easy. * * * There is movement, not fixation,
in our life in America. — Andrew W. Mellon, Secretary of the Treasury.

QUESTIONNAIRE

What is the chief purpose of government ?

What is the fundamental principle of "coUectivists" government?
Explain.

Describe four of the principal elements of "collectivism."

What is the general effect of "socialism"? Describe.

Should the government provide the means of livelihood? State
reasons.

Has any government the right to restrict the exercise of the power
of individual initiative?

What is the fundamental principle of "individualistic" govern-
ment?

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Name and describe five of the principal elements of "individual-
istic" government.

Explain tho origin of "individualism" as an experiment in gov-
ernment.

In what manner does the Constitution guarantee political, eco-
nomic, and social freedom for the American citizen ?

Name four characteristics of the American character.

What determines the success either of an individual or a nation?

In what way are high ideals essential to real progress ?

State the synonym for "America."

What responsibility does freedom of initiative place upon the
American citizen?

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SECTION VII
LESSON 7. — LIBERTY AND INDEPENDENCE

Paragraph

Historical background 103

Slow development of necessary knowledge 101

The Declaration of Independence, a protest 105

Independence of the Colonies.

Its enemies.

Itssurvival.
Liberty defined 106

Fundamental law.

Equality.
Personal liberty 107

Freedom of action.
Religious liberty 108

Separation of church and state.

Religion and national defense.
Freedom of speech and press 109

Abuses.

Propaganda.

Restriction of abuses.
Economic liberty 110

Property rights safeguarded.
Political liberty HI

Equal participation.
Safeguards to our liberties 112

103. Historical background. — The historical background of
liberty and independence is the story of the human race in every stage
of its development and in every corner of the earth. It is told in the
ages-old pyramids of Egypt, builded upon the backs of human
slaves; in the philosophies of Plato and Socrates; and uncovered
in the catacombs of Rome. In the German forests it was planted
deep in the hearts of Saxon and Norman, and there given its first
real semblance of form.

England, in the days of the Saxon and Norman conquest, in the
time of Cromwell and Elizabeth, laid a still broader foundation upon
which to build the structure of self-government.

Slowly there was evolved an appreciation of government incorpo-
ration of the rights of individuals into fixed laws or practices. Yet
there remained the iron heel of government to crush those whose

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demand for independence and liberty exceeded that granted by the
will of the ruling King or Parliament.

104. Slo-w development of necessary kno-wledge. — It re-
mained, however, a work still to be accomplished at the time of the
first settlements in America, where in the next 150 years slow progress
was to be made in developing the necessary knowledge upon which
liberty and independence could safely rest.

105, The Declaration of Independence, aprotest. — The Dec-
laration of Independence was a protest against the abridgment of
such rights as the colonists claimed as subjects of the British
Crown. Their anger was directed against Parliament rather than
the King because restrictions were placed by law upon the colonists
which were not imposed upon citizens of Great Britain residing in
the mother country. These operated solely for the benefit of the
long-established home government and institutions. Spurred by the
spirit of independence engendered through the bitter experiences and
necessary self-reliance required in their century-and-a-half battle
to conquer the American wilderness, and fired by the indignities and
injustice to which they had long been compelled to submit, they
threw off the yoke of oppression and set up a government that would
forever guard them against tyranny, however it might seek to
impose its will.

When in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and
to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to
which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God entitled them, a decent respect
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which
impel them to the separation — We hold these truths to bo self-evident, that
all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain
unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of
Happiness.

And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on tho protec-
tion of divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our
Fortunes and our sacred Honor — Declarationof Independence.

No man sought or wished for more than to defend his own. None hoped
to plunder or spoil * * * and we all know that it could not have lived a
single day under any well-founded imputation of passion. — Webster.

Independence of the Colonies. — The American Colonies did not
become free and independent until they were strong enough to
throw off the yoke of the oppressor; strong enough to set up and
control their own Government through the voice of the people;
strong enough to protect and defend their country from aggression
whether from within or without.

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Its enemies. — The "enemies within" who would make the Declara-
tion of Independence a mockery play one group of Americans against
another. They fan the flames of prejudice. They magnify fancied
evils of injustices to the ignorant. They distort its language to suit
their own ends so cleverly that many of the less informed follow them
in the name of Americanism.

Its survival. — Every American citizen must be constantly on guard
if the principles set forth in the Declaration of Independence are to
survive.

106. Liberty defined. — There are two kinds of liberty — absolute
liberty: That of the savage, in which any individual may act as he
pleases; and civil liberty: That of a civilized community in which
human actions are regulated by law for the good of all — subject only
to such restraints as a solemn and tolerant judgment determines to
be essential.

Political liberty is no other than natural liberty so far restrained by human
laws and no further, as is necessary and expedient for the general advan-
tage of the pubHc. — Blackstone.

Liberty does not free the people from the necessity for control, but
it places a heavy burden of responsibility upon the individual for
self-control. It is not license to do as one pleases. Through devel-
oped "intelligence" man has power to control his baser and more
selfish instincts, compelling their exercise and restriction in the in-
terest of society.

Minority control exercises its will until such time as general in-
telligence becomes sufficiently informed to establish an order of so-
ciety with a larger and more even distribution of benefit to all, and
the law of will (force) is supplanted by the law of reason.

As defined in the Preamble to the Constitution, liberty is the ab-
sence of arbitrary human restraints upon personal conduct other than
those imposed by the authority of just laws, obedience to which is an
essential part of it.

Fundamental law. — The rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of
happiness are beyond the right of any government to legally usurp
or infringe.

To secure this (liberty) is the main business of governments and the reason
for their institution. If they fall in this they have failed in all. — Blackstone.

These principles were written by our fathers into a constitution
of government, for the first time in human history, when they wrote
the Constitution and it became the fundamental law of a new nation
dedicated to the proposition that "all men are created equal" and

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that "government derives its just powers from the consent of the

governed."

Equality. — What is meant by "equality" is clearly defined by

Lincoln in his debate with Douglas.

In responding to Douglas's question, "What do you mean — 'all men are

created equal?'" Lincoln replied:
I think the authors of that notable instrument intended to include all men,

but they did not intend to declare all men equal in all respects. They did not
mean to say all were equal in color, size, intellect, moral development, or social
capacity. They defined with tolerable distinctness in what respect they did
consider all men created equal — equal with "certain inahenable rights, among
which are Hfe, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." This they said and this
they meant. They did not mean to assert the obvious untruth that all were
then actually enjoying that equality, nor yet that they were about to confer it
immediately upon them. In fact, they had no power to confer such a boon.
They simply meant to declare the right, so that enforcement of it might follow
as fast as circumstances should permit.

107. Personal liberty. — Freedom of action. — Every citizen is
on an equal footing as to privileges and opportunity. Any denial
of such rights results from either the limited ability of the indi-
vidual to take full advantage of opportunity, or because of prejudices
in no way a part of the ruling law of our land.

Born free citizens, or acquiring that right through naturalization,
we have full freedom of action — without infringement upon the
rights of others — to reside or travel at home or abroad under the
protection and with all privileges accorded by our Government,
regardless of race, color, religion, or social station.

Full opportunity is here given to every citizen to work out his own
ideals and ideas. To the native born this privilege is accepted as a
matter of no great significance, for he is wholly unfamiliar with the
laws, traditions, and customs that direct and restrict individual

action of citizens in foreign countries.

The American citizen frequently changes his occupation. His
very liberty keeps him on the alert for an opportunity to better his
financial or social status. The change is one of occupation, not of
personality; his pride and self-respect are not involved.

108. Religious liberty. — No greater liberty was ever conferred
on a people than that of freedom to worship according to the dictates

of one's own conscience.

The first amendment to the Constitution declares that "Congress
shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibit

the free exercise thereof."

All persons have the privilege to entertain any religious belief,

practice any religious rite, teach any religious doctrine, which is not

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subversive of morality and does not interfere with the personal rights
of others.

However, this liberty can not be "invoked as a protection against
legislation for the punishment of acts inimical to the peace, good
order, and morals of society," because professed doctrines of religious
belief are not superior to the laws of the land. No person is per-
mitted to become a law unto himself, nor may he in the name of
religion, or through a religious ceremony, violate the law.

Religious liberty does not include the right to introduce and carry out every
scheme or purpose which persons see fit to claim as a part of their religious
system. While there is no legal authority to constrain belief, no one can law-
fully stretch his own Hberty of action so as to interfere with that of his neigh-
bors, or violate peace or good order. — United States Supreme Court

Laws are made for the government of actions, and while they can not inter-
fere with mere religious behefs and opinions, they may with practices. — United
States Supreme Court

Separation of church and state. — The separation of church and
state is a fundamental principle of American Government. Neither
is permitted to dictate to or exercise power over the other. In no
other way can religious liberty be preserved.

Religion and national defense. — There is no place for the doctrine
of "noncooperation." Religious beliefs will not excuse any citizen
from rendering service in the defense of the country, although Con-
gress has power at its discretion to exempt him.

109. Freedom of speech and press. — The right to act, to think,
to speak, to print, is the surest way to protect the liberties, and con-
tinue the full measure of independence which America so richly
possesses. In these rights lies the means of creating a public opinion
representative of the entire Nation. This liberty is indispensable to
further social, economic, and political development. Clash of
opinions creates interest and thought on all public questions. A
realization of the force of public opinion expressed by the ballot,
awakens a sense of responsibility that compels the best minds to give
careful study to any subject that vitally concerns our Nation.
Through the present means of communication, the people are daily
informed in every matter of national or international import.

Abuses. — This privilege does not permit the publication of libels
or other matter injurious to public morals or private reputation.
Like all liberties granted under the broad principles of the Constitu-
tion, these rights are abused to the detriment of the best interests of
the people.

Propaganda. — Propaganda floods our country from every con-
ceivable source. Active and vociferous agencies have been organized

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for the express purpose of advancing doctrines absolutely not in
accord with the fixed principles of our Nation. In the most persistent
manner they seek to tear down rather than build, to destroy rather
than improve. One of their most subtly dangerous features is that
it is so camouflaged as to make it appear to have an innocent purpose.

To prevent such activities during the World War, Congress found
it necessary to pass the espionage act of 1917 for the safety of the
State and the successful outcome of the struggle.

We carefully supervise every agency whose business may in any
degree affect the physical health of our people. Equal care should
be exercised over all agencies which in any manner may affect our

social, economic, or political life.

Restriction of abuses. — There is no law in any state or nation that
prohibits freedom of speech or press, but there are laws against the
abuse of this right. Restrictions may be necessary for the preser-
vation of public order and the protection of the State. While Con-
gress is forbidden by the Constitution to abridge the freedom of
speech or the press, the punishment of those who violate every prin-
ciple of loyalty and patriotism modifies in no manner the constitu-
tional provision. The law punishes because of the crime against the
country and its citizens.

The first amendment "can not have been, and obviously was not, intended to
give immunity for every possible use of language." — Justice Holmes.
Blackstone's maxims, which help to interpret the present limitation on speech

and press:

(Ij Between pubHc and private rights the pubHc rights must prevail.

(2) Liberty to all, but preference to none.

(3) Those offenses should be most severely punished which are most difficult
to guard against

110. Economic liberty. — Property rights safeguarded. —
Under no other government are property rights of the individual so
provided with safeguards' for their full protection. Property is at
the base of civilization. Without incentive of right to its private
possession and full protection against confiscation no progress would
be made in material betterment.

Economic liberty, the power of initiative, and the protection of
property rights have developed a philosophy of life peculiar to
America — the "dignity of work." Every American is expected to be
a worker.

Based upon the constitutional assurance of the security of prop-
erty, finance and labor have joined in the creation of industry, mak-
ing America the richest nation in the world. Her wealth has been
distributed to the enrichment of her entire population.

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111. Political liberty. — Equal participation. — The list of pub-
lic-office holders in city, State, and Nation reveals the measure of
political liberty granted in America. There are found representatives
of practically every race in the world. They have been elected by the
people as their able and honorable representatives.

Every citizen enjoys the protection and benefits of our municipal.
State, and National Governments.

Any suggestion of racial or religious differences is frowned upon.
It is the sincere wish of the majority that tolerance and understand-
ing weld our people of all nationalities into a social, economic, and
political unity for the purpose of developing a strong national char-
acter and a race of men and women whose ideals and attainments
shall be an inspiration and help to the peoples of all the earth.

The greatest degree of political liberty is secured by wise laws
properly enforced. Anarchy destroys liberty because it is lawlessness
and confusion, and utter disregard of all government.

112. Safeguards to our liberties. — By clinging to the ideas and
ideals which animated the framers of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, we can assure not only peace within, but national security
and respect from other nations.

When we fail to adequately comprehend the principles incident
to our Government, its fundamental ideals which have made our
Government, the United States of America faces anarchy and
destruction.

Let our object be our country, our whole country, and nothing but our country,
and by the blessing of God may that country itself become a vast and splendid
monument, not of oppression and terror, but of wisdom, of peace, and of liberty,
upon which the world may gaze with admiration forever. — Webster,

QUESTIONNAIRE

Describe the historical background of human liberty.

What foundation is necessary for liberty and independence ?

What was the Declaration of Independence?

When are a people free and independent?

How do the "enemies within" show disrespect for the Declaration
of Independence?

How, only, can the principles set forth in this document survive?

Name and describe the two kinds of liberty.

Does liberty mean freedom from control? Explain.

How is liberty defined in the Preamble to the Constitution? By
whom and when?

Define personal liberty.

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What is meant by religious liberty?

Do religious beliefs excuse a citizen from rendering service in

defense of the country? Explain.
What is the relation of church and state?
Is freedom of speech and press beneficial to our national life?

What are some of its abuses? Describe.

Can these abuses be restricted? How?

State Blackstone's maxims which help interpret the present limita-
tions on speech and press.

What safeguards are given to property?

What is meant by political liberty?

By what instrumentality can the greatest degree of political lib-
erty be secured?

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SECTION vni

LESSON 8. — THE PURPOSE OF GOVERNMENT

Progress of government

Government by autocracy.

Government of laws.

Sources of the Constitution

The purpose of government

Paternalism.
The Preamble to the Constitution

"We, the people."

"A more perfect Union."

"Justice."

"Domestic tranquillity."

"Common defense."

"General welfare."

"Blessings of liberty."
The American philosophy of government-

Paragraph
113

-114
115

116

-117

113. Progress of government. — In the beginning of human
history, with needs and wants limited to food and shelter, man's
dominating impulse was the preservation of life.

His social instinct led to the establishment of families, groups, and
tribes. Transmitting habits, traditions, customs, and superstitions
to succeeding generations, there came to be formed definite and dis-
tinctive racial types with fixed governing principles.

Governments of a kind were set up, order was created, but with
the accumulation of property, and increasing wants, conflicts oc-
curred, the strong despoiling the weak. Alliances for defense and
offense were formed. Agreements between rulers and subjects and
forms of treaties with nations brought about a more or less defined
code of conduct and law, invariably enforced to the benefit of those
who held the power.

Government by autocracy. — Selfish and often cruel leaders preyed
upon the weak and ignorant in the accomplishment of their ambitious
designs. Autocracy held power through appeal to the emotions
engendered by pomp and glitter of the court, or by fear created
through control of military forces and the means of livelihood.

By various methods the rights of citizenship were confined to the
prescribed limits dictated by "will" (force) until increasing intelli-
gence within the ranks of the people began to exert a counteracting
influence.

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The - historical development of the "ancient liberties" of the
English people, establishing individual rights, began with the meet-
ing of King John and the Barons on the field of Runnymede in
1215 A. D., where the Magna Charta was signed, which guaranteed
rights beyond the power of the king to take away. By successive
steps, in protection of these rights, came the act of Parliament
(1295), Petition of Rights (1628), habeas corpus act (1679), Bill of
Bights (1689), and the act of settlement (1701).

These liberties did not originate with charters, but were simply
confirmed by them and made the "fixed principles of freedom."

Restrictions of government on the life of the people created caste,
favoritism and taxation became oppressive, and men left Europe and
came to America.

Government of laws. — Until the adoption of the Constitution,
government was imposed by the will of the minority and enforced
by absolute control of economic institutions and military forces.

Under the Constitution a "Government of laws and not of men"
was formulated out of the experiences of the centuries in which
feudalism, despotism, autocracy had given form to the ruling forces
of government.

114. Sources of the Constitution. — The underlying principles
of the Constitution were not formulated in a day. The three great
American charters of liberty contained the fundamental principles
of American government: "Bill for establishing religious freedom
in Virginia," "Virginia Bill of Rights," and "Declaration of Inde-
pendence." Before the Constitutional Convention met in Philadel-
phia, many plans and suggestions were drafted and presented to the
convention.

In addition to this careful preparation after more than a century of self-
government, there were in the convention men of extraordinary natural ability
and wide experience, like Washington, Franklin, and Hamilton. There were
men who had studied law at the Inner Temple in London, who had been edu-
cated in the University of Edinburgh, who had been graduated from American
colleges, who had been governors of States, chief justices of supreme courts,
and men who had achieved distinction at the bar and in business life. Ed-
mund Burke stated in the House of Commons in March, 1776, that more books
of law were going to America than any other kind. Of the 55 members of the
Constitutional Convention, 31 were lawyers. Blackstone's Commentaries were
taught by Chancellor Wythe in William and Mary College before the Decla-
ration of Independence. John Marshall, Thomas Jefferson, and James Mon-
roe were among his pupils.

When our Constitution was written Harvard College (1636) had been sending
out, educated young men for just a century and a, half, William and Mary
College (1603) had been graduating learned youths for almost a century, Tale

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College (1701) had been contributing to the education of the people for more
than three-quarters of a century, and Princeton (1746) had been teaching for
half a century. The people were well prepared for their great endeavor. —
Thomas James Norton.

115. The purpose of government. — A correct understanding of
the purposes of government furnishes a remedy for erroneous and
dangerous ideas threatening this country.

Government is instituted for the common benefit, maintaining
order, and protecting life, liberty, and property.

To secure liberty is the main business of governments and the reason for
their institution. — Blackstone.

Paternalism. — The paternalism of communism which provides both
property and subsistence for the individual is not a proper function
of government It results only in individual irresponsibility.

116. The Preamble to the Constitution. — The Preamble to the
Constitution is a most accurate and comprehensive statement of the
purpose of government. It explicitly sets forth the fundamental
purposes for which government is primarily organized. The brevity,
simplicity, and directness of its original draft, after 150 years of
experience, require no change.

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union,
establish Justice, insure Domestic Tranquility, provide for the Common Defense,
promote the General Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves
and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution of the United
States ofAmerica. — Preambleto the Constitution.

"We, the people. " — The convention, which met in Philadelphia in
1787, adopted a Constitution based upon the proposition that a people
are able to govern themselves.

Under the Articles of Confederation the State assumed control. A
single State might exercise veto power over the will of all the others.

In the government set up under the new Constitution the power
and rights of the people are the source and final authority. It de-
rives its "just powers from the consent of the governed." For the
first tune in human history "the people" assumed control and gov-
ernment became subject to their will.

Nowhere is American independence and self-reliance better exem-
plified than in the words, "We, the people."

The people, the highest authority known to our system, from whom all our
institutions spring and upon whom they depend, formed it. — President Monroe.

Its language, "We, the people," is the institution of one great consolidated
national government of the people of all the States, instead of a government
by compact with the States for its agents. — Patrick Henry.

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"A more perfect Union." — In the original federation the States
were but loosely joined. The Constitution was a demand for more
effective control of the Union by the Government.

In the efficacy and permanency of your Union a government for the whole is
indispensable * * *. You have improved upon your first essay (Articles of
Confederation) by the adoption of a constitution of government « » » for
the efficacious management of your common concerns. * * * Indignantly
frown upon the first dawning of every attempt to ahenate any portion of our
country from the rest or to enfeeble the sacred ties which now fink together the
various parts. — Washington — Farewell Address.

In the course of the Civil War the Southern States sought to dis-
solve our Union; President Lincoln sought to preserve our Union.

The States have their status in the Union, and they have no other legal status
* * *. The Union, and not themselves separately, procured their independ-
ence and fiberty. * * * The Union is older than any of the States and, in
fact, created them as States. — Abraham Lincoln — Message to Congress, July 4,
1861.

The right of secession was forever settled by the fourteenth amend-
ment to the Constitution, which declares, "AU persons born or natu-
ralized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are
citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside."
The National Government is not an assemblage of States, but of
individuals.

To refuse allegiance to the United States is to be a traitor to the
Nation. However, in the dual capacity of citizenship, we render
service as citizens of both the State in which we hold legal residence
and the United States. Each of our 48 States retains its own sov-
ereignty in all matters relating exclusively to State affairs, in which
it is protected by its own constitution. In all interstate, national, or
international affairs both the citizen and the State owe allegiance
to the Union.

"Justice." — Our Government, assures "justice" in that it is a
government of laws, not of men. In the heat of passion or sectional
interest, in clashes between groups or questions of policy, no minority
or bloc may enforce its will. Should a majority seek to injure the
rights of an individual citizen, the power of veto resting in the
President, or the power of the Supreme Court as an unbiased tribunal,
will insist that justice be done.

A series of checks and balances, which prevent the selfish interests
of either individuals or groups from exercising their will to the in-
justice of another, is provided by the Constitution.

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Wherever there is an interest and power to do wrong, wrong will generally
be done, and not less readily by a powerful and interested party than by a
powerful and interested prince. — James Madison.

In questions of power, then, let no more be heard of confidence in man, but
bind him down from mischief to the chains of the Constitution. — Thomas
Jefferson.

"Domestic tranquillity. " — At the conclusion of the Revolutionary
War the Colonial States were bankrupt. Foreign credit was ex-
hausted and could not be reestablished until a responsible central
government was created. Soldiers remained unpaid long after the
war was ended. Colonies quarreled with each other over duties im-
posed upon the goods sold or bartered. Chaos and anarchy, disillu-
sion, and despair prevailed, all because of lack of proper organization
and power in government.

The Government established under the Articles of Confederation
"defrayed all expenses out of the common treasury" to which each
State was supposed to contribute, but this was done in full only by
New York and Pennsylvania. All nonenforceable obligations were
left to conscience, individual or collective.

"Domestic tranquillity" requires a measure of enforced responsi-
bility, mutual faith, and harmonious and prosperous conditions.
These are provided under the Constitution through the powers con-
ferred upon the National Government regulating interstate affairs,
making interchange of commodities, communication, transportation,
and freedom of residence, occupation, and industry equal to all.

"Domestic tranquillity" is further assured by religious freedom,
free speech, and free press, thereby establishing interchange of
thought which results in the creation of a national public opinion
and brings within its influence every citizen, regardless of race,
religion, financial condition, or social qualification.

"Common defense." — A country worth fighting for to establish
was worth fighting for to preserve.

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts'
and Excises, to pay the debts and provide for the Common Defense and Welfare
of the United States. * * * fg declare War, grant letters of Marque and
Reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on Land and Water; to raise and
support Armies, but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer
term than two years. * * * To provide and maintain a Navy; To make
rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval forces; To
provide for calling forth the Militia; to execute the laws of the Union, to sup-
press Insurrections and repel Invasions; To provide for organizing, arming and
disciplining the Militia. * * * — Constitution, Article I, section 8.

Attention is especially called to the limited period of two years as
the length of time to be covered by any appropriation of money for

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the military forces. Without the consent of the people through their
Representatives in Congress, any army created would fall to pieces
for lack of funds. A great deal is said about the effort to "mil-
itarize" America through carrying out the provisions of the national
defense act of 1920. This act was created by the people, for the
people, to be paid for by the people. It can be killed by repeal or
by refusal to make necessary appropriations. In the last analysis
the people are the military force of the United States; their em-
ployees, the Regular Army, National Guard, and Organized Reserves,
are working for them, and in absolute obedience to rules and
regulations laid down by their agent, the Congress.

The United States is not soHcitous, it never has been, about the methods or
ways in which that protection shall be accomplished; whether by formal treaty
stipulation or by formal convention, whether by the action of judicial tribunals
or by that of military force. Protection, in fact, to American lives and property
is the sole point upon which the United States is tenacious. — William M.
Evarts (1878).

"General welfare." — The United States is a family of Common-
wealths. Each State is possessed of its own natural resources, in
the development of which it is necessary for its own best interests to
have the full cooperation of every, other State in exchange of raw
materials, finished products, and farm produce. Its great land
areas and mighty rivers are frequently the concern of several States
or of the entire Nation.

It is within the power of Congress to appropriate funds for con-
structing canals, river and harbor development, and control irriga-
tion projects where more than one State is interested, hard roads,
and Postal Service; to regulate communications and transportation;
and, through its various departments, perform such other services as
will result in benefit to all citizens. This is not paternalism, but that
protection of person and property which enables the citizen to obtain
the greatest possible returns in the exercise of his own initiative.

"Blessings of liberty. " — To secure the "blessings" of liberty was
the fundamental purpose of the makers of the Constitution and its
subsequent adoption. They include all the rights and privileges that
a citizen of this country enjoys — a voice in the Government; freedom
to worship according to the dictates of the individual conscience;
freedom of speech and of the press; the lack of restriction upon all
inherent individual rights.

The liberty of America is not that which permits the individual
citizen to do as he pleases. He may so long as he does not interfere
with the liberty of others. The liberty of the individual ends where
the rights of others begin.

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We all declare for liberty, but in using the word we do not all mean the same
thing. With some the word liberty may mean for each man to do as he pleases
with himself and the product of his labor; while with others the same word
may mean for some men to do as they please with other men and the product
of other men's labor. Here are two not only different but incompatible things
called by the same name — liberty. And it follows that each of the things is,
by the respective parties, called by two different and incompatible names —
liberty and tyranny. The shepherd drives the wolf from the sheep's throat,
for which the sheep thanks the shepherd as his liberator, while the wolf de-
nounces him for the same act as the destroyer of liberty. — Abraham Lincoln.

The "blessings" which the citizen enjoys under our form of gov-
ernment are secured through "liberty under law," the enforcement
of which is their only safeguard.

The purpose of our Government is to protect (not to provide) the
property of its citizens; to guard his person (not to provide his sub-
sistence) while he acquires the means of livelihood; to give every
citizen equal opportunity in his chosen work and assure him of equal
standing before the law.

Our Government is the most nearly perfect of all in securing indi-
vidual rights and insuring the blessings of liberty. In no other
nation is equal opportunity and equal protection assured, with such
equal division of reward for labor and services rendered.

117. The American philosophy of government. — The Ameri-
can philosophy of government emphasizes that —

(1) Individual rights are sacred and it is necessary to establish a
government in the protection of these rights.

(2) All the powers of government are derived from the people,
who retain the supreme authority over all delegated powers of
government.

(3) Individual rights are not permitted to be exercised in the
contravention of the rights of society. Individual liberty is always
bounded by social obligations.

(4) Government is exercised for the purpose of protecting the
individual in his rights.

(5) Governmental powers are delegated to the National, State, or
local authority, and are limited in their exercise by provisions of the
Constitution as interpreted and defined by the Supreme Court.

(6) All rights not thus delegated are recognized as the inviolable
right of the individual citizen and can not be usurped by any
governmental power.

(7) The Government of the United States is not a democracy but
a Republic.

CITIZENSHIP

QUESTIONNAIRE

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At the time of the adoption of the Constitution what was the usual
form of world government?

What was the principal distinction between "government of laws"
and "government of men"?

What were the sources of the American Constitution?

What led the colonists to leave Europe and come to America?

Describe the doctrine of paternalism.

Is the paternalistic form of government efficient?

Define the true purpose of government.

Why is a correct understanding of the purposes of government

necessary?

What is the Preamble to the Constitution? Quote it.

What is the source and final authority of government?

What is the meaning of "consent of the governed"?

How did the "Union" under the Constitution differ from that
under the Articles of Confederation?

Does "dual capacity" of citizenship affect loyalty to the Nation?

How does the Constitution assure "justice" to the individual

citizen?

How can "domestic tranquillity" become possible in a nation com-
posed of all races?

Who provides for the "common defense" of the Nation? How?

What is meant by "general welfare"?

What "blessings of liberty" are secured by our Constitution?

In general what is the American philosophy of government?

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SECTION IX
LESSON 9. — REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

Paragraph
Early forms of government 118

Representative government 119

The American experiment.
Comparative analysis 120

Autocracy.

Democracy.

Republic.

Superior to all others 121

No direct action 122

Methods of representative government 123

An unwritten constitution.

A written constitution.

Consent of the governed 124

"American Bill of Rights" 125

Enumeration of constitutional rights 120

Government by representation 127

Compromises - 128

Separation of powers 129

Checks and balances 130

Federal judiciary 131

Delegated national powers 132

Powers reserved to state and people 133

Dangers to representative government 134

Centralization.

Sectional and class legislation.

Multiplicity of laws.

Socialism, communism, anarchy.

Ignorance of citizens.
Safeguards 135

Direct responsibility to the people.

Restrictedimmigration.

Knowledge concerning the Constitution.

118. Early forms of government. — Until the eighteenth cen-
tury the world had little experience with republics. In the ancient
world Greece and Rome furnished early examples of attempts to
form democratic governments. In Grecian cities popular govern-
ment was practiced, the free people directly making the laws. In
Rome the townsman passed laws to his own advantage. And in the
so-called Venetian republic the power was vested in a few nobles.

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After the failure of many experiments in free government the
ancient world turned to monarchy, believing that the people were
unfit to govern themselves. For centuries, political revolutions were
struggles for better government, rather than self-government.

At the time of the Revolutionary War the republican form of gov-
ernment was discredited throughout the world, monarchy and oli-
garchy being considered the proper forms of good government.

119. Representative government. — The American experi-
ment. — A few races qualified themselves for self-government. To
establish that form of government was a long, hard struggle which
culminated in the great American experiment.

The United States set up a distinct and different form of govern-
ment, the product of distinct racial stocks and centuries spent in
learning the principles and art of self-government. In practice, our
form of government is the most nearly perfect in securing individual
rights and ensuring the blessings of liberty.

It differs from previous forms in certain vital and fundamental
principles which have come to be known as "American institutions."
Among these is that of self-government by representation, which is
"the golden mean between autocracy and democracy."

120. Comparative analysis. — The following comparative analy-
sis shows the principal characteristics of the three forms of
government:

Autocracy:

Authority is derived through heredity.

People have no choice in the selection of their rulers and no voice
in making of the laws.

Results in arbitrariness, tyranny, and oppression.

Attitude toward property is feudalistic.

Attitude toward law is that the will of the ruler shall control,
regardless of reason or consequences.

Democracy:

A government of the masses.

Authority derived through mass meeting or any other form of
"direct" expression.

Results, in mobocracy.

Attitude toward property is communistic — negating property
rights.

Attitude toward law is that the will of the majority shall regulate,
whether it be based upon deliberation or governed by passion, preju-
dice, and impulse, without restraint or regard to consequences.

Results in demagogism, license, agitation, discontent, anarchy.

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Republic-
Authority is derived through the election by the people of public
officials best fitted to represent them.

Attitude toward property is respect for laws and individual rights,
and a sensible economic procedure.

Attitude toward law is the administration of justice in accord with
fixed principles and established evidence, with a strict regard to
consequences.

A greater number of citizens and extent of territory may be
brought within its compass.

Avoids the dangerous extreme of either tyranny or mobocracy.

Results in statesmanship, liberty, reason, justice, contentment, and
progress.

Is the "standard form" of government throughout the world.

A republic is a form of government under a constitution which provides for
the election of (1) an executive and (2) a legislative body, who working
together in a representative capacity, have all the power of appointment, all
power of legislation, all power to raise revenue and appropriate expenditures,
and are required to create (3) a judiciary to pass upon the justice and legality
of their governmental acts and to recognize (4) certain inherent individual
rights.

Take away any one or more of those four elements and you are drifting into
autocracy. Add one or more to those four elements and you are drifting into
democracy.— A /wo ofif.

121. Superior to all others. — Autocracy declares the divine
right of kings; its authority can not be questioned; its powers are
arbitrarily or unjustly administered.

Democracy is the "direct" rule of the people and has been re-
peatedly tried without success.

Our Constitutional fathers, familiar with the strength and weak-
ness of both autocracy and democracy, with fixed principles definitely
in mind, defined a representative republican form of government.
They "made a very marked distinction between a republic and a
democracy * * * and said repeatedly and emphatically that
they had founded a republic."

Madison, in the Federalist, emphasized the fact that this govern-
ment was a republic and not a democracy, the Constitution makers
having considered both an autocracy and a democracy as undesirable
forms of government while "a republic * * * promises the cure
for which we are seeking."

In a democracy the people meet and exercise the government in person. In a
republic they assemble and administer it by their respective agents. — Madison.

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The advantage which a republic has over a democracy consists in the substi-
tution of representatives whose enlightened views and virtuous sentiments render
them superior to local prejudices and to schemes of injustice. — Madison.

The American form of government is the oldest republican form
of government in the world, and is exercising a pronounced influence
in modifying the governments of other nations. Our Constitution
has been copied in whole or in part throughout the earth.

122. No direct action. — Under the representative form of gov-
ernment there is no place for "direct action." The inherent charac-
teristic of a republic is government by representation. The people
are permitted to do only two things; they may vote once every four
years for the executive and once in two years for members of the

legislative body.

123. Methods of representative government. — Constitutional
government may be set up under either a written or an unwritten
Constitution.

An unwritten constitution. — An unwritten constitution consists
largely of customs, precedents, conditions, and understandings, and is
constantly changing; any party in power may enact legislation ma-
terially affecting the methods of government and the political rights
of citizens.

A written constitution. — In the United States the rights of the
people are fully protected and the functions of government strictly
defined in a written document — the Constitution. It is called a
"rigid Constitution" because tho legislative power has no authority
to change it. It is subject to amendment only by the authority and
action of the people through their representatives in Congress.

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary,
shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the apphcation of the
legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for pro-
'posing amendments, which in either case, shall be valid to all intents and pur-
poses, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-
fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as one
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided
* * * that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal
suffrage in the Senate. — Constitution, Article V.

Since the adoption of the Constitution our Nation has increased
in population from 3,000,000 to more than 125,000,000 and has de-
veloped from a wilderness to the greatest industrial nation in tho
world. The adequacy of our Constitution is evidenced by the adop-
tion of only 19 amendments to modify the principles set forth in the
original document.

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As a wall of protection our written Constitution stands between
the people and those who, through lust for power, or the temporary
passions of the moment, or for any other reason, would trespass upon
the rights of person or property.

124. Consent of the governed. — The original desire of the
colonists was "only to hare a voice" in the affairs of the Government.

Governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the
consent of the governed * * *. We have petitioned for Redress in the most
bumble terras: Our repented Petitions have been answered only by repeated
tyranny. — Declaration of Independence.

The situation so developed that the colonists totally dissolved "all
political connection between them and the State of Great Britain,"
and established a new form of government based upon the "consent
of the governed." "Consent" in the drafting and approval of the
instrument of government and its subsequent amendment was a new
feature.

125. "American Bill of Rights." — When the Constitutional
Convention was drawing to a close several members who opposed tho
adoption of the Constitution suggested a number of amendments,
which, they declared, "would make the Constitution acceptable to
them."

While the Constitution already contained many provisions for the
protection of the rights of the individual citizen, various States
desired that it contain further written stipulations that would remove
every possibility of doubt and prevent disputes by "leaving no
matters to inference, implication, or construction."

It was contended that the provision of the suggested Bill of Rights
contained "various exceptions not granted * * * Why declare
that things shall not be done which there is no power to do?"

The tyranny of legislature is a most formidable dread at present, and will be
for many years. That of the Executive will come in its time, but it will be at
a remote period. — Madison.

Subsequently, many of these features were incorporated in the first
10 amendments, adopted in 1791 as supplements to the Constitution,
and are called the "American Bill of Rights."

The first 10 amendments embodied "guaranties and immunities which are
inherited from our Engtish ancestors." — Supreme Court (1897).

128. Enumeration of constitutional rights. — Individual
rights formally guarded by original constitutional provisions:
No ex-post facto laws.
No bill of attainder.
No suspension of privileges of habeas corpus.

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Trial by jury and at places where the crimes were committed.

Definition of treason and limiting punishment.

Guaranty of immunity and privileges of all States to the citizens

of each State.

No religious test before admission to public office.

To which the Bill of Rights added:

Right of peaceable assembly and petition to the Government for

redress of grievances.

Freedom of religion, speech, and press.

Right of the people to keep and bear arms — militia.

Quartering of soldiers only as provided by law.

Protection against unreasonable searches.

Right of accused to indictment by grand jury with certain

exceptions.

No compulsory testimony against self.

No deprivation of rights without due process of law.

No confiscation of private property for public use without just

compensation.

Right of a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury.

Right to demand information concerning the nature and cause of

accusation.

To be confronted with witnesses against him.

Compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor.

Have assistance of counsel for defense.

Right of trial by jury in suits of common law where value and
controversy shall exceed $20.

Protection of verdict of said jury.

No excessive bail required.

No imposition of excessive fines.

No infliction of cruel and unusual punishment.

Rights retained by the people shall not be denied nor disparaged.

Powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor
prohibited by it to the States are reserved to the States or to the

people.

127. Government by representation. — The framers of the

Constitution were opposed to direct government. The remedy sought
was to be found in representative government. Madison declared that
the object to which their efforts wore to be directed was how to pre-
vent a majority rule and to preserve the spirit and form of popular
government. The representative form of government was their

answer.

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oinzisirsHiP

The United States shall guarantee to every State in the Union a repubhcan
form of government. — Constitution, Article IV, section 4.

Sovereignty was placed in the hands of the people. No authority
was delegated to any department either of National or State Govern-
ment except by the people through the provisions contained in the
Constitution.

There could be no question but that by a republican form of government was
intended a government in which not only would the people's representatives
make laws and the agents administer them, but the people would also directly
or indirectly choose the Executive. — Cooky.

128. Compromises. — In the establishment of our dual form of
government a spirit of compromise prevailed. The instrument offered
by the makers of the Constitution was the result of compromise, espe-
cially in regard to the matter of representation; the smaller States
demanded equal representation with the larger. The compromise
established two Houses of Congress: the Senate, in which each State
was given equal representation; the House of Representatives, in
which the membership was apportioned to the population. The func-
tions of the two Houses of Congress were specifically stated and their
powers definitely limited.

129. Separation of powers. — Members of the convention of
1787 feared the oppression of highly concentrated power, whether on
the part of an individual or the ascendency of a parliamentary ma-
jority. Any suggested scheme to be satisfactory must limit the power
of government rather than expand it.

Their plan of government provided for the division of power into
three departments:

A legislative body working together in a representative capacity
having power of appointment, power of legislation, power to raise
revenues, power to appropriate funds for public expenditure.

An executive department whose duty was law enforcement and
administration of the departments.

A judicial or law -interpreting department, at the head of which
stands the Supreme Court.

130. Checks and balances. — These departments were separated
from each other as far as possible, cooperating when necessary.
Checks were placed upon each, preventing anyone from becoming
absolute or despotic. They wore likewise balanced against each
other in such a manner as to preserve the equilibrium of govern-
ment : States are balanced against the Central Government; House of
Representatives is balanced against the Senate; Senate is balanced
against the House of Representatives; executive authority is bal-
anced by the legislative; legislative department is balanced by the

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executive; judiciary is balanced against the legislative, executive,
and State governments; Senate is balanced against the President
in all appointment to offices and all treaties; people hold a balance
against their own representatives through periodical elections.

Among the curbs and restrictions on the powers of the Central
Government, the strongest checks are: Establishment of a smaller
legislative body with less changing personnel and longer terms based
on equality of representation, having coordinate legislative authority,
with the exception of revenue bills, which originate in the House of
Representatives, and treaties and appointments, which are committed
to the President and the Senate; the public sentiment of an intelli-
gent and conservative people; popular elections; short terms of office.

131. Federal judiciary. — To accomplish the uniform interpre-
tation of the Constitution a Eederal court system was necessary, and
it was provided that the judges should be appointed by the Presi-
dent, "with the advice and consent of the Senate."

Through the system of checks and balances the safeguarding of
the Constitution is charged to the Supreme Court. However, every
judge in the land is also bound, under oath or affirmation, to support
it and declare void any enactment which violates its provisions.

When a State court fails to fulfill this obligation "its action is
reviewable and reversible by the Supreme Court of the United
States."

Tills system which makes the judges the guardians of the Constitution pro-
vides the only safeguard which has hitherto been invented against unconsti-
tutional legislation. — Dicey.

The courts keep each authority within its proper sphere, but they
have the power to interfere only when a concrete case is brought
before them for judicial consideration.

One method of assault may be to effect in the form of the Constitution
alterations which will impair the energy of the system and thus undermine
what can not be directly overthrown. — Washington — Farewell Address.

A Constitution may be undermined by the passing of laws which, without
nominally changing its provisions, violate its principles. — Dicey.

One of the exceptional features of our republican form of govern-
ment is the independence of the Federal judiciary whose jurisdiction
extends to all cases arising under the Constitution itself; cases aris-
ing under the Federal laws and treaties; cases affecting ambassadors,
consuls, etc.; cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; cases in
which the United States is a party; controversies between States;
cases commenced by a State against the citizens of another State;
controversies between the citizens of the same State under land

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grants from different States; cases between American citizens and
foreign states, citizens or subjects.

The balance of power has been preserved. The Constitution as a
whole stands unshaken with but slight encroachments of one depart-
ment upon the other.

132. Delegated national powers. — Under the plan set up under
the Constitution certain definite powers are delegated to the three
departments of government.

Among the powers delegated to Congress are to —

Levy taxes.

Coin money.

Pay national debts.

Regulate commerce.

Establish uniform naturalization laws.

Establish the post office.

Provide for the common defense.

Declare war.

Raise and support armies.

Provide a navy.

Among the limitations placed on the powers of Congress are —

Apportionment of representation and direct taxes among the States
is determined by population.

No money can be paid except by law.

All orders, resolutions, and bills must be sent to the President for
his consideration.

Privilege of habeas corpus shall not be suspended except in case
of rebellion or insurrection.

Among the powers delegated to the President are —

Execute the laws.

Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy.

Commission all officers of the United States.

Grant reprieves and pardons.

Make treaties by and with the advice and consent of the Senate.

Nominate judges of the Supreme Court.

Give information to Congress in formal messages.

Sign or veto orders, resolutions, and bills received from Congress.

133. Powers reserved to state and people — The President and
Congress can exercise only those powers directly granted them by the
Constitution. All powers not so delegated are reserved to the people.

The enumeration of certain rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage
others retained by the people. — Amendments to Constitution, Article IX.

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The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution nor pro-
hibited by it to the States are reserved to the States, respectively, or to the
people. — Amendments to Constitution, Article X.

134. Dangers to representative government. — Whenever the
republican form of government has not achieved success the difficulty
has not been with the system but with its faulty application.

Several dangerous experiments have been proposed, such as the
initiative, referendum, recall, and the election of judges. Departures
from constitutional principles threaten to impair the efficiency of our
representative form of government, and if continued, will ultimately
destroy it.

Centralization. — Originally "every influence favored the suprem-
acy of the State as the center of gravity in government." Conferring
strong powers on the proposed central government was feared and
avoided. With the development of industry, invention, business, and
transportation, tho different sections of the country were brought
into such intimate and immediate contact that "the knell of State
sovereignty was sounded and the supremacy of the Union became
inevitable."

New and practical problems confront the Government, such as —
increase of governmental business; rise of technical questions in
government; popular demand for greater speed in Government
action, and increased size and unwieldiness of legislative bodies.

Opposition to centralization of power in the National Government
rests upon the general dislike of concentrated power, and its destruc-
tive influence on our philosophy of government.

Sectional and class legislation. — Nothing is more repugnant to
the American citizen than special or class legislation. The founders
of our Government sought unity rather than differentiation. The
Civil War settled for all time the question of the indissolubility of
the Union. The general welfare of the Nation forbids sectional or
class legislation. There must be no preference to the North, East,
South, or West. Our motto should be "America for all, and all for
America."

Multiplicity of laws. — The modern tendency of government is to
create innumerable laws as corrective or restrictive measures; ap-
pointment of special officers for their enforcement, with the conse-
quent restriction of State, community, and personal rights, without
regard to the fact that the majority is unprepared or not willing to
accept or respond to the restrictions imposed. Relief from encroach-
ment upon the rights of the people will come when each citizen better
learns the art of self-government and exercises his right of franchise.

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Socialism, communism, anarchy. — The problems of capital and
labor, employer and employee, can not be solved by unrepublican
methods. The suggestion of special legislation is socialistic and
communistic in its theory and wholly repugnant to the American
character.

Socialism or communism which negates property rights; anarchy
which negates law; the substitution of "direct action" for represent-
ative government; a government ownership — all should be avoided
as perils that threaten the very foundation of this Republic.

Ignorance of citizens. — Webster said, "On the diffusion of educa-
tion among the people rests the preservation and perpetuity of our
free institutions." In the early Colonies one of the first buildings to
be erected was the schoolhouse. Here was laid, developed, and sub-
sequently spread the ideals of liberty. One of the foundation stones
of representative government is education.

An intelligent and informed citizen is an asset to the Nation. The
great educational system of America makes it possible for every
citizen to best fit himself for the tasks of life. In the common schools
all are taught a common language, a knowledge of American tradi-
tions, ideals, and philosophy of government.

Through education the barrier that separates the citizen from the
greater enjoyment of his freedom is removed, a better understanding
of American ideals is established, and the influence of subversive
propaganda is in large measure destroyed.

135. Safeguards. — In order to assure perpetuity to our form of
government, certain safeguards are necessary against encroachments
both from within and without.

Direct responsibility to the people. — Having derived its "just
powers from the consent of the governed," tho Government of the
United States is directly responsible to the people as the highest
authority. The United States is governed by public opinion — by the
ideas and feelings of the people at large. The frequency of elections
and the short terms of office give the people control. By reason of
this our representatives are slow to attempt any official action over-
stepping the bounds of their authority or beyond the approval of
their constituency.

Restricted immigration. — Immigrants who enter the United
States to exploit her resources without a thought of contributing a
share to the general welfare are a menace to our country. Many
seeking a haven of relief from the oppressions of poverty, ignorance,
and restrictions, a place where gain is made easy and burdens made
light, come in the spirit of the belief that America owes them a good

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living, security, and peace, without a thought of the price that has
been paid to obtain these blessings or the cost of their maintenance.
Against these America acclaims the fundamental right to close the
door, for this is our home and we have the right to select whom we
will to enjoy its privileges and bounties.

America is basically made and refuses to any the right to alter the
plans, destroy any part of the structure, or rebuild it to their liking.

Knowledge concerning the Constitution. — For a proper appre-
ciation of our Government the citizen should know what the Consti-
tution is and what it contains.

The selection and combination of these elements was a master achievement of
vision, abiUty, and governmental genius on the part of the delegates to the
convention. — Atwood.

He should thoroughly understand the purposes of government as
set forth in the Preamble to the Constitution; that the Constitution
established a strictly representative form of government; and the
general provisions in regard to amending the Constitution, when
"necessary." All of this is essential to his proper "regard for the
sterling worth of our beneficent heritage."

The only antidote to the erroneous and dangerous ideas of govern-
ment now rampant through the world and threatening America is a
better understanding of the meaning, value, and importance of our
American philosophy of government as set up in the Constitution.

This will most effectively meet the propaganda of communism in
its attack on our social, economic, political, and national institutions,
which aims to destroy the family as the foundation of society, our
system of capitalism which has produced the great economic success
of America, our republican form of government, and our spirit of
patriotism.

The preservation of the sacred fire of liberty and the destiny of the republican
model of government are justly considered as deeply, perhaps as finally, staked
on the experiment entrusted to the hands of the American people. — Washington.

If in our case the representative system ultimately fail, popular governments
must be pronounced impossible. No combination of circumstances more favor-
able to the experiment can ever be expected to occur. The last hopes of man-
kind, therefore, lest with us; and if it should be proclaimed that our example
had become an argument against the experiment, the knell of popular liberty
would be sounded throughout the earth. — Webster.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Name three kinds of world governments.
What is an autocracy?

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What are the principal characteristics of autocracy?

What is a democracy?

What are the principal characteristics of a democracy?

What is a republic?

What are the principal characteristics of a republic?

Which form of government did the makers of the Constitution seek
to establish?

Name the methods of representative government. Describe them.

What new feature of government was incorporated into the
Constitution?

Describe the "American Bill of Rights."

What "individual rights" are formally guarded by the original
Constitution?

What "rights" were added by the first ten amendments?

How was majority rule prevented and popular government pre-
served?

How were the differences as to representation compromised by the
framers of the Constitution?

What is meant by "separation of powers"?

Explain "checks and balances."

Describe the Federal judiciary.

Enumerate the national powers delegated to Congress.

What limitations were placed on the powers of Congress?

Name and define several dangers to representative government.

Name and define the main safeguards of representative government.

How does restricted immigration benefit —

(1) The social life of America?

(2) The economic life of America?

(3) The political life of America?

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SECTION X

LESSON 10. — PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY

Paragraph

Responsibility of the present 136

American civilization dynamic 137

Individual responsibility 138

Education 139

High standards 140

National character.

Community and home.
Importance of active citizenship 141

Vote.

Pubhc service.

Law and order.

Public opinion 142

Responsibility can not be transferred 143

Our example of individual responsibility 144

136. Responsibility of the present. — Civilization is builded
upon the experiences of the past. Any improvements that have
been accomplished are the results of human achievement. No system
of living has yet been devised that relieves the individual of his
personal responsibility for the improvement of human society. By
personal effort each individual should pass on to posterity a civiliza-
tion better than he found.

The sense of personal responsibility increases with the advance-
ment of civilization. Not only have desires and wants multiplied,
but with the advance of physical science there is also a quickened
moral sentiment and spirit of philanthropic sympathy; an increasing
recognition of the responsibility of each man for his fellow citizen.

137. American civilization dynamic. — American civilization
is expressed in "power," the power of the individual citizen in
the driving force of his initiative, adventurous spirit, self-reliance
and dogged energy. To the American, life is a great adventure.

Human wants, desires, ambitions, spur mankind to achievements.
Never satisfied, ever progressing, civilization has constantly improved
and with the improvement have come burdens and complexities which
add more and more to the problems of human society.

Through equality of opportunity America gives each individual
citizen an equal chance, yet his ability, intelligence, and character
distinguish and classify him as progress is made.

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When America was new. she called upon the racial stocks of the
world to give their best. Out of these she has built a great nation.

The intelligent, though uneducated foreigner, might have con-
tinued to live in his native land without the slightest mental awaken-
ing. Once landing upon American soil, he quickly catches the spirit
of his new environment, takes advantage of the free institutions, and
finds opportunity for development to his fullest capacity.

In modern progress America leads the world. The American citi-
zen, whether native or foreign born, must recognize his obligations
and assume his responsibilities not only to America but also to the
entire world.

138. Individual responsibility. — In the very nature of the
organization and form of our Government, our free institutions, and
the lack of all authority and order other than that created by the
dictum of the people, the security and perpetuity of America rests
upon the individual responsibility of her citizens.

139. Education. — It is the duty of every citizen to obtain the
best possible education. To shirk this responsibility is to be un-
worthy of the "blessings of liberty" and untrue to his own best
interest. Every new device, discovery of science, enlarged market,
added production, facility of communication and transportation,
carries with it a demand for an educated citizenry. Society, eco-
nomics, local and foreign politics, add their demands for educated
leadership and participation. Greater opportunities await the edu-
cated and fewer the uneducated with each passing year. It is the
responsibility of every citizen to become fully informed, for through
education is found the only sure means of perpetuating and improv-
ing our social structure.

140. High standards. — Civilization is not a circle but a pyra-
mid. At its base is found the constantly increasing mass of humanity.
Out of this common material the world has been busily engaged in
building the structure of civilization.

No one is compelled to remain at the base of the pyramid who has
within himself the ability to find his way up. From that base have
come most of the great men in history. Few born in riches or high
social position have ever achieved greatness.

By her system of Government America is at the mercy of those at
the base of the pyramid. If through individual initiative and proper
leadership they win their way toward the apex, they lift America
also. If they remain inert, ignorant, indifferent, they become the
common prey of unscrupulous leaders who seek to weaken or destroy
the structure of our Government.

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National character. — National character is the sum of every citi-
zen. The Nation has a right to expect each citizen to maintain high
ideals, and he has a right to expect the same of his neighbor. The
resulting measure of satisfaction should spur any right-thinking
individual to such attainment. The actual worth of a citizen to
himself, his community, his country, regardless of any other accom-
plishment, is based on the high quality and standard of his thinking.
Obedience to higher impulses builds up self-respect without which no
true success is possible.

Community and home. — The United States has been developed by
a succession of communities, independent of each other, yet closely
related in their social, economic, and political interests. The char-
acter of the community is determined by the character of its homes
and the character of its homes is determined by the character of the
individual citizen. He is the only person upon whom responsibility
for community and home can be placed.

141. Importance of active citizenship. — Good government is
the particular responsibility of the individual citizen in whom final
authority is vested. It will be no higher in its ideals nor just in its
administration than the sum of our national character.

The first and paramount duty of every citizen is to have a first-
hand knowledge of the Constitution of the United States. He should
learn the accurate, comprehensive, and masterly statement of the six
principles of government as contained in the Preamble, and the plan
for setting up and maintaining our representative form of govern-
ment. It is in this document that individual rights and fundamental
duties are set forth.

American citizens are stockholders in a great corporation — the
Government of the United States. They annually spend three and
one-half billion dollars in the cost of government. One citizen out
of 13 gainfully employed works for this corporation. Its operation
requires understanding, supervision, and skillful management.

The citizen is the governor of this Republic through the exercise
of his right to vote — the most sacred right of a free people. He
selects its rulers and decides its issues. The proper exercise of this
right requires honesty and intelligence, and a knowledge concerning
the dangerous tendencies that are threatening our republican form
of government. He should weigh the merits of both men and issues,
feeling himself responsible for the selection of proper persons as the
representatives to whom are intrusted the affairs of government.

Vote. — To preserve American institutions a bigger and better vote
is required — citizens must perform their political duties on election
day.

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The entire electorate must be taught not only to vote but to vote
according to principle and informed opinion. Our institutions are
endangered and are well worth saving. In the presidential years of
1920 and 1924 scarcely half of the voters of the country went to the
polls. In 1926 only 33 per cent of the electorate participated. The
ultimate result of such indifference upon a government based upon
the principle of the majority is disastrous.

In 1928 more than 7.000.000 young citizens became eligible to vote
for the first time. While the vote, and the whole vote, should be
attracted to the polls, it must be remembered that an unintelligent
vote safeguards nothing and is harmful in its effect.

Public service. — Many citizens are so engrossed in their personal
affairs that they are not willing to devote sufficient time to the busi-
ness of government, leaving most important matters to be decided
by a minority.

The functions of citizenship are not confined to the enjoyment of
personal rights — they also involve the protection of those rights.
Unless the obligations of the individual citizen are fulfilled, our en-
tire governmental structure, with all of its rights and privileges, is
endangered. The indifference of individual citizens threatens the
destruction of the "blessings of liberty."

Opportunity for patriotic service calls for leadership and ability,
and too many citizens fail to respond to this obligation. Every citi-
zen should assist in the administration of law and justice by willing-
ness to render jury service — nothing is more imperative. He should
bear a proportionate part of the burden of taxation without an
attempt at evasion. He should respect the rights of others both by
precept and example. He should be willing to assume the duties
of any public office to which his fellow citizens may call him. He
should be useful and loyal, aiding in all public undertakings through
a whole-hearted cooperation for the welfare of all.

In every national emergency the people have produced their
leader — George Washington, Abraham Lincoln. When diplomacy
has failed, as in the World War, the people have "volunteered."

Law and order. — The best government is that in which justice is
most evenly administered. The better our Government, the more
prosperous and contented the people. Every time the citizen assists
the administration of justice he makes a material contribution to the
welfare of all.

Every citizen should observe and respect the law. It is no excuse
that if a certain law interferes with his personal habits, desires, or
beliefs he should disregard it. Absolute acquiescence in the decisions

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of the majority when legally expressed is the vital principle of

republics.

It is your personal responsibility not to contribute to the defeat
of justice either by evading the law or consenting to its evasion by
others. Statutory laws are presumed to be just and for the benefit
of all law-abiding citizens. No greater responsibility rests upon the
citizen than to demand just laws and their enforcement. There is
nothing more degrading, more destructive in its effect upon personal
honor and character, than evasion of law, bribery of officers, or con-
tributing to the delinquency of others.

Respect for its authority, compliance with its laws, acquiescence in its meas-
ures, are duties imposed by the fundamental maxims of true liberty. The basis
of our pohtical systems is the right of the people to make and alter their
Constitution and Government. But the Constitution which at any time exists
till changed by an explicit and authentic act of the whole people is sacredly
obligatory upon all. The very idea of the power and the right of the people to
establish government presupposes the duty of every individual to obey the estab-
hshed government. — George Washington — Farewell Address.

The highest test of good citizenship is obedience to all laws. We can not
develop and keep alive the high sense of civic duty and pride by half-hearted
allegiance to the Constitution. There should be no such thing as an oath to
support the Constitution with mental reservation. — W. B. Sicaney.

The law of the State of Illinois provides that every male person
above the age of 1 8 years must respond to the call of the police officer
in securing and apprehending an offender, and provides a penalty
for failure to do so. A good citizen will never hesitate to inform
an officer of any criminal act of which he has knowledge and to assist
in apprehending a criminal and aid the officer in his prosecution.
Under the laws of Illinois a person who has knowledge of a crime
and conceals it is also a criminal.

142. Public opinion. — Within each community there is an invisi-
ble, government which we call "public opinion." Without this force
our courts and police would be powerless in their effort to control.
Only in proportion as public opinion backs the law can it or will it
be enforced. To protect the land from the overflow of our great
rivers we erect dikes along their banks. The moment a "sand boil"
appears behind a dike a crew is rushed to the place, and repairs are
made to prevent a break that might bring disaster to thousands.

Public opinion, expressing the true character of home and com-
munity, is the dike that protects America from the overflow of crime,
immorality, irreligion, and injustice, which, if allowed to break
through, will do an irreparable damage to the free institutions of
America.

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Public opinion reaches an uncommonly high level because every
citizen is called upon to express his own judgment in community
and national affairs, and to work for the betterment of his town,
county. State, and country.

It is your personal responsibility to mold and control public
opinion.

143. Responsibility can not be transferred. — "Responsibili-
ties gravitate to the man who can shoulder them and power flows to
the man who knows how." The recognition of the inequality of
ability and the equality of moral obligation makes individual re-
sponsibility distasteful to the defective citizen. Efforts are being
made to supplant the individual responsibility of American citizens
with "State responsibility" which destroys self-respect, ambition, and
national character. It demands "State control" which not only
promises to relieve the citizen of his individual responsibility but it
also deprives the individual citizen of his personal liberties.

It is the duty of every American citizen to prevent the destruction
of our Republic and individualistic form of government by any such
destructive pohtical philosophy.

144. Our example of individualresponsibility. — The closing
words of the Declaration of Independence reveal the seriousness with
which the signers fulfilled their personal responsibility:

For the support of this Declaration with a firm reliance on the protection of
Divine Providence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes,
and our sacred honor.

QUESTIONNAIRE

In what manner is the American civilization dynamic?

Upon what does the security and perpetuity of America rest?

In what way does education affect the responsibility of the Ameri-
can citizen?

Is the Government of America at the mercy of the people? Ex-
plain.

Upon what is national character based?

What determines the character of the community and the home?

What is the first obligation of an American citizen?

Name several political responsibilities that test upon every citizen.

What does the successful operation of our Government require?

What two things are necessary for the preservation of our Ameri-
can institutions?

To what degree have our citizens availed themselves of the right
to vote?

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Are the functions of citizenship confined to the enjoyment of per-
sonal rights? Explain.
How has personal responsibility in times of national emergency

been met?

Does personal responsibility require respect for and obedience to
all of the provisions of the Constitution?

What should be the attitude of the individual citizen in reference
to the observance of the law? Of Federal laws? Of State laws?
Of municipal ordinances?

Why is public opinion of such a high standard?

Can individual responsibility be transferred? Explain.

What would be the effect of "State responsibility"?

How seriously did the signers of the Declaration of Independence
assume their personal responsibilities?

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SECTION XI

LESSON 11. — SELF-PRESERVATION

Paragraph

Self-preservation the first law of nature 145

Preservation of life and property 146

National defense the bulwark of self-preservation 147

Freedom not a gift.

Preservation of philosophy of government 148

Preparedness a necessity 149

America not militaristic 150

America not imperialistic 151

Destructive idealism 152

Prepared leadership 153

Military policy of the United States 154

The State Department 155

National defense act 156

Regular Army.

NationalGuard.

OrganizedReserves.

Preparedness an agency for peace 157

Moral qualities essential to self-preservation 158

145. Self-preservation the first law of nature. — Possessed at
first with a slight intelligence man's reliance was upon his physical
powers; though brutal in quality, they were necessary for the preser-
vation of life.

By the successive steps of groups, tribes, and small states, man-
kind evolved better means of protection: cultivated intelligence;
developed habits, customs, and laws, which in a measure abridged
the need of physical force.

146. Preservation of life and property. — To insure the pres-
ervation of life and property America has written into her Consti-
tution absolute guaranties. In no other country is life and property
so hedged about with protective laws — all securing the inalienable
rights of the individual citizen.

The preservation of these rights is a dominant principle of the
American philosophy of government. It limits that government, in
writing, to certain definite powers, and the right is reserved to dis-
charge any and all governmental servants who infringe upon the
written will of the people.

By the system of government set up by our Constitution the people
have been able to regulate the agencies of government and control

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and direct corporations, capital, and labor. Mighty as is their
power they must not infringe upon the rights of any private citizen.
Neither must the individual citizen infringe upon the rights of
another.

Self-preservation for every citizen is guaranteed by the Constitu-
tion and guarded by the Supreme Court of the United States

147. National defense tho bulwark of self-preservation. —
That which preserves our rights has the right to be preserved. The
Declaration of Independence was a "scrap of paper" until made
immortal by tho blood and sacrifice of our patriotic ancestors. The
sufferings of Valley Forge, the courage of Washington, the victory of
Yorktown, secured American liberties and wrote this great docu-
ment into the hearts of liberty-loving people.

This colony (Massachusetts) is ready, at all times, to spend and be spent in
the cause of America. — Warren — Message to Continental Congress.

When the Constitution of the United States was adopted, with
the exception of a small area along the Atlantic coast, America was
a wilderness. She had a population of approximately 3.000,000
people.

By the liberties granted and with unrestricted opportunity the
colonials and pioneers conquered the wilderness, converting it into
a land of fertile fields, great industries, and contented homes, an
achievement of little more than 100 years.

Freedom not a gift. — Freedom is not a gift. It has been bought
and paid for in the sacrifices of peace and war. It is laid in long
hours of toil, the swing of the ax in the forest, the campfire of the
lonely pioneer, the sod house of the early settler, the community
stockade and the frontier Army post. Freedom has traveled a long,
hard road. None but the strong and courageous have possessed it
and by none others can it be retained.

148. Preservation of philosophy of government. — Some in-
terpret American liberty as the opportunity to exploit the Nation's
resources and people by propaganda that aims to destroy American
institutions. Under the guise of freedom of speech and press every
possible effort is being made to undermine and destroy the blessings
of liberty. The problem of national defense deals not only with the
question of elements but it is also the question of the preservation of
that philosophy of government devised by the founders of this
Republic.

149. Preparedness a necessity. — With our growth of popula-
tion, wealth, and standing among the nations, we have learned that

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lack of adequate preparation in time of peace was the most certain
way to encourage attack by other nations.

The security of the Nation has been endangered and lives unneces-
sarily sacrificed because of insufficient training and an inadequate
number of trained officers and soldiers to give instruction or assume
command.

Wars have been begun which would never have been declared had
America been prepared. Wars have been prolonged through lack
of material and trained men to carry them rapidly forward to a
successful issue. Hardships have been suffered by lack of supplies.

Our lack of preparedness, with its rush of preparation, a personnel
inadequately trained, lack of materiel or its means of manufacture,
plus the immediate danger to national existence, not only created all
the elements required for hasty and extravagant expenditures of
money, but caused the criminal sacrifice of many of our best
American citizens.

The Preamble to the Constitution states that one reason for its
establishment is "to provide for the common defense," assigning that
duty to the Federal Government. The "people," through their rep-
resentatives in Congress, declare war; the task of carrying on the
struggle devolves on the Army and Navy.

A million men springing to arms overnight would evidence patriot-
ism; but an army of a million untrained patriots in this advanced
day of scientific warfare means annihilation.

150. America not militaristic. — Our Government, from its
inception, has opposed the idea of militarism. So determined were
the colonials to prevent any possible military dominance they placed
a positive check upon such control by making the constitutional
provision that money for maintaining the Military Establishment
could not be appropriated for a period longer than two years, thereby
placing in the hands of each succeeding Congress the power to control
through holding the purse strings of the Nation.

Military training is not militaristic. On the contrary, it is greatly
beneficial to the youth of America. It builds men physically,
morally, and intellectually, and inculcates obedience, self-control,
leadership, and loyalty.

151. America not imperialistic. — The United States has ac-
quired a clear title to every square inch of land which has been
added to that of the original thirteen Colonies. All territory an-
nexed to the United States since 1803 has been acquired either by
treaty or purchase, except Texas and Hawaii, which were admitted

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to the Union by their own request. In the latter instance, however,
$200,000 was paid as a compensation to Liliuokalani.

152. Destructive idealism. — The attempt to undermine the
Nation from within is more serious than the threat of armed force
from without.

An impractical and destructive idealism called internationalism
is being propagated by certain foreign agitators and is being echoed
and reechoed by many of the Nation's "intellectuals." Its efforts are
to combat the spirit of patriotism, to destroy that spirit of national-
ism without which no people can long endure. History teaches that
in proportion as nations lose their sense of nationalism they become
decadent. Having lost their sense of pride in the traditions of the
past, their respect for national standards, their love for country, their
spirit of patriotism — the end is near.

Pacifism creates a spirit of compromise with the very factors which
operate to weaken the American Government. It attempts to force
the Government into poses of internationalism and false altruism,
destructive of the real interests of the American people.

Pacifism is baneful in its influence. It promotes distrust of
country; debases the spirit of nationalism; is destructive of patriot-
ism; undermines the policy of national defense; cooperates with
destmctive forces for the overthrow of national ideals and insti-
tutions.

Experience has taught us that neither the pacific dispositions of the American
people nor the pacific character of their poHtical institutions can altogether
exempt them from that strife which appears beyond the ordinary lot of nations
to be incident to the actual pride of the world, and the same faithful monitor
demonstrates that a certain degree of preparation for war is not only indis-
pensable to avert disasters in (he onset, but affords also the best security for
the continuance of peace. — Madison.

153. Prepared leadership. — Leadership is as difficult to develop
in the Army as in business. The methods that insure success in one
are applicable to the other. One of the aims of military training is to
produce leaders. The more competent they become the higher the
position they are sure to attain. So efficient is the training received
by the officers in the Regular Army that many are invited to resign
and accept positions of grave responsibility in the business world.
In comparative measure efficiency in leadership is also developed in
enlisted men, in students of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps,
and in trainees of the citizens' military training camps.

Business invariably gives preference to the young man who has had
training in military leadership. Many industries provide their

110834''— 28 8

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employees with 30 days' vacation on pay for the purpose of attendance
at a summer training camp, knowing that they will return to their
employment better equipped, better disciplined, and in every way
much more valuable to themselves and their employers.

All the wars of the future will include science and machinery.
Trained men will be needed to efficiently use these materials, for ef-
ficient leadership, education, skill, technique, training, and thorough
discipline are as necessary as loyalty and willingness to serve.

154. Military policy of the United States. — The military
policy of the United States is defensive, not offensive. America will
go to war only in defense of the Nation, and no other nation need
maintain a ship or a soldier as protection against a war of aggression
instituted by the United States. America desires no territory belong-
ing to other peoples. She seeks only self-preservation and the priv-
ilege of self-determination in peace with all the nations of the earth.

Safety from external danger is the most powerful dictation of national con-
duct.— ffami'ton.

The genius and character of our institutions are peaceful * * * and the
power to declare war was not conferred upon Congress for the purposes of
aggression or aggrandizement, but to enable the General Government to vindicate
by arms, if it should become necessary, its own rights and tho rights of its citi-
zens. — United States Supreme Court.

165. The State Department. — By the means of arbitration and

treaties the State Department endeavors to settle international dis-
putes. It is only after such methods have failed that the United
States enters into war to enforce or protect its principles.

America has always endeavored to maintain peaceful relations with
other nations. Yet practically every generation has been compelled to
take up arms either in defense of the Nation or the principles set forth
in her Constitution.

The attitude of the American Government toward other nations
is —

To cherish peace and free intercourse with all nations having corresponding
dispositions; to maintain sincere neutrality toward belligerent nations; to
prefer in all cases amicable discussion and reasonable accommodation of differ-
ences to a decision of them by an appeal to arms; to exclude foreign intrigues
and foreign partiaHties, so degrading to all countries and so baneful to free
ones.— Madison.

166. National defense act. — The national defense act of 1920,
amended to include March 4, 1927, provides:

That the Army of the United States shall consist of the Regular Army, the
National Guard while in the service of the United States, and the Organized
Reserves, including the Officers' Reserve Corps and the EnHsted Reserve
Corps.

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Except in time of war or similar emergency when the pubHc safety demands
it the number of enlisted men in the Regular Army shall not exceed 280,000,
including the Philippine Scouts.

The total authorized number of enlisted men, not including the
Philippine Scouts, is at present fixed at 125,000.

Regular Army. — The Regular Army consists of approximately
118,000 enlisted men and some 11,500 officers. A large part of this
force is used for garrison purposes at home and abroad. Those at
home spend about eight months of the year in their own training and
in intensive preparation for the work required of them in summer

training camps.

The Regular Army also conducts the training of the Reserve

Officers' Training Corps, the Organized Reserves, and the National

Guard. Officers and men of the Regular Army are qualified to

impart physical, mental, and moral training of the highest character.

The very nature of their work makes them specialists in this field.

No business or profession demands stronger character and ability.

No group is more carefully disciplined, and nowhere will be found

greater loyalty and honor. To train with and serve under the

officers and enlisted men of the Regular Army is to be afforded an

opportunity for personal betterment which any wide-nwake young

American should be eager to accept.

National Guard. — The second amendment to the Constitution pro-
vides that —

A well-regulated Militia being necessary to the security of a free State,
the right of people to keep and bear Arms shall not be infringed.

Prior to the national defense act of 1916 it was left to the States
to provide an organized militia adequate in numbers, equipment and
training to police the State in time of riot or insurrection; it was
also to be used by the National Government in time of war with a
foreign power. With the addition of a small standing Army the
forces thus provided were presumed sufficient for national defense.

Under the national defense act of 1920 the National Guard, in time
of peace, is under the command of officers appointed by the governor
of the State, but their training and administration is supervised by
officers of the Regular Army assigned for that purpose. In time of
war the National Guard, as a component of the Army of the United
States, is immediately called into national service. Together with
the Regular Army, it serves as the first line of defense while the
reserve forces are being organized and equipped.

An efficient Militia is authorized and contemplated by the Constitution and
required by the spirit and safety of free government. — Madison.

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Organized Reserves. — The Organized Reserves, together with the
other components of the Army, form the basis for a complete and
immediate mobilization for national defense in any national emer-
gency declared by Congress. Each reserve unit is now organized
with its officers and a few enlisted specialists. In time of Avar these
units will assemble at points designated, there to be equipped and
trained. Every member of the Reserve Officers' Training Corps and
all graduates of the citizens' military training camps who have
qualified for leadership and have been commissioned would be
required to report to his proper station on the designated day.

To expose some men to the perils of the battle field while others are left to
reap large gains from the distress of their country is not in harmony with our
ideal of equality. — President Coolidge.

157. Preparedness an agency for peace. — The desire for peace
is the spirit of America, but that peace must be dynamic, not a peace
characterized by weakness of purpose or lack of courage.

"Common defenselessness" is in opposition to the spirit of the
Constitution. The best guaranty of peace is a physically fit people
inspired by the spirit of the Constitution and strong enough to
defend themselves against any foe.

True Americans should be prepared to defend our Nation against
those influences that will not only destroy all patriotic ideals that
have been acquired through years of struggle but which advocate
the overthrow of our Government by force. Our very freedom
allows enemies within to operate with appalling boldness. They have
powerful allies in the persons of those who would abolish all of our
defenses — who would have peace at any price.

The writings and utterances of the men who laid the foundations
upon which posterity has been called to erect the superstructure of
this Nation continually remind the citizen of the necessity to provide
for an adequate defense of the blessings of liberty that, to insure
them for future generations, we must be strong enough to protect
and defend our country and our institutions from any hostile aggres-
sion, whether from without or within.

By diffusing through the mass of the Nation the elements of military disci-
pline and instruction; by augmenting and distributing warlike preparations
applicable to future use; by evincing the zeal and valor with which they will
be employed and the cheerfulness with which every necessary burden will be
borne, a greater respect for our rights and a longer duration of our future
peace are promised than could be expected without these proofs of the national
character and resources. — Madison.

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158

168. Moral qualities essential to self-preservation. — The
American citizen must emphasize those qualities of character which
mark him as truly worthy of the privileges of independence and
liberty. His claim to self-respect is sound only as he upholds the
self-respect of his fellow citizens. His honor is sacred only as he
protects the honor of his country. He values liberty and independ-
ence only in so far as he is willing to pay the price for its protection.

It takes more than eloquent speeches and hot words to accomplish
sublime purpose — it takes risk; it takes sacrifice. It takes the spirit
of a Nathan Hale, who, having been sent by General Washington to
bring intelligence concerning the British in New York City, was
captured within the British lines and executed as a spy by order of
Sir William Howe, the British commander. His last words were:
"1 only regret that 1 have but one life to lose for my country." This
is the spirit that won our liberties. It takes the same spirit to pre-
serve our liberties.

We mutually pledge our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. — Signers
of the Declaration of Independence.

The moral qualities essential to self-preservation are —

The will to win.

The courage to endure.

The willingness to die.

QUESTIONNAIRE

How is the preservation of life and property assured?

What is the bulwark of self-preservation? Explain.

How can the American philosophy of government be preserved 1

Why is preparedness necessary?

Who declare war?

Is America militaristic? Explain.

How does military training benefit the youth of America?

Is America imperialistic? Explain.

What is meant by "internationalism"?

What are some of the baneful influences of pacifism?

What are the essential qualifications of leadership?

How can we best provide for the peace and security of our Nation?

Describe the military policy of the United States.

How does the State Department contribute to peace?

What is the national defense act?

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What are some of its provisions?

Name and describe the three components of the Army of the
United States.

In what way is preparedness an agency for peace?
What moral qualities are essential to self-preservation?
What provisions for national defense are contained in the Consti-
tution?

Why should military service in time of war be determined by the
National Government instead of the State or the individual?

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SECTION Xll

LESSON 12. — THE AMERICAN FLAG

Paragraph

Design accepted 159

Significance of elements 160

Progress of the flag 161

Allocution of the stars 162

Inspiration of the flag 163

The future of the flag 164

Kinds of national flags 165

Federal laws 166

Method of displaying the flag 167

When flown with other flags.

International usage.

General uses.

Reveille and retreat.

Memorial Day.

Unveiling statues.

Military funerals.

Patriotic occasions.

Signal of distress.

Disposition of worn-out flags 168

Mihtary salute to the flag 169

National anthem 170

National salute 171

Initial events of the American flag 172

159. Design accepted. — Gen. George Washington, Robert Mor-
ris, and Col. George Ross were appointed a committee by the Conti-
nental Congress to produce a flag for the United States of North
America. Their report was approved and the design adopted on the
14th of June, 1777. By resolution Congress decided that the flag of
the 13 United States should be 13 stripes, alternate red and white,
and that the Union be 13 white stars on a blue field.

160. Significance of elements. — In describing its design Wash-
ington said: "We take the stars from heaven, the red from our
mother country, separating it by white stripes, thus showing that we
have separated from her, and the white stripes shall go down to
posterity representing liberty."

The Continental Congress defined the special significance of the
chosen colors to be: White, suggesting purity and innocence; red,
hardness and valor; blue, vigilance, perseverance, and justice.

The stars of the Union were not merely a collection but a new con-
stellation representing a new ideal in political and governmental

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affairs. The newly formed States were to develop under the control
of laws, not independently nor indifferent to each other — but a
Union, one and inseparable.

161. Progress of the flag. — After 1812 the flag moved west with
the pioneers who explored the vast regions beyond the Alleghenies,
the Mississippi Valley, the Rocky Mountains, to the shores of the
Pacific Ocean, and the islands of the sea. Representing the United
States, the flag flies to-day in Alaska, Hawaii, the Philippines, Porto
Rico, Guam, Tutuila, Panama, and at the North Pole.

To be born tinder the American flag is to be the child of a king and to build
a home under the Stars and Stripes is to estabUsh a royal house. Alone of all
flags it expresses the sovereignty of the people, which endures when all else
passes away. Speaking with their voice, it has the sanctity of revelation. He
who Hves under it and is loyal to it is loyal to truth and justice everywhere.
He who lives under it and is disloyal to it is a traitor to the human race every-
where. What could be saved if the flag of the American Nation were to
perish? — President Coolidge.

162. Allocation of the stars. — President William H. Taft on
October 25, 1912, by Executive order designated the specific location
of the stars and their definite representations. They were to be
arranged in six rows of eight stars, each star to symbolize a State in
the order of its ratification of the Constitution:

25. Arkansas.

26. Michigan.

27. Florida.

28. Texas.

29. Iowa.

30. Wisconsin.

31. California.

32. Minnesota.

33. Oregon.

34. Kansas.

35. West Virginia.

36. Nevada.

37. Nebraska.

38. Colorado.

39. North Dakota.

40. South Dakota.

41. Montana.

42. Washington.

43. Idaho.

44. Wyoming.

45. Utah.

46. Oklahoma.

47. New Mexico.

48. Arizona.

1

Delaware.

2

Pennsylvania.

3. New Jersey.

4.

Georgia.

6.

Connecticut.

6.

Massachusetts.

7

Maryland.

8.

South Carolina.

9.

New Hampshire.

10.

Virginia.

11.

New fork.

12.

North Carolina.

13.

Rhode Island.

14.

Vermont.

15.

Kentucky.

16.

Tennessee.

17.

Ohio.

18.

Louisiana.

19.

Indiana.

20.

Mississippi.

21.

Illinois.

22. Alabama.

23.

Maine

24.

Missouri.

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163. Inspiration of the flag. — Like the cross, the flag is sacred.
It represents the living country and is itself considered a living thing.
It flies not only as the symbol of organization and protection, it also
calls to duty. To the flag of the United States, and all that it repre-
sents, every citizen of America should render respect, reverence, and
devotion.

As you feel about your flag, so you feel about your Nation.
Your flag, my flag, our flag! May we honor her as she honor? us !

164. The future of the flag. — This flag, the emblem of justice
and government, stands for the just use of undisputed national power.
No nation is going to doubt our power to assert its rights.

It is henceforth to stand for self-possession, dignity, for the assertion of the
right of one nation to serve the other nations of the world — an emblem that
will not condescend to be used for purposes of aggression and self-aggrandize-
ment; that it is too great to be debased by-selfishness; that has vindicated its
right to be honored by all nations of the world and feared by none who do
righteousness. — Woodrow Wilson.

165. Kinds of national flags. — There are four kinds of national
flags: Flags which are flown at military posts or on ships and used
for display generally; small flags or ensigns which are used on small
boats; colors which are carried by unmounted regiments; and stand-
ards which are carried by mounted regiments, and are, therefore,
smaller in size than colors.

There is prescribed in Army Regulations a knotted fringe of yellow
silk on the national standards of mounted regiments and on the
national colors of unmounted regiments. However, there is no law
which either requires or prohibits the placing of a fringe on the flag
of the United States. Ancient custom sanctions the use of fringe on
the regimental colors and standards, but there seems to be no good
reason or precedent for its use on other flags.

166. Federal laws. — There is no Federal law now in force per-
taining to the manner of displaying, hanging, or saluting the United
Stales flag, or prescribing any ceremonies that should be observed in
connection therewith.

There are but four Federal laws on the statute books that have any
bearing upon this subject:

(1) The act of Congress approved February 20, 1905, providing
that a trade-mark can not be registered which consists of or com-
prises "the flag, coat of arms, or other insignia of the United States,
or any simulation thereof."

(2) A joint resolution of Congress approved May 8, 1914, author-
izing the display of the flag on Mother's Day.

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(3) The act of Congress approved February 8, 1917, providing
certain penalties for the desecration, mutilation, or improper use of
the flag within the District of Columbia.

(4) The act of Congress approved May 16, 1918, providing, when
the United States is at war. for the dismissal from the service of
any employee or official of the United States Government who criti-
cizes in an abusive or violent manner the flag of the United States.

Several States of the Union have enacted laws which have more or
less bearing upon the general subject, and it seems probable that
many counties and municipalities have also passed ordinances con-
cerning this matter to govern action within their own jurisdiction.

No present Federal statute punishing the desecration or abuse of the flag, in
time of peace or in time of war. — Attorney General John G. Sargent.

A majority of States have passed acts designed to punish the desecration of
the National flag and to prevent its use for advertising purposes. The consti-
tutionality of such State legislation was upheld by the Supreme Court in
Halter v. Nebr., 205 U. S. 34.

There is a Federal statute similar in terms to many of the State laws which
punishes the improper use of the flag in the District of Columbia — act February
8, 1917, chapter 34 (39 Stat. 900), but there is no Federal enactment which
punishes such use outside the District.

167. Method of displaying the flag. — There are certain funda-
mental rules of heraldry which indicate the proper method of dis-
playing the flag. There are also certain rules of good taste which,
if observed, would insure the proper use of the flag.

(1) The union of the flag is the honor point; the right arm is
the sword arm and therefore the point of danger and hence the
place of honor.

(2) When the national flag is carried, as in a procession, with
another flag or flags, the place of the national flag is on the right —
i. e.. the flag's own right.

(3) When the national flag and another flag are displayed together,
as against a wall from crossed staffs, the national flag should be on
the right, the flag's own right — i. e., the observer's left — and its staff
should be in front of the staff of the other flag.

(4) When a number of flags are grouped and displayed from staffs
the national flag should be in the center or at the highest point of
the group.

(5) When the national flag is hung either horizontally or verti-
cally against a wall the union should be uppermost and to the flag's
own right — i. e., to the observer's left. When displayed from a staff
projecting horizontally or at an angle from a window sill or the
front of a building, the same rules should be observed.

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(6) When the flag is suspended between buildings so as to hang
over the middle of the street, a simple rule is to hang the union to
the north in an east and west street or to the east in a north and south

street.

When flown with other flags. — When flags of States or cities or
pennants of societies are flown on the same halyard with the national
flag, the national flag must always be at the peak. When flown from
adjacent staffs the national flag should be hoisted first. There is
a chaplain's flag authorized in Army Regulations, but there is no
church pennant prescribed. Neither the chaplain's flag nor any other
flag or pennant is authorized to be placed above or to the right of

the national flag.

International usage. — The display of the flag of one nation above
that of any other nation in time of peace is forbidden. When the
flags of two or more nations are to be displayed they should be flown
from separate staffs or from separate halyards, of equal size and on

the same level.

General uses. — There is no Federal law governing the subject, but

it is suggested —

That the national flag when not flown from a staff be always hung
flat, whether indoors or out.

It should not be festooned over doorways or arches nor tied in a
bowknot nor fashioned into a rosette.

When used on a rostrum it should be displayed above and behind
the speaker's desk. It should never be used to cover the speaker's
desk nor to drape over the front of the platform. For this purpose
as well as for decoration in general, bunting of the national colors
should be used, arranged with the blue above, the while in the middle,
and the red below.

Under no circumstances should the flag be draped over chairs or
benches, nor should any object or emblem of any kind be placed above
or upon it, nor should it be hung where it can be easily contaminated
or soiled.

No lettering of any kind should ever be placed upon the flag. It
should not be used as a portion of a woman's costume nor of a man's
athletic clothing. A very common misuse of the flag is the practice
of embroidering the flag on cushions and handkerchiefs, and the
printing of the flag on paper napkins. These practices, while not
strictly a violation of any present Federal law, certainly are lacking
in respect and dignity and can not be considered as evidence of
good taste.

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There is no objection to flying the flag at night on civilian
property, provided it is not so flown for advertising purposes.

Reveille and retreat. — It is the practice in the Army, each day in
the year, to hoist the flag briskly at sunrise, irrespective of the condi-
tion of the weather, and to lower it slowly and ceremoniously at
sunset, indicating the commencement and cessation of the activities
of the day.

Memorial Day. — On Memorial Day (May 30) at all Army posts
and stations the national flag is displayed at half staff from sunrise
until noon and at full staff from noon until sunset.

When flown at half staff the flag is always first hoisted to the peak,
the honor point, and then slowly lowered to the half-staff position in
honor of those who gave their lives to their country, but before
lowering the flag for the day it is raised again to the head of the
staff, for the Nation lives and the flag is the living symbol of the
Nation.

Unveiling statues. — When flags are used in connection with the
unveiling of a statue or monument, they should not be allowed to fall
to the ground, but should be carried aloft to wave out, forming a
distinctive feature during the remainder of the ceremony.

Military funerals. — When the national flag is used on a bier or
casket at a military funeral, the rule is the reverse of that for hang-
ing vertically against a wall. The union should be placed at the
head of the casket and over the left shoulder of the soldier. The
casket should be carried foot first. The flag should not be lowered
into the grave and in no case should it be allowed to touch the
ground.

When a body is shipped to relatives by the War Department for
private burial, the flag which drapes the shipping case is turned over
to relatives with the remains for use at the funeral, and may be
retained by them.

Patriotic occasions. — It is becoming the practice throughout the
country among civilians to display the national flag on all patriotic
occasions, especially on the following days: Lincoln's Birthday,
February 12; Washington's Birthday, February 22; Mother's Day,
second Sunday in May; Memorial Day, May 30; Flag Day, June 14;
Independence Day, July 4; Armistice Day, November 11.

In certain localities other special days are observed in the same
manner.

Signal of distress. — The flag should never be hung nor displayed
union down except as a signal of distress at sea.

168. Disposition of worn-out flags. — Old or worn-out flags
should not be used either for banners or for any secondary purpose.

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168-172

When a flag is in such a condition that it is no longer a fitting emblem
for display, it should be destroyed, preferably by burning or by some
other method lacking in any suggestion of irreverence or disrespect
to the emblem representing our country.

169. Military salute to the flag. — When officers and enlisted
men pass the national flag not incased or when the national flag is
carried in a parade or procession, they will render honors as follows:
If in civilian dress and covered, they will uncover, holding the
headdress opposite the left shoulder with the right hand; if in uni-
form, covered, or uncovered, or in civilian dress uncovered, they will
salute with the right-hand salute.

170. National anthem. — The musical composition familiarly
known as the Star-Spangled Banner is designated as the national
air of the United States of America. When played all officers and
enlisted men present and not in formation are required to stand at
attention, facing the music, except when the flag is being lowered
at sunset, on which occasion they are required to face toward the
flag. If in uniform they shall render the prescribed salute at the
first note of the anthem, retaining the position of salute until the
last note of the anthem. If not in uniform and covered, they are
required to stand and uncover at the first note of the anthem, holding
the headdress opposite the left shoulder until the last note is played,
except in inclement weather when the headdress may be held slightly
raised. The custom of rising and remaining standing and uncovered
while the Star-Spangled Banner is being played has grown in favor
among civilians.

The Star-Spangled Banner should be played through without repe-
tition of any part not required to be repeated to make it complete.
It should not be played as part of a medley nor for dance music, nor
at any point in a program or performance except at the beginning or
the end. It is the practice in the Army to play the Star-Spangled
Banner at the end of a musical program.

171. National salute. — The national salute to the American flag
requires one gun for every star.

NOTE. — It is not within the province of the War Department to force upon
persons not in the military service the regulations governing the use of the flag
within the Army.

172. Initial events of the American flag.

June 14, 1777: The first American flag, made by Betsy Ross, was
adopted by the Continental Congress as the flag of the United States
of North America.

1787-1790: The Stars and Stripes first carried around the world by
the ship Columbia.

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August 2, 1777: An improvised Stars and Stripes hoisted at Fort
Stanwix, N. Y.

November 1, 1777: The American flag was first flown at sea by
Capt. Paul Jones. He sailed to cany the news to France that
Burgoyne had surrendered.

February 14. 1778: The first salute given the American flag, at
Quiberon Bay, France, when the French Admiral La Motte Piquet,
saluted the flag on the Ranger, commanded by Capt. Paul Jones.

September 11, 1777: The American flag first went into battle,
receiving its baptism of blood at the Brandywine.

September 13. 1814: Francis Scott Key wrote the Star-Spangled
Banner during the battle at Fort McHenry, in Baltimore Harbor.
It was later officially designated as the national anthem.

July 24. 1866: First American flag manufactured from American
material hoisted over the Capitol at Washington. Previously the
bunting had been manufactured outside the United States.

QUESTIONNAIRE

Explain the significance of the "elements" in the American flag.

Describe the "progress" of the flag.

Which star is allotted to your State? Why?

What is meant by the "inspiration of the flag"?

What is its message to you?

There are how many kinds of national flags? Name them.

What Federal laws relate to the flag?

Should the American flag ever be used as an advertising device?
Explain.

Describe the methods of displaying the flag.

When flown with other flags what is the position of the American
flag?

What is the international usage?

What suggestions are made as to general uses?

How is the flag flown on Memorial Day, and what is its signifi-
cance?

In unveiling statues, how should the flag be used?

Describe the use of the flag at military funerals.

On what special occasions is it customary to display the American
flag?

What is the position of the flag when used as a signal of distress?

Describe the military salute to the flag.

How should the national anthem be played? What should the
audience do?

What is the national salute to the flag? Explain.

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THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OE

AMERICA

Edited by HARRY. ATWOOD

Showing all portions of the original Constitution which have become obsolete
inclosed in brackets in bold type, and all portions which hare been modified
or supplanted by amendment in bold itahcs, with notes indicating the
amendments by which the changes were made

FOREWORD

Our Constitution is the foundation upon which this Republic rests.
It is now the oldest written constitution functioning in the world
and is quite generally conceded the wisest plan of government ever
conceived.

Under its beneficent influence we began to solve problems and
secure individual comforts and privileges that had baffled philoso-
phers and statesmen for ages. We have harmonized into a splendid
and loyal citizenship people of many nationalities coming to our
shores with varying ambitions and ideals, and have made orderly
progress unparalleled in history until we have become the leading
nation of the world.

In studying the Constitution, it is essential to have clearly in mind
what portions have been modified or supplanted by amendment and
what portions have become obsolete. The changes are clearly indi-
cated in this edition.

When the Constitution was written our country was in a condition
of bankruptcy, chaos, and anarchy. Within three years after its
adoption a most favorable condition for orderly progress had been
estabhshed. That beneficent transformation wrought by the Con-
stitution is one of the most amazing facts in all history.

The men who wrote the Constitution had great mental acumen,
political understanding, and moral courage. Their lives had been
devoted largely to study and thought concerning government and
to rendering public service. They were politically minded in the
sense that Edison and Marconi are electrically minded; that Lind-
bergh and Chamberlain are aviation minded; that Socrates and
Emerson were philosophically minded; that Newton and Kepler
were scientifically minded.

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To regard the Constitution merely as a statement of principles
and an enumeration of rights and guarantees results in confusion
and a false concept. It is a statement of the purposes of govern-
ment, and the statement of a plan for setting up and administering
a Federal representative government in harmony with the purposes
to which it was dedicated.

Every proper activity of government can be classified under one
or more of the six great purposes set forth in the Preamble. The
plan for the division of powers into legislative, executive, and judi-
cial departments, combining proper independence with means for
helpful cooperation between those departments under well-balanced
restraints, makes possible a scientific administration of government.

The Constitution is very much the kind of a plan for handling
the problems of government that the alphabet is for handling the
problems of language; that the scale is for handling the problems
of music; that the ten digits are for handling the problems of
arithmetic.

Notwithstanding the vital importance of the Constitution to the
well-being of this Republic, the number of persons who know much
about it is tragically small. Increasing knowledge of its meaning
and value will bring increasing desire for better understanding.

H. A.

THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES

PREAMBLE

"We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per-
fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for
the common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the
blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and
establish this Constitution for the United States of America.

ARTICLE I

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT

Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested
in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate
and House of Representatives.

THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

Sec. 2. (1) The House of Representatives shall be composed of
members chosen every second year by the people of the several

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States, and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications
requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State

legislature.

(2) No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained
to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of
that State in which he shall be chosen.

(3) Representatives and direct taxes (except income) shall be
apportioned among the several States which may be included within
this Union according to their respective numbers, — which shall be
determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, in-
cluding those bound to service for a term of years — and exclud-
ing Indians not taxed, — three-fifths of all other persons.' The
actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first
meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every sub-
sequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct.
The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty
thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative;
[and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New
Hampshire shall be entitled to choose 3; Massachusetts, 8
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, 1; Connectictit, 5
New York, 6; New Jersey, 4; Pennsylvania, 8; Delaware, 1
Maryland, 6; Virginia, 10; North Carolina, 5; South Carolina,
5; and Georgia, 3.]"*

(4) When vacancies happen in the representation from any State,
the Executive Authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill
such vacancies.

(5) The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and
other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment.

THE UNIITEaD STATES SENATE

Sec. 3. (1) The Senate of the United States shall be composed
of two Senators from each State, chosen by the — Legislature —
thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote.

(2) Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of
the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into
three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be

, See Amendment XIV, section 3
3 Insert. See Amendment XVI..

See Amendment Xlll and sections 1 and 2 of Amendment XIV.
j Obsolete since 1793

See Amendment XVll, paragraph 1,

110834"— 28-

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vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at
the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expira-
tion of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second
year: — and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise,
during the recess of the legislature of any State, the Executive
thereof may make temporary appointments until the next meet-
ing of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies.

(3) No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States,
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for
which he shall be chosen.

(4) The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of
the Senate, but shall have no vote unless they be equally divided.

(5) The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a Presi-
dent pro tempore in the absence of the Vice President, or when he
shall exercise the office of President of the United States.

(6) The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments.
When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation.
When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice
shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concur-
rence of two-thirds of the members present.

(7) Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indict-
ment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law.

ORGANIZATION OF CONGRESS

Sec. 4. (1) The times, places, and manner of holding elections
for Senators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State
by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by
law make or alter such regulations, — except as to the places of
choosing Senators.

(2) The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and
such meetings shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they
shall by law appoint a different day.

Sec. 6. (1) Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns,
and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall
constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may ad-

j See Amendment XVll, paragraph 2.
3 SeeAmendmentXlV, lection 8.
See Amendment XVll.

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journ from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attend-
ance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties
as each house may provide.

(2) Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish
its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of
two-thirds expel a member.

(3) Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of
either house on any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those
present, be entered on the journal.

(4) Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without
the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to
any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting.

Sec. 6. (1) The Senators and Representatives shall receive a com-
pensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out
of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, except
treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest
during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and
in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or
debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other
place.

(2) No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which
he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority
of the United States which shall have been created, or the emolu-
ments whereof shall have been increased during such time; and no
person holding any office under the United States shall be a member
of either house during his continuance in office.

Sec. 7. (1) All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the
House of Representatives, but the Senate may propose or concur with
amendments, as on other bills.

(2) Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representa-
tives and the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to
the President of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it,
but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in
which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at
large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such
reconsideration two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill,
it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by
which it shall likewise be reconsidered; and if approved by two-
thirds of that house it shall become a law. But in all such cases the
votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the

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names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered
on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be
returned by the President, within ten days (Sundays excepted) after
it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law in like
manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjourn-
ment prevent its return; in which case it shall not be a law.

(3) Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except
on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the President
of the United States; and before the same shall take effect shall be
approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed
by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, accord-
ing to the rules and hmitations prescribed in the case of a bill.

POWERS VESTED IN CONGRESS

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power:

(1) To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay
the debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare
of the United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be
uniform throughout the United States.

(2) To borrow money on the credit of the United States.

(3) To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the
several States, and with the Indian tribes.

(4) To establish an uniform rule of naturalization and uniform
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States.

(5) To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures.

(6) To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities
and current coin of the United States.

(7) To establish post-offices and post-roads.

(8) To promote the progress of science and useful arts by secur-
ing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to
their respective writings and discoveries,

(9) To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court

(10) To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the
high seas, and offenses against the law of nations.

(11) To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and
make rules concerning captures on land and water.

(12) To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money
to that use shall be for a longer term than two years.

(13) To provide and maintain a navy.

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(14) To makes rules for the government and regulation of the
land and naval forces.

(15) To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws
of the Union, suppress insurrection, and repel invasions.

(16) To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the mili-
tia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the
service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the
appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia
according to the discipline prescribed by Congress.

(17) To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over
such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession
of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat
of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like au-
thority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature
of the State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts,
magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; And

(18) To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for car-
rying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers
vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States,
or in any department or officer thereof.

RESTRAINTS FEDERAL AND STATE

Sec. 9. [(I) The migration or importation of such persons
as any of the States now existing shall think proper to
admit shall not he prohibited by the Congress prior to the
year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty
may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten
dollars for each person.] ^

(2) The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus-
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety
may require it.

(3) No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed.

(4) No capitation or other direct tax (except income)'" shall be
laid, unless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore
directed to be taken.

(5) No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any
State.

(6) No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or
revenue to the ports of one State over those of another, nor shaU

'obsolete since 1808.
Insert. See Amendment XVI.

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vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay
duties in another.

(7) No money shall be drawn from the Treasury but in consequence
of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account
of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published
from time to time.

(8) No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States.
And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall,
without the consent of the Congress, acceptofany present, emolument,
office, or title of any kind whatever from any king, prince, or foreign
state.

Sec. 10. (1) No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or
confederation, grant letters of marque and reprisal, coin money, emit
bills of credit, make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in
payment of debts, pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law
impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility.

(2) No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any
imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso-
lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws, and the net produce
of all duties and imposts, laid by any State on imports or exports,
shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States; and all
such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress.

(3) No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty
of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into
any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign
power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded or in such imminent
danger as will not admit of delay.

ARTICLE II
THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT

Section 1. (1) The executive power shall be vested in a President
of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the
term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for
the same term, be elected as follows:

(2) Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legislature
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number
of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be entitled in
the Congress; but no Senator or Representative, or person holding an
office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an
elector. '^

See Amendment XIV, Section 3.

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(3) The electors shall meet in their respective States and vote
by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an
inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of
votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and trans-
mit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States,
directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre-
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes shall
be the President, if such number be a majority of the whole
number of electors appointed; and if there be more than one
who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes,
then the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by
ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a ma-
jority, then from the five highest on the list the said House shall,
in like manner, choose the President. But in choosing the Presi-
dent the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from
each State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall
consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the States,
and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice.
In every case, after the choice of the President, the person hav-
ing the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the
Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who
have equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot
the Vice-President. "

(4) The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors,
and the day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be
the same throughout the United States.

(5) No person except a natural born citizen [or a citizen of the
United States at the time of the adoption of this Consti-
tution]'^ shall be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any
person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age
of thirty-five years and been fourteen years a resident within the
United States."

(6) In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of
the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President, and the
Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resigna-

'^ Supplanted by Amendment Xll.
"Obsolete.
See Amendment XIV, Section 3.

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tion, or inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring
what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act
accordingly until the disability be removed or a President shall be
elected.

(7) The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a
compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished during
the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not
receive within that period any other emolument from the United
States or any of them.

(8) Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the
following oath or affirmation:

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the
office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my
ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United
States."

Sec. 2. (1) The President shall be commander-in-chief of the
Army and Navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several
States, when called into the actual service of the United States; he
may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of
the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of
their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves
and pardons for offenses against the United States, except in cases of
impeachment.

- (2) He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the
Senate, to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and con-
sent of the Senate shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers
and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of
the United States whose appointments are not herein otherwise pro-
vided for, and which shall be established by law; but the Congress
may by law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they
think proper in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the
heads of departments.

(3) The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may
happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions
Which will expire at the end of their next session.

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress informa-
tion of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration
such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on
extraordinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and
in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of
adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think

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proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he
shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall com-
mission all the officers of the United States.

Sec. 4. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the
United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for. and
conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misde-
meanors.

ARTICLE III

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested
in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress
may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the
Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good
behavior and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a com-
pensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in

office.

Sec. 2. (1) The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law
and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United
States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their au-
i^^itj^;; <K^ ^U (&csm af^cting anilbaissadgn%, wfSwv y^^Mc immst£TS,
and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to
controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to con-
troversies between two or more States; — between a State and citi-
zens of another State; — between citizens of different States;
between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of
different States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and
foreign states, — citizens or subjects.

(2) In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and
consuls and those in which a State shall be party, the Supreme Court
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before men-
tioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as
to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as
the Congress shall make.

(3) The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall
be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said
crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within
any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress
may by law have directed.

Sec. 3. (1) Treason against the United States shall consist only
in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving

See Amendment XI.

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them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless
on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confes-
sion in open court.

(2) The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood,
or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted.

INTERSTATE AND FEDERAL RELATIONS

ARTICLE IV

RELATION OF THE STATES TO EACH OTHER

Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to
the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State.
And the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which
such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect
thereof.

Sec. 2. (1) The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all
privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States.

(2) A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State,
shall, on demand of the Executive authority of the State from which
he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction
of the crime.

(3) [No person held to service or labor in one State, under
the laws thereof, escaping into another shall, in consequence
of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such
service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the
party to whom such service or labor may be due.]

16

RELATION OF THE UNITED STATES TO STATES AND

TERRITORIES

I

Sec. 3. (1) New States may be admitted by the Congress into
this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the
jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be formed by the
junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the con-
sent of the Legislatures of the States concerned, as well as of the
Congress.

(2) The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other prop-
erty belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitu-

'" Obsolete.

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tion shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United
States, or of any particular State.

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this
Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of
them against invasion, and, on application of the Legislature, or of
the Executive (when the Legislature can not be convened), against
domestic violence.

GENERAL PROVISIONS

ARTICLE V

PROVISION FOR AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it
necessary, shall propose amendments this Constitution, or, on the
application of the Legislatures of two-thirds of the several States,
shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which in either
case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Con-
stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the
several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one
or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress;
provided [that no amendment which may be made prior to
the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any
manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the Ninth Sec-
tion of the First Article; and]'' that no State, without its con-
sent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate.

ARTICLE VI

NATIONAL DEBTS

(1) All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the
adoption of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United
States under this Constitution as under the Confederation.

SUPREMACY OF THE NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

(2) This Constitution and the laws of the United States which
shall be made in pursuance thereof and all treaties made, or which
shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be
the supreme law of the land; and the judges in every State shall be
bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State
to the contrary notwithstanding.

TT

Obsolete

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PLEDGE— NO RELIGIOUS TEST

(3) The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the
members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and
judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States,
shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution;
but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any
office or public trust under the United States.

ARTICLE Vn

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient
for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so
ratifying the same.

Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States present
the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord one thou-
sand seven hundred and eighty-seven and of the independence of the
United States of America the twelfth. In witness whereof we have
hereunto subscribed our names,

George Washington, President

and delegate from Virginia

NEW HAMPSHIRE

MASSACHUSETTS

CONNECTICUT

NEW YORK
NEW JERSEY

PENNSYLVANIA

John Langdon
Nicholas Oilman

Nathaniel Gorham
RufusKing

William Samuel Johnson
Roger Sherman

Alexander Hamilton

William Livingston
David Brearley
William Paterson
Jonathan Dayton

BenjaminFranklin
Thomas Mifflin
Robert Morris
George Clymer
Thomas Fitzsimmons
Jared Ingersoll
James Wilson
Gouverneur Morris

140

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MARYLAND

VIRGINIA

NORTH CAROLINA

SOUTH CAROLINA
GEORGIA

CITIZENSHIP

George Read
Gunning Bedford
John Dickinson
Richard Bassett
Jacob Broom

James McHenry

Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer

Daniel Carroll

John Blair
James Madison

William Blount
Richard Dobbs Spaight
Hugh Williamson

John Rutledge

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney

Charles Pinckney

Pierce Butler

William Few
Abraham Baldwin

TM 3000-25
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Delegates Edmund Randolph and George Mason of Virginia and
Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts were present on the last day of the
Convention but refused to sign the Constitution.

The following delegates were not present on the last day of the
Convention, but a goodly portion of them were in favor of the Con-
stitution: W. Oliver Ellsworth of Connecticut; William Churchill
Houston of New Jersey; John Caleb Strong of Massachusetts; Wil-
liam Pierce and William Houston of Georgia; William Richardson
Davie and Alexander Martin of North Carolina; James McClurg and
George Wythe of Virginia; Robert Yates and W. John Lansing
of New York; and John Francis Mercer and Luther Martin of
Maryland.

Many people seem to have the impression that John Han-
cock, John Adams, Thomas Jefferson, and Patrick Henry
were delegates to the Constitutional Convention, but none
of them were.

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AMENDMENTS
(The first ten, proposed September 25, 1789; adopted June 15, 1790)

ARTICLEI

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re-
ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the
freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peace-
ably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of
grievances.

ARTICLE 11

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free
State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be
infringed.

ARTICLE III

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house with-
out the consent of the owner; nor in time of war but in a manner to
be prescribed by law.

ARTICLE IV

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be
violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup-
ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place
to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.

ARTICLE V

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in-
famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand
jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor
shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in
jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case
to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or
property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be
taken for public use, without just compensation.

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AwncLi! VI

In aU criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district
shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of
the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the
witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining
witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his
defense.

ARTICLE Vll

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of
the United States than according to the rules of the common law.

ARTICLE Vin

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed,
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted.

ARTICLE IX

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not
be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people.

ARTICLE X

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution,
nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States
respectively, or to the people.

ARTICLE XI

(Proposed September 6, 1794; adopted January 8, 1798)

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against
one of the United States by citizens of another State, or by citizens
or subjects of any foreign state.

(This amendment modifies paragraph I, section 2, of Article III.)

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ARTICLE XII

(Proposed December 12, 1803; adopted September 25, 1804)

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by
ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom at least shall
not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they shall
name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in.
distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President; and they
shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of
all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes
for each, which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed,
to the seat of the Government of the United States, directed, to the
President of the Senate; the President of the Senate shall, in the
presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the
certificates, and the votes shall then be counted; the person having
the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President,
if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors ap-
pointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons
having the highest numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those
voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose
immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the Presi-
dent, the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each
State having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a
member or members from two-thirds of the States, and a majority of
all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of
Representatives shall not choose a President, whenever the right of
choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March
next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in
the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President.
The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President
shall be the Vice-President if such number be a majority of the
whole number of electors appointed, and if no person have a
majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list the Senate
shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose shall
consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a
majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But
no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall
be eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States.

(This amendment supplants paragraph 3, section 1, of Article II.)

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ARTICLE XIII

(Proposed February 1, 1865; adopted December 18, 1865)

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a
punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly con-
victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to
their jurisdiction.

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
appropriate legislation.

ARTICLE XIV
(Proposed June 16, 1866; adopted July 21, 1868)

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States,
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United
States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or
enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities
of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any
person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor
deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the
laws.

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several
States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole
number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But
when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for
President and Vice President of the United States, Representatives
in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of a State, or the
members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male
inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens
of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participa-
tion in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein
shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male
citizen shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one
years of age in such State.

(Sections 1 and 2 of this amendment modify paragraph 3, section 2, of
Article I.)

Sec. 3. No person shall be a Senator, or Representative in Con-
gress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office,
civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who,
having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature.

110834°— 28 10

145

2000^25

CITIZENSHIP

or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the
Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection
or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies
thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house,
remove such disability.

(Section 3 of this amendment supplements paragraph 2, section 2, of Article
I; paragraph 3, section 3, of Article I; paragraph 2, section 1, of Article II;
and, paragraph 5, section 1, of Article II.)

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States,
authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion,
shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State
shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insur-
rection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the
loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and
claims shall be held illegal and void.

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate
legislation, the provisions of this article.

ARTICLE XV

(Proposed February 27, 1869; adopted March 30, 1870)

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall
not be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any State, on
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude.

Sec. 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by
appropriate legislation.

(This amendment supplements paragraph 1, section 2, of Article I.)

ARTICLE XVI

(Proposed July 31, 1909; adopted February 25, 1913)

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes,
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the
several States, and without regard to any census or enumeration.

(This amendment modifies paragraph 3, section 2, of Article I, and para-
graph 4, section 9, of Article I.)

ARTICLE XVII

(Proposed May 15, 1912; adopted May 81, 1913)

(1) The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two
Senators from each State, elected by the people thereof for six years,

146

TM 2000-35

OITIZENSHIP

and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall
have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous
branch of the State legislatures.

(Paragraph 1 of this amendment modifies paragraph 1, section 3, of Article I,
and paragraph 1, section 4, of Article I.)

(2) When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in
the Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of
election to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any
State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appoint-
ments until the people fill the vacancies by election, as the legislature
may direct.

(Paragraph 2 of this amendment modifies paragraph 2, section 3, of Article I.)

(3) This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the
election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as
part of the Constitution.

ARTICLE XVIII

(Proposed December 19, 1917; adopted January 29, 1919)

Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within,
the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the
United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for
beverage purposes is hereby prohibited.

Sec. 2. The Congress and the several States shall have concurrent
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation.

Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been
ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of
the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years
from the date of submission hereof to the States by the Congress.

ARTICLE XIX

(Proposed June 6, 1919; adopted August 26, 1920)

The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be
denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account

of sex.

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate

legislation.

(This amendment supplements paragraph 1, section 2, of Article I.)

147i

I 2000-^5

CITIZENSHIP

On October 22, 1787, a little over a month after the Constitution
was adopted by the Convention at Philadelphia, the hard-headed and
many-sided Benjamin Franklin, when he was nearly 82 years of age,
wrote a suggestion to a friend in Europe, which is still worthy of
consideration, as follows:

"/ send you enclosed the proposed new Federal Constitution
for these States. I was engaged four months of the last sum-
mer in the Convention that formed it. It is now sent by Con-
§r«9f to the geveral States fm- i!JMr conftrnmtimt. If it aueeeeth,

I do not see why you might not in Europe form a Federal Union
and one grand republic of all its different states and kingdoms;
by means of a like convention; for we had many interests to
reconcile. "

"Whatever may be the judgment pronounced on the compe-
tency of the architects of the Constitution, or whatever may be
the destiny of the edifice prepared by them, I feel it a duty to
express my profound and solemn conviction, derived from my
intimate opportunity of observing and appreciating the views
of the Convention collectively and individually, that there never
was an assembly of men, charged with a great and arduous trust,
who were more pure in their motives, or more exclusively or
anxiously devoted to the object committed to them. " — James
Madison.

"Hold on, my friends, to the Constitution of your country, and
the government established under it. Perform those duties
which are present, plain and positive. Respect the laws of your
country, uphold our American institutions as far as you are able,
consult the chart and the compass: as if our united constitu-
tional American liberty were in some degree committed to your
charge, keep her, so far as it depends on you, clear of the
breakers" — DanielWebster.

Francois Guizot, the French philosopher, historian, and prime
minister, once asked James Russell Lowell, noted author and
poet, "How long do you think the American Republic will
endure?" Lowell replied, "So long as the ideas of its founders
continue to be dominant. "

148

TM 2000-25

OITIZBNSHIP
BIBLIOGRAPHY

"The Federalists" Hamilton, Madison, Jay.

"The Constitution Explained" Harry Atwood.

"Formation of the Union of the American

states" superintendent of Documents,

Government Printing Office,
Washington, D.C.

"The Constitution of the United States, Its

Sources and Application" Thomas J. Norton.

"History of the United States" McMaster.

149

INDEX

Page

Allegiance 12

Amendments. (See Constitution.)

America:

Ideals 14, 22, 28-30, 71, 114-117

Development 28-32, 105

Natural resources 32

High standards of living 63

Not militaristic 112

Not imperialistic 112

American Bill of Rights 94

American flag:

Significance of elements 119

Progress of flag 120

Allocation of stars 120

Kinds of national flags 121

Laws regarding 121

Method of display 122

International usage 123

General uses 123-124

Salutes to flag 125

Army — Regular 1-115

Articles of Confederation 12, 18

Atwood, Harry 92, 101, 127-128

B

Blackstone 76-79

Boone, Daniel 47

Brewer, ludge 14-15

C

CaKfbrnia 50^1

Capital 20-22,60

Character 27-32, 71

Ethical 33-35

Foundation of 32

Greatest asset of America 26

National 105

Physical 32

Political 35

Checks and balances 96-97

161

INDEX

Citizenship:
American

Definition

Dual

Economic
Foundation of
Origin of

phase

Page

5, 9-12

.9

13

4,68
2
9

PoUtical phase 4, 68

Privileges of 23, 33, 72

Social phase 3, 68

Responsibilities of 1, 5, 14, 23, 31, 103-108

Rights of 2-3, 18 94-95

Suffrage 13, 105

Training 2-6

Civil War. (See Rights.)
CiviUzation, development of 16-17, 20

Clark, George Rogers
Class consciousness
C. M. T. C.

Collectivism
Colonists:
Character
Chief pursuits
Federation of

48

23, 34

1

66

of..

.27-32, 60,

58
58

Ideals of 28

Independence of 75, 94

Commerce 18, 33-35, 58

Communism 66, 75-84, 93, 99-101, 113

Abolition of family 67

Denial of personal rights 66

Equality of condition 66

Propaganda 78

Religion outlawed 67

(See Pacifism.)

Community relationships 17

Constitution 12, 13-14, 18,

42, 43, 44, 58, 69, 76, 77, 78-79, 93, 94, 94-96, 98, 1 1 1, 1 16, 127

Compromises 96

Guaranties 13, 19, 68, 78, 110

Knowledge of, necessary 101

Preamble 84-88

Sources of 83

Superior to all other forms of government 92

Unwritten 93

Written 93

Constitutional Convention 42-84-88

Cooley, Judge Thomas N 96

Coolidge, Calvin. 32, 116

Cooperation 27, 34

Coordinated action 17

Cotton gin 51

152

moEx

D Page

Declaration of Independence 43, 75, 77, 83, 94, 108, 117

Dicey, Prof. A. V 97

E

Economicdevelopment 58-63

Education. (See Illiteracy.)

Emerson, Ralph Waldo 72

" '■ 77

53

54

87

Equality.

Erie Canal

Ericsson, Capt. John
Evarts, Wilham M
Executive Department.

(See Government.)

Franklin, Benjamin

Free land

Fremont, Gen. John
Fulton, Robert

G

C.

Gorgas, Gen. William
Government:

American philosophy

Comparative forms of. (See Representative government.)

Constitution of the United States. (See Constitution.)

Early forms of

Executive department

Judicial department

Legislative department

Self-government

Guizot, Francois

41

59-60

50

52

..55

H

Hamilton, Alexander

Harland,

Hart, A.

Henry, Patrick

Holmes, Justice

House of Representatives

Justice..
B

88, 111

90
96
96
96

.2, 3, 30, 61
148

114
18
29
84
79
96

I

Illinois

Illiteracy

Immigration ,

(See Revised Statutes.)
Independence

(See Declaration of Independence.)

Individual initiative

Individual responsibility

fSeeCitizenship.)

3,

107

. . . 5, 32, 100
10, 22, 24, 60, 100, 104

70, 74

2, 65, 73
5

163

INDEX

family

Individualistic government:

An American institution

Economic freedom

Political rights.:

Property rights

Protection to home and

Respect for religion

Industry .4, 19, 21, 51, 59, 60-64,

(See Labor.)
Instruction:

Methods

Outline

Refresher course

Supplemental

Time allotted

Interdependent relationships

Internationalism

International relationships. (See State Department.)
Interstate commerce

Page
68

68
68

70, 71, 72

6-8

J

Jackson, Andrew
Jefferson, Thomas
Judiciary, Federal

Kearney, Colonel
Keatwdkjfr

K

6

16-24
113

18

14

43
97

61

Labor. (See Industry.)

Law and order 106

Lewis and Clark expedition 49

Liberty 74-80, 111

Blessings of 87

Political 80

Safeguards. (See Declaration of Independence )

Lincoln, Abraham 14, 46, 77, 85, 88

Louisiana Purchase 44

M

Madison, James 12, 92, 93, 94, 113, 114, 115, 116, 148

Magna Charta 83

Marshall, John 42

Mexican War 60

Military policy of the United States 114

Militia. (See National Guard.)

Monroe, James 84

Morse, Samuel F. B. 63

Mutual relationships 17-18

154

INDEX

N Page

National defense. (See National Guard; Organized Reserves.)

National defense act 1, 87, 114

National Guard 115

Naturalization 10

Navy 55

Northwest Territory 47

Norton, Thomas J 83-84

Organized Reserves

116

Pacifism 113

Peace 19, 22, 35, 116

Pioneers:

Spirit 29,30,33

Achievements 39, 47-50

Population of United States
Powers of President of United States
Powers delegated to Congress
Powers reserved to State and people

Preparedness:

Agency for peace

Moral qualities

Preparation for leadership

Public opinion

Public service

Public utilities

22, 93
98
98
98

13,

116
117
113
107
106
21

Questionnaires

Q

66, 63, 72,

15, 24, 35,

I 101, 108, 117, 12^

R

Reed, Maj. Walter 55

Religion 31, 32, 67, 68

Religion and national defense 78

Representative government 90-101

Dangers to 3-4, 44, 99

Safeguards 5, 76, 100

Revised Statutes 12

Rights:

Persons

Press
Property
Religion
Speech

States

Roosevelt, Theodore

19

78
19
77
78

13

13, 19, 46

155

INDEX

S Pago

Sargent, John G 122

Senate 96

Separation of church and State 78;

Separation of powers 96

Sociahsm. (See Communism.)

State Department 19, 35, 114

Steam navigation 52;

Storrs, Doctor 30i

Supreme Court .42, 78, 94, 122

Swaney, Judge W. B lOT

T

Taylor, Hannis 43

Telegraph 53

Telephone 21

V

Virginia;

Bill of Rights 83

Statute of religious liberty 83

Vote, f See Suffrage.)

W

Warren (Massachusetts) Ill

Washington, George:

Leadership 39

Farewell Address 22, 40, 85, 97, 101, 106

Webster, Daniel 13, 32, 44 75, 80, 100, 101, 148

Reply to Hayne 45

Whitman, Rev. Marcus 49i

Whitney, EH 51

Winning of the West 46, 51, 60

Work. (See Winning of the West) ^ 30,57,66 71,79:

[A.G.01433(4-28-28).]i ' . . ^

BY ORDER OF THE SECRETARY OF WAR:

C. P. SUMMERALL,

Major General,
Chief of Staff..
OFFICIAL:

LUTZWAHL,. ■ ■

Major General,

The Adjutant General.

ADDITIONAL COPIES.

AT
30 CENTS PER COPY

156