Ceylon and its capabilities : an account of its natural resources, indigenous productions, and commercial facilities

II

CEYLON

AND ITS CAPABILITIES

AN ACCOUNT OF ITS

NATURAL RESOURCES, INDIGENOUS PRODUCTIONS,
AND COMMERCIAL FACILITIES

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CEYLON

AND ITS CAPABILITIES

AN ACCOUNT OF ITS

NATURAL RESOURCES, INDIGENOUS PRODUCTIONS,
AND COMMERCIAL FACILITIES

TO WHICH ARE ADDED

DETAILS OF ITS STATISTICS, PILOTAGE AND SAILING DIRECTIONS

AND

AN APPENDIX,

CONTAINING THE ROYAL CHARTER OF JUSTICE, THE KANDYAN CONVENTION OF 1815,
ORDINANCES OF THE COLONIAL GOVERNMENT ON VARIOUS Mm tERS CONNECTED
WITH THE COMMERCE OF THAT ISLAND, ETC. El

WITH PLAIN AND COLOURED ILLUSTRATIONS

J. W. BENNETT

ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES

NEW DELHI ★ MADRAS ★ 1998

ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES

* 31, HAUZ KHAS VILLAGE, NEW DELHI - 110016.

CABLE : ASIA BOOKS, PH. : 660187, 668594, FAX : 011-6852805

* 5. SRIPURAM FIRST STREET, MADRAS - 600014. PH. / FAX. : 8265040

First Published : London, 1843
AES Reprint : New Delhi, 1998
ISBN : 81-206-1168-3

Published by J. Jetley

for ASIAN EDUCATIONAL SERVICES

C-2/15, SDA New Delhi - 1 10016

Processed by Gautam Jetley

Printed at Subham Offset, Delhi - 1 10032

CEYLON

AND ITS CAPABILITIES;

AN ACCOUNT

OF ITS

NATURAL RESOURCES, INDIGENOUS PRODUCTIONS,
AND COMMERCIAL FACILITIES;

TU WHICH ARE ADDED

DETAILS OF ITS STATISTICS, PILOTAGE AND SAILING DIRECTIONS,

AND

AN APPENDIX,

0 7

CONTAINING THE ROYAL CHARTER OF JUSTICE, THE KANDYAN CONVENTION OF 1815, ORDINANCES OF THE
COLONIAL GOVERNMENT ON VARIOUS MATTERS CONNECTED WITH THE COMMERCE

OF THAT ISLAND, ETC. ETC.

WITH PLAIN AND COLORED ILLUSTRATIONS.

J. W. BENiVET T, E S Q., F. L. S.,

LATE CEYLON CIVIL ESTABLISHMENT.

LONDON:

\YM H. ALLEN AND CO., 7, LEADENHALL-STREET.

1843

TO

THE RIGHT HONORABLE

THE EARL OF RIPON,

D.C.L., F.R.S., H.S., R.G.S.,

PRESIDENT OF HER MAJESTY’S BOARD OF CONTROL FOR THE AFFAIRS OF INDIA.

PRESIDENT OF THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF LITERATCRE,

&c. Nic. 6cc.

UNDER WHOSE BENIGN ADMINISTRATION OF THE COLONIES, BETWEEN THE Y EARS 1830 Sc 1833. INCLUSIVELY.
THE MONOPOLIES WHICH THE PORTUGUESE AND DUTCH HAD ORIGINALLY ESTABLISHED,

AND THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT HAD CONTINUED,

IN THE ISLAND OF CEYLON,

FROM THE PERIOD OF ITS CESSION IN THE YEAR 1796, TO THE YEAR 1832,

WERE ABOLISHED ;

A MOST INTOLERABLE INCUBUS UPON NATIVE INDUSTRY REMOVED ;

THE LABOURING CLASSES RELIEVED FROM THE OPPRESSIVE SYSTEM OF FEUDAL SERVICE ;
EXTENSIVE REDUCTIONS EFFECTED IN THE PUBLIC CIVIL DEPARTMENTS :
AGRICULTURE EXTENDED ; COMMERCE PROTECTED ; THE REVENUE INCREASED ;

\ND THE MOST IMPORTANT INTERESTS OF THAT INVALUABLE COLONY, EITHER PROMOTED OR SECURED

THIS VOLUME,

UPON

“CEYLON AND ITS CAPABILITIES,”

IS HUMBLY DEDICATED,

BY

HIS LORDSHIP’S VERY FAITHFUL AND MOST OBEDI' NT SERVANT,

LONDON, JUNE 20th, 1813.

THE AUTHOR.

PREFACE.

Whatever original materials, whether derived from my own observations or the
communications of others, during a long residence at Ceylon, may have been employed in
the compilation of the following pages, it would have been difficult to have satisfied
myself, or to answer the anticipated purpose of my undertaking, if I had not also
drawn largely from the best ancient and modern historians, who have (partly) preceded
me in the same route ; although without having the same object in view ; — that of drawing
the attention of British capitalists to the most important and valuable of all the insular
possessions of the Imperial crown.

Ceylon, though comparatively but little known, is pre-eminent in natural resources, and
abounds in all the necessaries and most of the luxuries that minister to the gratification of
human nature. Its vast importance in every sense, political, fiscal, agricultural, and com¬
mercial, has hitherto been too much overlooked by capitalists ; a neglect, which, I would
fain hope, has arisen from the want of detailed information, or the pressure of other
objects, apparently more interesting, only because better understood.

The object of my humble description is, to submit to public view the great capabili¬
ties of this magnificent island ; — its fertile soil, indigenous vegetable productions, including
dyes, medicinal plants, gums, and naturalized exotics ; its minerals ; wild and domestic
animals ; varieties of timber for construction and ornament ; fisheries ; immense uncultivated
tracts of arable and other lands ; employed and unemployed population ; and its exports,
already large, and easily to be increased.

To these, I have added my humble suggestions for establishing farms for the improve¬
ment of the native breed of cattle and other domestic animals, and for supplying the Royal
Navy and Commercial Marine with stock of every description ; factories for curing the
varieties of useful fishes which abound on the coasts, and for the manufacture of important
articles of commerce, easily obtainable, but now altogether neglected, — all offering ample
employment and prompt returns for British capital and enterprise : and I have not omitted
to point out how a gratuitous supply of Teak timber may be provided for the future
exigencies of the Royal Navy.

PREFACE.

And further, in the hope of affording all useful and practical information, for merchant*,
visitors, naval and military officers, emigrants, manufacturers, and colonists, 1 have detailed
the statistics, &c., of the island, including climate, provinces, judicial circuits, revenue, eccle¬
siastical, judicial, civil, and military establishments, missions, schools, public societies, and
charities, native festivals, and the features of the country and roads; together with pilotage
and sailing directions along the coast and into the harbours and roads of the island, which
I have extracted, at large, from the last edition of ‘"'Captain James Horsburgh’s Directory,
improved from the correct surveys of Captain David Ross, marine surveyor to the Honorable
the East India Company,” and published in the year I83G ; and 1 am not aware, that any
thing strictly connected with the object in view, has been omitted.

I have also added the latitude and longitude of various given points in the island,
derived from the surveys of James Twynam, Esq., master attendant at Galle, and of the
late Richard Brook, Esq., master attendant at Trincomale.

I have preferred citing the best authorities now extant upon the mineralogy of the island,
to giving my own plainer and humbler remarks, because the latter must altogether have
excluded scieutiiic information upon this important branch of natural history.

In conclusion, I thankfully acknowledge that I have derived much of my information from
the priest and the chief, the merchant and the agriculturist, the astrologer and the cullef
of simples, or doctor, the mechanic and -the husbandman, the sea fisherman and the humbler
angler for the finny tribes of the fresh-water streams and taluks ; and, in acknowledging my
obligations to my several authorities, both ancient and modern, dead and living, I hope
I have done them all the justice in my power, by this candid avowal.

The Author.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP. I.

< biography oi Ceylon and its Dependencies — Ceylon partially known to the Romans — Its various names —
Position upon 'the Geographical Lotos of the Hindoos — Tradition of its separation from Hindustan —
Adam's bridge — Satyrs — Garden of Eden — M. Toumefort — Variety of climate. — Pedrotalagalla — Ap¬
pearance of the island from the sea — Monsoons and their causes — General salubrity of the interior
i. printout upon agriculture — Area of the island — Census of 1835 .

CHAP. II.

Slavery — The Honorable the Chief Justice originates the preparatory measure towards its abolition, and is
zealously supported by the Governor — Proprietors of slaves tender the manumission of all slave children
horn on and after the Prince Regent's birth-dav, 1816 — No part of the Parliamentary grant of £20,000,000
appropriated to Ceylon — Paternal care of slaves — James Sutherland, Esq. — James Nicholas Moovaart,
Esq. — Foreign employes — Peculations and perjuries — Result of individual comments upon the re¬
employing or pensioning convicted peculators — Female children of slaves enfranchised by the Govern¬
ment — Ordinance for the more efficient protection of slaves . . .

CHAP. III.

Facilities of irrigation — Culture of rice inadequate to the consumption — Principal rivers — Analysis of their
waters — Second-rate rivers — Inferior streams — Mountains — Artificial lakes — Suggestions for the introdue.
non of Hindoo agriculturists — Ralph Backhouse, Esq. — Kandelle lake — King Malta Sen, A. D. 27-'5 —
Dedication of lands to temples — Oppressive system of Rajah-Karia, or royal service, abolished in 1832,
bv the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Goderich, His Majesty's principal Secretary of State for the
Colonies — Restoration of the ancient tanks suggested — Amount paid for rice to French colonies in
1^40 — Suggestions for a general survey of lands adapted to the culture of rice, and for the non-removal
uf Government Provincial Agents . . .

CHAP. IV.

Fiscal division of the island — Variety of soil — Sugar speculation at Kaltura fails — Successful introduction
of the sugar-cane into culture at Koondesale — Revenue — Exports — Imports — Suggestions for relieving
:he mercantile community from great delays and vexations — Colombo imports in 1840 and 1841, and
increase of exports — Weights and measures — Dutch measures — Singhalese specification of the nature
and tenure of lands . . . . .

*

11.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP. V.

Local revenue first improved during Sir George Murray’s administration of the Colonies — Lord Viscount
Goderich renders it permanent — Governor Sir Robert Wllmot Horton — Civil expenditure reduced — Chiel
Secretary’s office reformed — Governor hanged in effigy — China carriers — Restoration of the Civil and
Widows’ Pension Funds suggested — Lord Goderich’s liberality insufficiently appreciated — Civil and mili¬
tary pay and pensions contrasted — Revenue and expenditure — Imposts — Excess of revenue — Apathy to
the culture of cotton — Suggestions for the formation of government cotton plantations, and for training
females and children to habits of industry and profitable employment — Trade of Ceylon quadrupled
since the acquisition of Kandy — Prices of British manufactures and colonial produce contrasted — Native
partiality for British productions — Exceptions — Example, and reductions in taxation and customs’ duties,
requisite to stimulate the Singhalese to industry and agricultural improvement — Anticipated results to
the local revenue and home manufacturer . . .

CHAP. VI.

Judicial division of tlie island — District courts — Charter of justice — Suggestions for the appointment of
barristers as superior district judges — Supreme court of judicature — Rank of judges — Proctors for paupers
and prisoners — Queen’s advocate — Laws of bankruptcy and cessio bonorum — No jury in civil actions —
Jury decides by the majority in criminal cases— Judges — Native attachment to trial by jury — Irregular
mode of administering oaths to Buddhists — Hallan — Dutch method of swearing Buddhist witnesses —
Buddhist priests, how sworn in courts of justice — Extraordinary coincidence respecting the Aspen ( Populus
tremula) and Bogaha, or sacred fig trees ( Ficus religiosa ) . . . .

CHAP. VII.

Ecclesiastical establishment — Suggestions for a Ceylon Bishopric — Refonned church of Holland — Portu¬
guese mission — Papal mission, and suggestions for its removal — Baptist mission — Wesleyan mission —
American mission — Church of England mission — Caste of Sorcerers — Conversion to Mahommedanism —
Military establishment — Civil branch of the Ordnance — Pay and island allowances — Batta to Naval
officers — Staff allowances . . .

CHAP. VIII.

Introduction of Cinnamon into Europe — Tribute to the king of Portugal — Cinnamon first cultivated by the
Dutch — Plantations — Monopolies — The Right Honorable Lord Yiscount Goderich abolishes the cinnamon
monopoly, and its numerous penalties and oppressions — Jackdaw — Cinnamon pigeon — Varieties of the
cinnamon laurel — Nepenthes distillatoria, Gloriosa superba, Ixora eoccinea, Vinca rosa — Soil of the
Colombo cinnamon plantations — Chalias, or cinnamon peelers — Mode of ascertaining the maturity, and
barking, assorting, and tasting cinnamon— Prices of cinnamon lands in 1840— Prices of the spice — Reve¬
nue from cinnamon — Cinnamon oil, water, and candles — Clove oil made from the cinnamon leaf — Black
pepper indispensable to the preservation of cinnamon — Cinnamon breezes bubbles of the imagination —
Pandanus odoratissimus — Arum foetidum — Hoax upon Griffins .

CHAP. IX.

ulture of Indigo entirely neglected — Apathy of the Government and individuals respecting it — Indigenous
indigo — None exported since 1794 — Tangalle, in the Southern Province, abounds with it, and offers great
facilities for establishing a factory — Mr. Fawkener, a Bengal indigo planter, proposes to establish an indigo
farm and manufactory, and is refused — Extraordinary hypothesis — Indigo exported by the Dutch — Pro-

• Ill Ik

*« i i i • • i • M lit . oiii|jan V I' •iiiiniH .m .j ^|» •mu .. . V|
removal — Abandonment ol the scheme- Foecula of the mdigo leal a valuable manure — Madung Appo-
Speciraens of indigo made from other indigenous plants — Best mode of selecting indigo seeds — Methoci>
of manufacturing indigo — Estimated cost of an indigo factory — Indigo sown every second year — Culture
of coffee — Land not in the same insecure state in Ceylon as in India — Hints to intending emigrants —
Suggestions to Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for the Colonies for encouraging the cultivation ol
indigo — Emigration to Ceylon and Australia contrasted . . 73

CHAP. X.

Palms of Ceylon — Description of the Coco-nut tree ( Cocos nudfera ) — Toddy drawing, from personal obser¬
vation — Sinnet for sailors’ hats — Sura, or palm wine — Varieties and domestic uses of the Cocus nucifera —
Native method of planting it, and superstitious use of salt — Fronds — Timber — Hiromane — Produce of a
coco-nut tree — Medicinal properties of the coco-nut palm — Extraordinary notions about its superabun¬
dance — Facility of planting it — Coco-nut oil used in the manufacture of soap and candles — Suggestions
for extending the culture of the coco-nut palm in the West Indian and West African colonies . 81

CHAP. XI.

Areka Palm ( Areca Catechu) — Nut anti-scorbutic — Spathe — Its uses — Properties of the nut — Suggestions
for condensing the dye — Heat generated by the nuts — Terra Japonica — Areka wood excellent for bows —
Palmyra ( Borasms Jiabelliformis) — Buddhist priests and their fans — Native books — Palm oil — Kellingo —

Palmyra toddy and jaggery — Timber - Sugar Palm ( Caryota ureas) — Fishing rods — Sago — Elephant

bows and nooses — Toddy and jaggery — Hookahs — Calabashes - Talipat Palm ( Corypha umbraculi-

fera, L,, and Licuala spinosa of Thunberg)— -Talipat leaf, and its uses — Conflicting accounts of the report
caused by the bursting of the spathe — Talipat sago — Talipat palm at Colombo — M. de la Loubere’s notice
of the uses of the talipat fan by the priests of Siam — Talipat plants sent to England by the author- —
Tavelam tents — Palms from Mauritius introduced into Ceylon — Phoenix sylvestris — Dwarf palm . 89

CHAP. XII.

Digression — Extraordinary effeminacy of the Singhalese men — Women — Betel — Kissing — Female dress —
Inferiority of Singhalese to Malabar women — Costume of Headmen — Mr. John Brexius de Zielfa — Re¬
sult of his assumption of shoes and stockings — Predictions fulfilled — King William IV. — Lord Viscount
Goderich — Sir Robert Wilmot Horton — Petty tyranny — Theatricals — Amphitheatre — Tragedy — Coco¬
nut lamps — Native music — Actors’ dresses — Native musical instruments . * . . . . 97

CHAP. XIII.

Singhalese proverbs — Dutch language — C. A. Prins, Esq. — Prevalence of the Hindo-Portuguese language —
Native botanist and doctor — His extraordinary cure of blindness — Obligations to him — Major General
Thomas Hardwicke, Bengal artillery — Pariar dog nuisance — Precautions against hydrophobia — John
Tranchell, Esq. — Sudden entry of a rabid dog during dinner — The host’s coolness, and assurance of curing

his guests if bitten - Cattle — Swine — Improvements suggested — Rabbits— Poultry — Seir fish — Shell

fish — Turtle — Establishment of farms and agricultural prizes suggested — The Singhalese a litigious na¬
tion — Pointed knives illegal — A low-caste girl nearly murdered for covering her bosom with a kerchief ... 108

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP. XIV.

Exaggerated stories and Singhalese catalogue of Snakes — Reported transformation of the Coluber Naja, L.,
corroborated — Buddhists do not kill the sacred snake but send it to sea without a chance of escape — Charles
P. Layard, Esq. — Cobra di Capello deprived of its eyes by mice — Caution to purchasers of snakes — Samp
Wallahs and their exhibitions — Providential escape — Successful application of Eau de Luce, and of nitric
and muriatic acid, in the cure of snake bites — John Tranchell, Esq. — Coroner’s reason for not holding an
inquest — Hypothesis respecting the paucity of snakes in the Mabagampattoo — Viverra Ichneumon, its
mode of attacking the Cobra di Capello — Plants named as antidotes for the bite of venomous snakes —
More caution requisite against land leeches than against snakes — Cobra di Capello in bouses — Charming

CHAP. XV.

Indigenous vegetables, valuable in themselves,, but their culture altogether neglected — The French manage
these things better — Singhalese list of forest timber trees — Bombyx pentandrum — Asclepias gigantea —
Annatto — Plants producing substitutes for flax — Cord from the Musa sylvestris — His Grace the Dnke of
Portland — Crotalaria juncea — Hemp — Laccadive and Ceylon Koir — Suggestions for improving the latter —
Mulberry trees — Silk worms — Cassada — Canna glauca— Arrow root — Turmeric — Ginger — Sun-flower —
Elastic gum trees— Gum Arabic tree — Gum of the Enphorbium antiquorum unnoticed in the exports ...

CHAP. XVI.

Vegetable productions of Ceylon continued— Cachew' gum — Sir Joseph Banks endeavours to find a substi¬
tute for foreign gums, during the war with the French Empire, at which time Ceylon might have supplied
the British market — Gum lac tree, not the Lacsha of Bengal — Singhalese lackerers — Lac insect not indi¬
genous— Suggestions for making the vegetable lac of Ceylon equally profitable with the Coccus lacca—
Gum Tacahama — Sap of the bread-fruit tree a substitute for pitch and caoutchouc — Gumboge — Introduction
of the coffee tree from Java — Governor Zwaardenkroom — Louis XIV. — Coffee exported from Colombo in
1840 — High duties on cinnamon injurious to that trade, by encouraging the importation of Java cin¬
namon, under the name of Cassia lignea, at a less duty — Java cinnamon the produce of plants clandestinely
obtained from Ceylon — Suggestions for assorting the cinnamon imported as Cassia lignea, and protecting
the revenue — Cotton neglected in Ceylon, whilst the East India Company extends its culture in India —
Culture of opium introduced .

CHAP. XVII.

Extreme opinions as regards the Fruits of the island— Ingrafting fruit trees unknown to the natives — Native
Materia Medica and medical books — Naturalized Exotic Fruits — Indigenous Fruits . . .

CHAP. XVIII.

Indigenous Fruits continued — Esculent vegetables— Suggestions to the English market gardener — Difference
between the arrow root of Ceylon and Bombay — Guinea or pigeon pea supplied to the Royal navy, in the
Indian seas, under the name of Dhol, as a substitute for pease . . .

CHAP. XIX.

M estem Province — Colombo — Master Attendant’s sailing directions to the anchorage — Sand bank — Drunken
sailor rock — Adam’s Peak — Pilotage — Fort — Queen’s house — Library — Officers of the garrison without
quarters — P arsees — Pettah — Schools — Hindo-Portuguese and Dutch families — Black-eyed belles — ►

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

v.

PAGE

Government Clerks — Garrison — Face of the country — Soil — Slave Island — Colombo Lake — Tamarind
tree — Panorama — Bazaars — Newspapers — Etiquette upon arrival — A British merchant — Horticultural
society — Mail coach establishment — Widows’ and Orphans’ Fund — Savings’ bank — -Charitable institutions 153

CHAP. XX.

Fishing boats — Their shape and swiftness — The fisheries among the most important of the capabilities of the
island — Regulation for encouraging the salting of fish an inadequate protection — Fish rents— Restrictions
upon fishermen— Suggestions to His Majesty’s Secretary for the Colonies, for increasing the sale of salt,
decreasing the expense of gathering it, reducing the price to the consumer, and encouraging settlers in the
Mahagampattoo for curing fish — Abolition of the Salt Monopoly suggested — Leways — Salt stealing —
Guards and sentinels — Salt stealers killed — Bullocks confiscated — Impressed salt gatherers — Adulteration
of salt — Expense of gathering and transmitting salt to Colombo— Price of salt — Importation of salt fish —

Coup de gra£e to salt-water invoices — Native process of salting fish objectionable — Suggestions for im¬
proving it — Proposed plan for curing fish by smoke — Salt fish from Europe and America — Fishes com¬
mon to the coasts of Ceylon . 161

CHAP. XXI.

Fresh-water fishes — First Portuguese factory — Colombo surrendered to the Dutch — Dutch capitulate to the
British — Absurd claim of Portugal to Colombo — Route to Kandy — Roads — Governor Sir Edward Baines
— Just tribute to his memory — Great mortality in forming the roads — Families consequently destitute —
Suggestions for relieving them — Hints to travellers — Best mode of travelling — Canteens — Incumbrances —
Chatty bath — Batta — Maxims for the tourist’s observance — Umbrella indispensable — Addition to its use¬
fulness — Mosquito — Northern route from Colombo to Negombo— Sailing directions . 169

CHAP. XXII.

Negombo an admirable site for grazing farms, for supplying Colombo, and Shipping, with butcher’s meat
and stock — Suggestions for supplying the Royal Navy with salted provisions — Naval dependence upon
Bengal for supplies — Ceylon capable of supplying provisions, boatswains’ and carpenters’ stores — Dutch
families — Native women — Rest-house— Wesleyan mission-house and chapel — Civil authorities — Medicinal
plants — Road to Kandy — Native pastimes — Route to Chilaw — Recreations for the naturalist and sports¬
man — Madampe — Pepper plantations — Game — Time of sowing and reaping — Chilaw — Sailing direc¬
tions — Manufacture of paper and cotton cloth — Escape from a leopard — Rajah Wanya, or Jungle King
plant — Artificial Leways . — . 177

CHAP. XXIII.

Putlam — Artificial salt pans — Face of the country — Native devoured by a crocodile— Living crocodile pre¬
sented to the author — Ceylon & Ganges crocodile— Mosque — Burial ground — Remarkable tree — Moorish
dance with double-edged swords — Tyre — Native vermicelli — Route to Kandy through Komegalle — Water
conveyance to Calpentyn and Karetivoe — Sailing directions — Farm of the Chink fishery — Its extent —
Uses of the chank shell, and reputed value of one with its valve opening to the right — Hint to the
naturalist — Calpentyn custom-house — The late Earl of St. Vincent’s maxim for naval officers no encou¬
ragement to honesty in civilians — Anecdote of a Provincial Judge — Pomparripo — Face of the country —
Wild animals — The great crane — Right Honorable Sir Alexander Johnston — Ancient tank of Bawale —
Singhalese records — Capabilities of the soil — Area and population of the Western Province .

*■ *

185

Vi.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP. XXIV.

Northern Province — Pomparripo river and village— Inhabitants — Capabilities of the province for supplying
the island with rice — Anticipated result of Hindoo immigration — Elementary improvements — Increase of
revenue from sea customs one certain result of Hindoo colonization— Depression of agriculture — Singha¬
lese landlords — Native proctors— A law in favor of primogeniture suggested — Padoua caste — Covia and
Nallua slaves— Headmen support caste from interest and prejudice — Penalty for assuming the rank of
Headmen — Kallaar pagoda — Ashes for money — Improvisatori — Scenery — Apician luxuries — Edible oyster
abundant, but neglected — A Singhalese mile — Jaffna moss — Hiruudo esculenta — Dutch partial to its nest
— Prepared Edible Swallow’s nest presented to His Majesty King George IV., who commands its im¬
mediate preparation — Sir Henry Halford’s communication to the Author, by command of His Majesty ...

CHAP. XXV.

The Kallaar river — Route to Kandy — Thomas Ralph Backhouse, Esq. — Ruins of Anarajahpoora, or Anara-
dahpoora — Pilgrimage from the Continent — Pearl Fishery, the rendezvous of adventurers, jugglers, and
thieves — Inspection of the pearl banks — Island of Cardiva a protection to the banks from the south-west
monsoon — Shark charmers — Roman Catholic superstition — Sharks — Boats — Divers — Objections to the
diving bell — Average daily produce of each boat — Kola, or leaf oyster — Betel oyster — Position of the
pearls— Pinna Marina — Insuperable difficulty of transferring the habitat of the pearl oyster — Methods of
clearing pearls — Ceylon pearl oyster ( Mytilus margaritifera) — Pearl oyster spawn — Pearls most esteemed
by the natives for their golden hue — Suggestions for disposing of the fishery by lottery — Impolicy of
abandoning the monopoly — Suggestions respecting the rent — Panorama — Arippo— Kondatchie .

CHAP. XXVI.

Route to Bangalle — Manaar — Suggestions for a factory for curing fish — Sheep and cows — Agricultural encou¬
ragement suggested — Time of sowing and reaping — Headmen — Sailing directions — Coasting trade — Man-
lotte — Missionaries’ journey — Giant’s tank — Gentoo city — Antiquity of the Hindoos — Singhalese records
and traditions — Sir William Jones — Racshasas — Invention of Chess — Magnitude of architectural works
no proof of extraordinary stature of the workmen — The tourist recommended to proceed by sea to Jaffna —
Cottages — Native use of cow dung — Route from Mantotte to Jaffna — Scenery — Principal villages — Inhabi¬
tants — Cession of Jaffna by the Portuguese to the Dutch — Fruits — Coasting trade — Chitties — Tamul
year — Hegira — Goldsmiths — Exports for the China markets — Limited culture of cotton — Its extension
suggested — Jaffna tobacco — Monopoly of the Rajah of Travancore, who maintains a body of troops by
the profits — Countervailing monopoly — Its injury to the tobacco grower — Its abolition, and substitution of
a duty of 200 per cent. — Decline of the trade, which, upon a reduction of the duty, recovers and flourishes

CHAP. XXVII.

Climate favorable to the growth of silk — Hindoo culture of the mulberry plant — Introduction of the silk-worm
suggested — Suggestions for reducing certain import duties, as an inducement to the Indian Presidencies to
abolish their export duties upon cotton and silk to Ceylon — Culture of the chocolate-nut tree ( Theobromu
Cacao) altogether neglected — Provisions — Game — Cattle — Pasturage — Sheep — Cape of Good Hope cows
— Culture of grass neglected — Suggestions for providing hay for ships’ stock — Timber trade of Jaffna —
Festival of Jagun-Nath — Pranava, or mystical tri-literal character — Author accompanies the Chief and
Puisne Justices to view the car of the idol — Reception by the chief Brahmin — Sacred honors — Consecrated
limes — Description of the car — Bride of Jagan-Nath — Temple mysteries — Brahminical humbug — Deva-
dasi — Native musicians — Hindoos— Their diet— Domestic life — Amusements— Power of the Brahmins —
American missionaries — Pringle’s account of missionary privations inapplicable to Ceylon missionaries —
First Tamul translation of the Liturgy at Cevlon .

PAGt

193

201

209

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

vii.

CHAP. XXVIII. PAG*

Garrison of Jaffna — Extensive culture of the Betel pepper — Its astringent properties — Wild and cultivated
Betel — Water conveyance to Point Pedro — Point Pedro shoal — Bitter Aloes — A veteran magistrate who
served under Frederick the Great — The ruling passion — Route to Trincomale — Face of the country —
Postholders supply provisions to travellers — Jungles — Game — Mullativoe House — Dangerous coral shoal —
Sailing directions — Alembiel — Superficies and population of the Northern Province — Numbers employed
in agriculture, manufactures, and commerce — Eastern Province — Fish — Shells for lime — Scenery — Inhabi¬
tants — Banyan fig tree — Wild hogs — Hint to sportsmen — Trincomale — Society — Garrison — Suggestions
for establishing farms for supplying shipping with stock and salted provisions . 225

CHAP. XXIX.

Malacology of the island — Cabinets of shells for sale — How to procure perfect specimens — Caution to stran¬
gers in buying jewellery from natives — Their importunities — Transformation of broken glass into precious
stones ! — Laws to restrain imposition — Jewellery for “ Chip Gentlemans ” — Ear-cutting — Suggestions for
suppressing it — Rains — Lord Valentia — Crocodiles — Hot wells — Little white ants ( Termes ) great public
peculators — Sailing directions into Trincomale harbour — Reasons for not building ships at Trincomale,
inapplicable to the neglect of growing Teak for the future exigencies of the Royal navy — Suggestions for
rendering grants, or sales of Crown lands, more beneficial to the public . .v 233

CHAP. XXX.

Suggested extension of the culture of the Cassada — Its properties and various names — Method of preparing
the stalks for transit — Sweet variety edible without previous preparation — Primitive method of preparing
the Bitter Cassada — Casleep — Tapioca — Substitute Cor mushroom spawn — Ant-hill clay — Goldsmiths —

Their simple implements — Route from Trincomale to Kandy — Route to Batticaloa — Hindoo temple —
Patcherie rice — Native varieties — Mode of culture — Scarcity seldom attributable to natural causes — Java
formerly supplied Ceylon with rice from Its surplus produce — Pumpkin Governors — General Sir Hudson
Lowe, G. C. B. — Anticipated justice to that gallant officer, who, it was expected, would have succeeded
Sir Edward Barnes as Governor — Air plant — Region of mosquitos, Batticaloa — Lacerta Iguana . 241

CHAP. XXXI.

Sailing directions — Batticaloa — Public departments — Island — Fort — Garrison — European society famed for
its unanimity and hospitality — No Protestant church or clergyman — Roman Catholic chapels — Bazaar —
Suggested establishment of a factory for curing fish, and anticipated increase of the coasting trade — Green
beetle ( Buprestis chrysis) — Uses of its irridescent elytra — Batticaloa from the sea — Sandstone rocks —
Veddah country — The Secretary of the Magistrate’s court at Hambantotte wanders into it — Kindness of
the Veddahs — Their method of preserving flesh — Manner of shooting elephants — Veddahs visit Hamban¬
totte — Their gratitude — Caste — Forest lands occupied by the Veddahs — Disposal of their dead — Inhuman
custom in the Mahagampattoo— Author’s endeavours to suppress it . . . 249

CHAP. XXXII.

Route southward continued — Asclepias gigantea — Tourist recommended to travel only by day — Wild beasts —

The jungle bear — Field for the sportsman and naturalist — Caution necessary in entering a jungle — Wil¬
liam Gisborne, Esq. — Major Haddock killed by an elephant in 1834 — Elephant catchers — Cuvier's dis¬
tinction between, the Indian and African elephant — Ceylon ivory — Elephants’ petit-toes —Lord Charles
Henry Somerset’s enigma — The Sloth— Squirrels — Maucauco — Vampire Bat — Racoon — White Baboon —

Black Baboon — Brown Monkey— Anecdote of a Wanderoo— Summary of migratory and indigenous birds 257

Ylll.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP. XXXIII.

Yellow Grosbeak— Fire fly — Tailor Warbler — Employment of a botanist skilled in practical chymistry sug¬
gested — Route southward continued — Hints to the traveller — Black Pepper — Time of sowing and reaping
— Devil worshippers and their offerings — Kombookan-Aar — Kombook trees — Area and population of the
Eastern Province — Southern Province — Yalle — Suggestions to the tourist — Human victims to chetahs —

The dreaded God of Kattregam — Approach to the Dewale — Head Brahmin — Basnaike Rale — Timely sug¬
gestions — Water of the Parapa-Oya — Chief Brahmin’s residence — State chair of sacred clay, the founder’s
stepping block from earth to heaven — Present — Temple lands — Buddhist and Devil priests — Malay
officer — Medley of superstitions — Contrasts between the worship of Buddha and that of Brahma . 26o

CHAP. XXXIV.

Hell upon earth — Route from Kattregam to Hambantotte — Route resumed from Yalle — Turtle Cove —
Hawk’s-bill turtle’s eggs wholesome, notwithstanding the contrary quality of its flesh — Turtle catching
and stripping — Dutch solution of an interesting hypothesis in natural history — Turtling season — Choice
of Tortoise-shell — Hatching turtles’ eggs — Paltoopane — Wild tea — Assistant Staff Surgeon Crawford —
Indigenous tea plant ( Thea Bohea, L.) — Kirinde-Oya — Mahagamme rest-house — Author presented with a
couple of elephant’s tusks, and a specimen of the supposed Gaulama, or Demon Bird — Dread manifested
by palankin bearers — Impediments to its preservation — Description of it — Major General Thomas Hard-
wicke, F. R. S., F. L. S., supposes it a species of the Aluco owl — Superstitious M. D. — Buddhist priest’s
anecdote of the Gaulama — Wallewe Aratchy — Fatal effects of eating hawks-bill turtle — Devil ceremonies 273

CHAP. XXXV.

Mahagamme — Fertility of the soil, and capabilities of irrigation — Ancient ruins — Gigantic Ipomoea — Route
to Hambantotte — Face of the country — Pasturage, but no sheep — Fertility of the district — Exceptions —
Temperature of the interior favorable to the growth of wool — Jaffna sheep thrive well in the Mahagam-
pattoo — Species of indigenous Samphire — Euphorbia Tirucalli — Hambantotte — Quaker fortifications —
Population — Leways — Seven hills of Kattregam — Depot of salt and red sand — Termes fatale, L. — Sand
bills — Result of digging for water — Extraordinary accumulation of sand — Starvation — Formation of salt —

Rapid evaporation — Crystallisation — Deposit of salt where there is1 no basis of rock salt — Summary of
reports to the Governor upon the Mahagampattoo district . . 281

CHAP. XXXVI.

Character of the Wesleyan mission — The Rev. Benjamin Clough — Dr. Adam Clarke — No rest-house at
Hambantotte— Hospitality of the public authorities — Deaths of Captain and Mrs. Driberg, and extra¬
ordinary determination of the Commander of the Forces — Superstition — Official difficulties — Incipient
panic confirmed — Friendly importunities and suggestions — An Englishwoman’s determination — District
neglected by the Government and individuals — Suggestions for a fish factory — Kandyan Tavelams — Barter
— Hints to Manchester and Birmingham manufacturers — Wallasse famous for the Talipat palm — Impor¬
tant objects to be anticipated from a fish factory at Hambantotte — Cetacea — Amber — Sea dragon — Phos¬
phorescent appearance of the sea — Cancer fulgens — Soldier crab — Anatomical specimens . 28'J

CHAP. XXXVII.

Qualifications for the Superintendent of a fish factory — Schemes for the public welfare abortive — Skylark —
Native labourers — The Right Honorable the Earl of Ripon — Colombo light-house — Consequences of an
official omission— Unwelcome New-year-’s gift— Medical officer’s pusillanimity— Timidity of Headmen

l

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

IX.

PAGE

infectious — “ Old Malay of Mahagam ” — Opportune relief — A fatalist agreeably disappointed — Captain
Dawson, Royal Engineers — His lamented death — Native Medical Assistant, a better doctor than prophet
— Convicts in chains humane nurses — Their strict honesty and gratitude — Native killed by an elephant
in the street — Hint to the Ornithologist — Kandyan pellet tube — Hard water pearls — Parting word in
favor of the natives of the Mahagampattoo . . . 297

CHAP. XXXVIII.

Suggested introduction of the Camel — Its habits — Route from Hambantotte to Wallewe — Karaganare lie¬
way — Arabocke — Euphorbia antiquorum — Apathy of the natives in regard to its gum — Presumed qualities
of its timber — Sitricale Leway — Nepenthes distillatoria — Air plant — Arabian gum tree — Author’s escape
from a tusked elephant — Cobra di Capello — Pybocke — Plains — Mushrooms — Extraordinary production
of fish, and a' Malay officer’s opinion of the cause — Game — Tank — Large aquatic bird — Wanderope —
Temple Title-deed — The Honorable Sir Hardinge Giffard, late Chief Justice of Ceylon— Temple lands —
Integrity of the Buddhist religion guaranteed — Wallewe river — Sailing directions — Village of Wallewe —
its bad name, and suggestions for giving it a better — Tranquil locality for the growth of silk — Suggestions
for employing Chinese settlers . . . 30-3

CHAP. XXXIX.

River Wallewe — Horse boats — Double canoes — Seasons of sowing and reaping — Clay for bricks — Limestone
rock — Pansala at Wanderope — Buddhist priest cultivates the grape wine successfully — Tank — District but
little improved for the last sixteen years — Author’s desire to innoculate British capitalists with some of his
own virus in favor of the Mahagampattoo — Mouth of the river Wallewe — Native objections to the sea-
breeze — Girrawah-pattoo — Savage occupants of Wallewe rest-house in 1826 — Sand of rubies, sapphires,
and cat’s-eyes — Roads — Cattle Kraal — Leways — Ranne bridge and rest-house — Crocodile Kraal — Porcu¬
pine — Ancient tank — Face of the country — Approach to Tangalle — Possibilities upon a sudden breaking
out of war — Nature the best defender of the Ceylon coast — Singhalese but poor auxiliaries before an
enemy — Kandyan characteristics — Sailing directions — Suggested Signal Station for communicating with
ships from England to India making Doudra Head . . . 313

CHAP. XL.

Prospective advantages for an Indigo Factory Company over those of the abandoned scheme — Kirime Canal —
William Gisborne, Esq. — Governor confers honorary rewards upon Headmen — Tobacco of Lower Ouva —
Tobacco farm suggested — Suggestions to moderate capitalists as settlers at Ceylon — Facilities to immigrants
contrasted with the difficulties in new colonies — Suggestions for planting the Hop — Beautiful country and
delightful temperature of Lower Ouva- — Soil — Saffregam — Produce — Route from Tangalle to Matura- —

Face of the country — Dondra Head — Ancient temple — Colonnade — Vihare and Dewale — Festival —
Division of offerings — Mature — Lines — Fort — Town- — Fish — Sailing directions — Government officers —
Suggested farm and fish factory — Variety of grasses — Mature poultry — Manufactures — Petrified Tamarind
wood — Zircon sold as Mature diamond — True diamond not indigenous . . 321

CHAP. XLI.

Minerals — Extraordinary combinations in petrifactions of wood — Constituents of Beligam rock — Opinion
opposed to the statements of PtoJemy, Knox, Percival, Cordiner, and Ive, in regard to indigenous minerals
— The Dutch discover coal, and their reasons for neglecting it — Coal an object of too great importance
for its presence to remain hypothetical — Face of the country between Mature and Beligam — Birds, fish,
fruits, and vegetables — Esculent Euphorbia — Agraboddigane Vihare and Dagobah — Tradition of the
Koustah Rajah, or Leprous King — Temples and Dagobahs . 329

* * »

X.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP. XLII.

Antiquities — No excavated or rock temples — Agraboddigane Vihare — Image of Buddha described — Paint¬
ings — Dagobah, or repository of a relic of Buddha — Charles Edward Layard, Esq., causes an ancient
Dagobah to be opened — Its contents indicative of affinity to certain Egyptian antiquities — The Bogaha as
much venerated by the Buddhists as the oak by the Druids — Epoch of Buddha’s appearance — Conversion
of a High Priest of Buddha — His high character not affected by his apostacy — Example followed by
other priests — Honors conferred upon the convert — Road from Beligam to Galle — Cogel Lake — Bungalow
Island — Indigenous Momordica — Crocodiles — Leopards — Approach to Galle — Sailing directions . 337

CHAP. XLIII.

£

Sailing directions continued — Bank of soundings — Coast between Galle and Colombo — Opinion respecting
the Port of Galle for steam vessels — Suggestions for removing the seat of Government to Galle, and cutting
a road direct to Kandy — Fortifying Galle suggested, with reference to the command of the seas during
the last war, and the present different position of France — Trade of Galle — Supplies — Elephanthiasis —

Goitre — Galle water — Cattle stealing — Cruelty to animals — Alteration in the mode of registering cattle
suggested — Fort — M. Wilmot, Esq. — Garrison — Ceylon Rifle Regiment — Establishment of a large English
hotel and farm suggested — Society — Dutch families — Climate — Maldivian fleet — Coco-nuts imported from
the Maidive Islands — Kumblemos — Taverkare — Maidive ambassador — Sultan’s letter and presents . 345

CHAP. XLIV.

Maldivian process for increasing the size of coco-nut timber, similar to that of the Chinese for dwarfing, and
of the Singhalese for propagating trees — Fishes — Author commences a Work upon the Ichthyology of
Ceylon — Its interruption — Ruinous consequences of the suppression of facts by an irresponsible officer —
Unauthorized rejection of the Author’s appeal against the tyrannical measures pursued towards him, in
the name of the Right Honorable Lord Viscount Goderich, whose entire ignorance of it may be presumed
from subsequent facts and correspondence, and the high character of His Lordship — Anticipated justice —

His Majesty George IV. patronizes the “ Fishes of Ceylon ” — Morua Korle — First production of the
potato — Public nuisance — A victim to philanthropy — Dreadful catastrophe — Not a life boat nor Manby's
mortar along 900 miles of coast — Suggestions in behalf of humanity — Wesleyan mission-house and
chapel — Roman Catholic chapel — Crucifixion enacted — Festival of the Mohurrum — Dutch monopolies —
Church Missionary Station — Extensive cultivation of arrow root . . . . 353

CHAP. XLV.

v

Galle jewellers — Cabinet makers — Objections to British tools — Suggestions to the hardware manufacturer —
Veneering unknown to the Singhalese — Leaf employed for polishing wood — Public Departments — Post
Office — High duty upon Arrack injurious to the Ceylon distiller and the British importer — Representation
to the Board of Trade — Moral state of the Galle and Mahagampattoo districts contrasted — Witchcraft—
Samuel Tolfrey, Esq. — First English and Singhalese Grammar — Liberality of the Colonial Department —
Tradition of the origin of Castes — Insects — Reptiles — Mvgale, or musk rat — Pottery — Gindurah river
and rock — Sailing directions — Dodondewe — Rest-houses — Face of the country . . 361

CHAP. XLVI.

Hiccode — Body of a native cut out of a crocodile — Route to Bentotte — Face of the country — Native farms —
Oyster divers — River scenery — Vihare — Govinda yields a superior indigo — Area and population of the
Southern Province — Barberyn — Sailing directions — Bazaar — Imports and exports — Custom-house —

Road to Kaltura — Double coco-nut tree, ominous of good fortune — Kaltura — Sailing directions — Govern-

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

ment-house — Cutchery — Ignatia elastica, L. — Wesleyan mission-house, chapel, school — Fort — Honorable
John Rodney — Experiments with scorpions, and the results — Mount Layard — Canal to Colombo — Kobra
Guyon — Lacerta Nilotica — Lacerta Gecko — Traffic between Kaltura and Saffregam — Dr. de Hoedt —
Carpenter insect — Painted bat — Widow birds — Land shells . .

CHAP. XLVII.

Rapidity of the Kalu-Ganga — Ellas — Mount Karangodde — Extraordinary pine-apple leaves — Rock temple —
Gigantic Groundsel — View from Mount Karangodde — A priest’s caution neglected, and the consequences
— Hospitality of the priests — Bromelia flax — Lieut. Malcolm the first European known to have ascended
Adam’s Peak — His tour — Buddhist priest’s prediction disregarded — View from the Peak — Scarlet Rhodo¬
dendron — Jewels^ very like glass — Volley of small arms fired from the Peak — A second priestly warning
treated with more deference — Kandyan army passes over the mountain into Saffregam, in pursuit of the
revolted First Adikar, Eheylepola — Route from Kaltura to Colombo resumed — Pantura — River fishes —
Fish Kraals — Bird’s-tail grass employed as a bait — Cinnamon plantations — Village of carpenters .

CHAP. XL VIII.

Route to Colombo — Galkisse — Road — Fishery — Chapel — A priestly courtier — Mount Lavinia — Anecdote
of the late General the Right Honorable Sir Thomas Maitland, G. C. B., known by the soubriquet of
“ King Tom,” and Samuel Daniel], Esq. — How to get a Civil Appointment — A halt suggested — Com¬
pletion of the tour round the island — Origin of the war in Kandy in 1815 — Improvements in Ceylon date
from Sir George Murray’s accession to the Colonial Seals in 1828 — Lord Viscount Goderich follows them
up by additional advantages — Mutilation of British subjects by order of the King of Kandy — Explanation
refused — Revolting cruelties upon the family of Eheylepola, and native Chiefs — Kandy taken — Geography
of the former Kandyan kingdom — Site of Kandy, and tradition of its discovery . . .

CHAP. XLIX.

Routes to the Central Province — Road to Komegalle — Stupendous rocks — A Kandyan Tarpeius Mons —
Public offices — Cutchery occupies the site of an ancient royal palace — Henry Pennell, Esq. — Granite slabs
sculptured with the lion, unicorn, and elephant — Time of sowing and reaping — Route to Trincomale —
Face of the country — Route to Kandy — Kalane-Ganga navigable by boats to Ruanwelle — Route to the
Central Province by land, via Ruanwelle— A rattan hawser — Rajah Singha the apostate — Ruins of a Por¬
tuguese fort — Ruanwelle — Route to Kandy over the Balane mountain — Route over the Idalgashina moun¬
tain more circuitous, but best for the intending settler — Major Kelly’s division of the Army of Kandy
crosses the Idalgashina mountain — Warm clothing and fires necessary in crossing these mountain passes —
Route through Balangodde to Upper Ouva — Successful culture of the potato — Wheat grown at Kandv
and Badulla — Face of the country — Limestone — Potters’ clay — Brick clay — Hemp — European vegetables
found in the interior by Captain Robert Knox, 1657 — 1678 .

CHAP. L.

Route continued — Idalgashina mountain — Native agriculture — Cataracts — Kalapahane — Cattle — Welanghena
— Rhododendron arboreum — Lauras serrata — Andropogon schoenanthus — Hilloya — Passe ra — Alipoot —
Wallasse — Bintenne and Veddah Ratte — Efforts to civilize the Veddahs — Mountain of Namini Kooli —
Badulla — Route to Kandy — Intermediate country — Route from Passera to Neuwara Eliya — Hembliate-
welle — Scenery — Limestone — Ice not uncommon, in the very same province where sugar and coffee grow
luxuriantly — Route to Kandy — Chetahs — Cascades — Mavali-Ganga navigable by boats between Gampola
and Paradenia — Royal Botanic garden — Race course — Satin-wood bridge — Proclamation for the preserva¬
tion of roads — Dodonwelle a favorite retreat of Rajah Singha — City of Kandy — British improvements —
Delada Malagawa— Dewales — Asgiri & Malwatte Vihares — Royal cemetery — Lakes — Buddhist priesthood

XU.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAP. LI. TAG E

Sequel to the possession of Kandy — Person of the King — Bad policy of the Portuguese — Additional reasons
for the war — Regalia — Honors conferred upon the conquerors, and Eheylepola, by the Prince Regent —
Political humbug — Importance of the relic — Tooth of Gautama Buddha contrasted with the Trojan
Palladium — Its restoration to the Delada Malagawa, under a salute from the Royal Artillery — Offering
presented to the temple in the name of the Governor — Hypothesis respecting the relic — Military custody
of the Idol — Stipendiary priests — Kandy the meridian of Buddhist and Demon worship in Ceylon —
Expenses of idolatrous) festivals borne by the Government . 409

CHAP. LII.

Extraordinary facts respecting the military resources of Kandy, when Major Davie capitulated, in 1803 —

Secret service money — Deplorable consequences of want of information — Prince Mootto Sawme proclaimed
King — Pilame Talawe dupes General Macdowal by an armistice, and breaks it — British troops massacred
in detail — Captain Arthur Johnston, in 1804, marched from Batticaloa, through Kandy, to Trincomaie —
Governor’s first object after the conquest of Kandy in 1815— Roads — Eheylepola — William Tolfrey, Esq.
receives private intimation of that Chieftain's intended treachery — His information treated with contempt —
Consequences — Murder of S. D. Wilson, Esq. by Veddahs — Rebellion of 1817 — The Pretender — Critical
position of the army — Opportune arrival of the Honorable East India Company’s auxiliary troops —
Recovery of the relic — Military casualties — Fate of the rebel Chiefs — Governor's triumphant return to
Colombo— Incipient rebellions in 1834 and 1842 — Faithless Princes — Supposed origin of the rebellion
of 1817 — War cry of the 19th regiment — The Kandyans — Arts and sciences — Domestic habits and man¬
ners — Agriculture — Climate — Governor’s Minute for Clerks and Headmen — Garrison — Public Depart¬
ments — Citadel — Atgalle — Neuwara Eliya potato — Caste no disqualification for tenure of lands — Sugges¬
tions to capitalists — Rest-houses — Indigenous iron, alum, & saltpetre — Suggestions for a farm for supplying
cured and salted provisions to shipping — Area and population of the Central Province — Conclusion . 417

APPENDIX.

The Charter of Justice, granted by King William the Fourth, February the 18th, 1833 .

information for the use of Military and Naval Officers proposing to settle in the British Colonies . xx\

Regulation of Government for Promoting the Growth of certain Articles of Agricultural produce in Ceylon xxx;

Regulation of Government for the Encouragement of the Preparation of Salt Fish in the island . xxxn

Ordnance of the Governor and Council, for Amending the Law's relating to the Ports and Customs . xxxiii

Tables of Import and Export Duties, and of the Rates of Pilotage into the Harbours of Ceylon . lxn

Translation of the Letter from the King of the Maidive Islands to the Commandant of Galle . lxn

Postage Rates, Post Office Regulations, and Warehouse Rates . . . . . lx\

Extract from a Letter to the Right Honorable Henry Labomrhere, President of the Board of Trade . lxvii

The Kandyan Convention of 1815 . . . Txviii

An Account of the principal Kandyan Festivals . lxx

Address of His Excellency the Governor to the Kandyan Adikars and Chiefs, May the 20th, 1816 . ixxv.

CEYLON AND ITS CAPABILITIES.

CHAP. I.

Geographical position — Dependencies — Ceylon occasionally confounded with Sierra Leone — Gulf and Strait of
Manaar — Island partially known to the ancient Romans — Various Names of the Island — Its position upon the
Geographical Lotos of the Hindoos— Popular tradition of its separation from the Peninsula of Hindostan—
Adam's Bridge — Hindoo history respecting it — Sir W. Jones's remarks — Indian Satyrs — Hypothesis respecting the
Garden of Eden — M. Toume fort's opinion — Variety of Climate — Pedrotalagalla the highest land in Ceylon —
Verdant appearance of the Island — Sea-breezes — Monsoons and their causes — General Salubrity of the Interior
dependant upon the progress of Agriculture — Area of the Island and Population to the square mile-
Census of 1835.

The most magnificent of the British insular possessions, styled, “ Ceylon and its
Dependencies,” lie between the parallels of 5° 50' and 10° of north latitude, and
between 79° 42' and 82° of east longitude, at the west entrance of the Bay of Bengal,
and distant about ten leagues from the peninsula of Hindostan,* extending from
S. S . E. toN. E. between Capes Comorin and Negapatam ; in circumference about
nine hundred miles ; in length, from Dondra Head in the southern to Point Pedro
in the northern province, under three hundred miles ; and in extreme breadth from
one hundred and forty to one hundred and fifty miles.

The “ Dependencies ” are the islands of Kalpentyn — Karetivoe — Manaar — Tren-
tivoe, or Two Brothers — Kakeritivoe — Paletivoe — Nedoentivoe, or Delftf — Mandetivoc
— Poengertivoe — Kayts, or Leyden island — Nayntivoe — Anelativoe — Northern Kare¬
tivoe, or Amsterdam island — Jaffna, formerly the kingdom of Jaffnapatam, upon which
the town and fort of that name are situate — and the largest, containing the Districts
of Wadenerratchie, Temmoratchie, and Patchilapelle.

Ceylon, too often confounded in common parlance with our West African settlement
of Sierra Leone, from neglecting to accentuate the last syllable of the latter, is sepa¬
rated from the southern extremity of Hindostan by the Gulf and Strait of Manaar, 7
which is not frequented except by small coasting vessels ; the water being usually shbal

* From Hindu, black, and St'han, place,
f Called also by Captain Horsburgh Polandiva, Cat-Island, and Enkhuysen.

I From the Malabar word Man, sand, and Aar, river.

B

10

TAPROBANE OF THE ANCIENTS.

all over it, six or seven fathoms in some places, to four, three, and two fathoms
towards the main, renders the navigation unsafe for vessels above a certain tonnage.
It is bounded by Adam’s Bridge to the southward, and by Calymere Point and the
coast of Tanjore to the northward. The Dutch describe three channels formed between
Calymere Point and the north end of Ceylon, which lead into Palk’s Bay ; but the
southern channel, called Palk’s Strait, contiguous to the north coast of Ceylon, is
probably the only one that may be considered safe for large ships.

Adam’s or Rama’s Bridge, a narrbw ridge of sand and rocks, mostly dry, for on its
whole extent there is said not to be more than three and four feet of water in any part
at high tides, extends nearly E. S. E. and W. N. W. six or seven leagues, and joins
the island of Manaar on the east, and the island of Ramisseram, which lies close to a
peninsula of the continent, the extremity of which is called Point Ramen, on the west.
Between the main island and Manaar there is a narrow gut, only navigable by coasting
vessels, which is commanded by Fort Tannacudia on the eastern extremity of Manaar.

That Ceylon was partially known to the ancient Romans may very reasonably be
inferred from the names they gave to some of its principal places ; and probably^ that
knowledge of the island originated by means of their coasting vessels along the western
side of India, or of their fleet from the Sinus Arabicus, or Red Sea. But the island
lay so directly in the course of vessels venturing beyond Cape Comorin, viz. according
to the ancient mode of “ hugging the shore ” as closely as possible, that one can
scarcely suppose its position to have been left to doubt ; but, on the contrary, that it
had been precisely determined. Nevertheless, there is hardly any point in ancient
geography less certain and more undecided.

The Amasian stoic, Strabo, who composed his great work upon geography in the
time of Augustus Caesar, describes Taprobane as equal in size to Britain, and “ by
reports ” varying from seven to twenty days’ sail from Cape Comorin, the southernmost
point of the peninsula of Hiifdostan, the Comaria Promontorium of the Romans. But
he erroneously describes the island as extending to the westward of its true position
five hundred stadia, or rather more than twenty leagues. By this same author we
are informed that the most valuable productions of Taprobane were carried to the
various emporia of India.

Pomponius Mela, in his “ De situ orbis,” could not decide whether Taprobane,
which name was not known in Europe antecedently to the aera of Alexander the
Great, was the commencement of a new world, or an island, because no one had ever
sailed round it at the time he wrote, but he himself inclined to the former opinion ;
and the Roman augur, C. Plinius Secundus, instead of elucidating doubts, in his more

VARIOUS NAMES OF THE ISLAND.

11

copious description of Taprobane, which he also alludes to as Terra Anticthonum, or
the Antipodes, involves it in deeper obscurity, and gives a most ridiculous account of
an embassy to Claudius Caesar from a sovereign of the island. The ambassadors must
have entertained a very humble opinion of Roman science, when they ventured to
affirm, that “ in their country the moon was invisible for eight days after the change,
and then only visible for the same period of time.” *

Ptolemy, the famous Alexandrian geographer in the time of Marcus Aurelius, who
wrote after Pliny, describes Taprobane as an island nearly opposite to Cape Comorin,
and at no great distance from that part of the peninsula of Hindostan, but extending
two degrees to the southward of the equator. Ptolemy appears to have been ignorant
of Pliny’s account of Taprobane, and informs us that the native name was Salice,
which is preserved in that of Selendive, from the proper name Selen, and dive, an island.f
Both, however, of these writers concur in describing the island as intersected by the
equator, a circumstance that has led many to maintain that Sumatra is the island
which during the middle ages was almost uniformly called Taprobane ; and in the
fifteenth century Nicolo di Conti, the Venetian traveller, on his return from India,
described Ceylon as Zeilam, and after noticing its cinnamon and other productions,
states that he sailed from thence to the great island of Sumatra, “ which the ancients
called Taprobane,” and describes the durian (Durio zibet hinus) as a fruit indigenous
there, but which is not known to this day at Ceylon. But notwithstanding the obscure
and contradictory descriptions both of the ancient Greek and Roman as well as of the
Indian writers, upon this particular point, scarcely a doubt now exists that their
celebrated Taprobane is the present Ceylon.

The Nubian philosopher, El Edrisi, in his work dedicated to Roger, king of Sicily,
in the twelfth century, calls the island by the name of Serandib ; and the Venetian tra¬
veller, Marco Polo, who visited it in the thirteenth century, by that of Seilam or Zeilam.

Cosmas, an Egyptian merchant, subsequently, sirnamed Indicopleustes , who made
several voyages to and from India during the reign of the emperor Justinian, mentions
the island as Sielediba,% and as an emporium of commerce into which was imported the
silk of the Sinae, and all the precious productions of the Eastern Countries, with which
all parts of India, Persia, and the Arabian Gulf were supplied. §

The island has also been known from the remotest periods of Singhalese history by
the Elu name of Lakka and Sanscrit Lanka, the world, to which latter has been pre¬
fixed the Sanscrit adjectives Tev'e and Deve, signifying famous and holy : and in the Geo-

* C. P. Hist. Nat., lib. vi. cap. xxii. + According to Ptolemy its ancient name was Symondi.

t Cosm. lib. xxi. 330. § lb. lib. xi. 337.

12

SITE OF PARADISE.

graphical Lotos of the Hindoos, which is supposed to be floating upon the vast expanse
of ocean, Ceylon, described as Sinhala* lies between the southernmost upper netal and
the Maha Lanka or Malacca petal, upon the under south-eastern petal.

But whether the popular tradition that Ceylon originally formed the south-eastern
extremity of the peninsula of Hindostan, and was detached from it by some extraordi¬
nary convulsion of nature, aided by the rushing in of the sea through the division of
the lands, be deserving of credit ; or that it was an island de principio, at a greater
distance from the Malabar and Coromandel coasts, and stretching so much further to
the southward and westward as to be the Lanka or equinoctial point of the ancient
Hindoos, but gradually approximating the continent by the accumulation of sand and
madrepore, and the consequent shoaling of the Strait of Manaar, — is matter for the
attention of the geologist.

Hindoo history evidently alludes to Adam’s Bridge, in recounting the wars of Lanka,
and attributes to Rama,f an incarnate deity of the first rank in the Hindoo mythology,
the conquest of the island with an army of Indian satyrs, and states that Rama’s general,
the prince of satyrs, named HanumatJ from his high cheek bones, soon raised with
workmen of such agility a bridge of rocks over the sea ; part of which, say the
Hindoos, yet remains. This Rama is described as a conqueror of the highest renown,
and the deliverer of his consort Sita from the giant Ravanen, king of Lanka. Sir
William Jones, in alluding to the above, § inquires “ if this army of satyrs might not
have been only a race of mountaineers, whom Rama, if such a monarch ever existed,
had civilized ?” and concludes with this remark, — “ However that may be, the large
breed of Indian apes is at this moment (1794) held in high veneration by the Hindoos,
and fed with devotion by the Brahmins, who seem, in two or three places on the banks
of the Ganges, to have a regular endowment for the support of them : they live in
tribes of three or four hundred, are wonderfully gentle, and appear to have some kind
of order and subordination in their little sylvan polity.”

It may much more reasonably be conjectured, that the Bridge of Islets, bearing the
name of the common father of mankind, from the Mahomedan fable that angels
formed it for Adam to pass over to Hindostan, after having dropped upon the moun¬
tain Hamalell, when expelled from the celestial Paradise, was the route by which the
persecuted followers of the god Bod, || or Buddha, when driven from the continent by
the Brahmins, sought a secure resting-place for themselves, and for the unmolested
exercise of their religion, in Ceylon.

* Asiatic Researches, vol. viii., 8vo edition, p. 376. f The son of Cush.

+ The son of Pawn, the Indian god of storms and winds, and one of the eight Genii.

§ Asiatic Researches, vol. i., 4to edition, p. 257. || Bod, a contraction of Buddha, whicli signifies wisdom.

DECISION OF M. TOURNEFORT.

13

Ceylon abounds with traditions, and amongst others, that it was the site of the
terrestrial Paradise ; and inquiry has scarcely done more than cause a wide diversity
of opinions upon that point. Tartary, China, Persia, Mesopotamia, Chaldeea, Arabia,
Syria, Ethiopia, and Ceylon, have all, in turns, been objects of research upon this great
point ; and whilst some have concluded that the scriptural description of Paradise was
either allegorical, or that if such a perfect place really existed, the subsequent terrible
concussions of the earth at the time of the deluge have so altered the face of nature
as to render it now impossible to discover where the true garden of Eden or Aden
lay, (synonymous in the Arabic, and signifying pleasure,) — others have been led
astray as much as the Jews themselves, who were totally ignorant of the geography of
the Old Testament. Josephus supposed the Ganges and the Nile to be two of the
four rivers that went out of Eden.

There exists to this day such a variety of Edens and Adens, one near Tripoli in Syria,
another near Telassar in Chaldaea, a third an island in the Tigris, a fourth near Tarsus
in Cilicia, and a fifth upon the coast of Arabia Felix, that authors have given it in
favour of either of the two former, as being, I presume, the same with that of Moses.*

There can scarcely be a doubt that Eden was not an imaginary but a real Paradise,
bounded by the countries and rivers described in the Mosaical topography, but no one
author seems to have decided the point so satisfactorily to himself as Mons. Tournefort.
“ The commentators upon Genesis, even those who keep most closely to the letter, do
not think it necessary, in order to assign the place of Paradise, to find a river which
divides itself into four branches, because of the great alteration the Deluge may have
occasioned ; but think it sufficient to show the heads of the rivers mentioned by Moses,
namely, the Euphrates, Tigris, Pison, and Gihon. It cannot, therefore, be doubted
but that Paradise, must have been in the way between Erzerum and Teflis, if it be
allowed to take the Phasis for Pison, and the Araxes for Gihon. — And then, not to
remove Paradise too far from the sources of these rivers, it must of necessity be placed
in the beautiful vallies of Georgia, which furnish Erzerum with all kinds of fruits. If
we may suppose it to have been a place of considerable extent, and to have retained
some of its beauties, notwithstanding the alterations made in the earth at the flood,
and since that time, I do not know a finer spot to which I can assign it than the
country of the Three Churches, a town about twenty French leagues distant from the
heads of the Euphrates and Araxes, and almost as many from the Phasis. The extent
of Paradise must at least reach to the heads of these rivers ; and so it will comprehend
the ancient Media and part of Armenia and Iberia. Or, if this be thought too large a

* 2 Kings xix. 12. Isaiah xxxvii. 12.

14

CLIMATE— TEMPERATURE— MONSOONS.

compass, it may be confined only to part of Armenia and Iberia ; that is, from Erzerum
to Teflis. Our learned men may think as they please, but as I have never seen a more
beautiful country than the neighbourhood of the Three Churches, I am strongly per¬
suaded it is the place where Adam and Eve were created ! ”

Ceylon presents a variety of climate, which may be classed as the hot, the interme¬
diate, and the temperate : the first, that of the maritime provinces ; the second, between
the maritime provinces and the mountainous region ; and the last, that of the con¬
valescent station of Neuwara Eliya, literally, city of light, adjoining the highest land,
called Pedrotalagalla, which is 8280 feet above the level of the sea, and 860 feet higher
than the far-famed Samenella, or Adam’s Peak, erroneously cited by many authors as
the highest land in Ceylon. At Neuwara Eliya the mean daily variation of the tempe¬
rature is stated to be as high as 10°, and from that to 11° of Fahrenheit, which is more
than three times the mean daily variation at Galle arid Colombo ; and the annual range
of the thermometer from 36° to 81°. The mean annual temperature of the iiiaritime
provinces is between 78° and 80°, according to the only data I possess, but as they are
from uncertain sources, I think Dr. John Davy’s the best authority upon all these points,
and he, from practical observation during his residence in the island as Physician to
the Forces, states the mean annual temperature of the coast at between 79° and 81° ;
the extreme range of the thermometer between 68° and 90°, and the medium range
between 75° and 85°.

A stranger approaching Ceylon after a long voyage and the monotonous prospect of
boundless ocean, during which the imagination, connecting the island with its proximity
to the equator,* may have pictured to itself nothing but barren sand-hills, parched
trees, and sun-burnt fields, is agreeably surprised at the first view of a verdant island,
whose northern and north-eastern coasts are belted with intermingled palmyra and
coco-nut palms, and its southern and western shores covered with myriads of the latter
to the very verge of the sea.

This interesting country is highly favoured with continual sea-breezes, which render
its hottest parts much more temperate than the climate of Hindostan. The coolest
season is during the prevalence of the south-west monsoon, or periodical wind, which
sets in about the latter part of April, and continues till the end of October, when the
sun is to the northward of the equator. The change of the monsoon is generally
ushered in by abundant and refreshing rains, which continue at intervals, more or less,
for ten or twelve weeks. The north-east monsoon is of shorter duration ; it begins in
November, and prevails till March, when the sun is to the southward of the equator.

* The difference between day and night is about fifteen minutes.

AREA AND POPULATION OF THE ISLAND.

15

It is also attended by heavy rains in the northern parts of the island : and both mon¬
soons bring their share of the most tremendous thunder and vivid lightning that the
eye of man has ever witnessed, or his mind conceived. Nevertheless the occurrence
of fatal accidents during a thunder-storm, when contrasted with the violence with
which it rages, and the population of the island, bears no proportion to that of the
casualties from lightning in more northern countries.

Rowning, in his natural philosophy, thus explains the occasion of these periodical
winds or rponsoons within the tropics. “ When the sun approaches the northern tropic,
there are several countries, as Arabia, Persia, India, &c. which become hotter, and reflect
more heat than the seas beyond the equator which the sun has left ; the winds, there¬
fore, instead of blowing from thence to the parts under the equator, blow the contrary
way ; and when the sun leaves those countries and draws near the other tropic, the
winds turn about and blow on the opposite side of the compass. At the time of the
shifting of those winds, the Indian seas are very subject to be tempestuous, and the
navigation becomes unsafe.”

So much depends upon the progress of agriculture, that the climate of 1838 may
■be altogether changed for the better in 1841, in one and the same place. As this
important point can only be partially ascertained until cultivation, which scarcely
exceeds one fourth of its superficies, shall have been extended over the whole island,
it is but fair to form a criterion for anticipations of the ultimate result, by that which
has already attended it in places where it has superseded densely-wooded and imper¬
vious forests, and where the decomposition of vegetable matter had continued through
countless ages, and every natural impediment was opposed to evaporation ; for there
has not been an instance of the continuance of malaria where the underwood has
been thoroughly cleared ; and even places that are only partially cleared, and where
sickness was a few years back prevalent and periodical, are become comparatively
salubrious. Thus if a judgment may be formed of the climate of the future whole,
by that of the one fourth part of the area of the island now under cultivation, it will
be impossible for a healthier to be found in any part of the habitable globe than that
to which Ceylon may then justly lay claim.

Taking the superficies of the island at 24,448 square miles, and estimating its pre¬
sent population at a million and a half, the product would give about sixty in round
numbers to the square mile ; and of this population, the number employed may be

set down at the maximum as follows : —

In agriculture . .' . 400,000

In manufactures . 55,000

In commerce . 45,000

CENSUS OF THE POPULATION OF THE ISLAND OF CEYLON AND ITS DEPENDENCIES

POPULATION OF CEYLON . 1,241,825.

t Excepting the Seven Kories Division, where no Return has been kept. * Excepting the Bintenn6 Division, where no Return has* been kept.

I Excepting the Nuwerakalawiye Division, where no Return has been kept.

CHAP. II.

Existing Slavery — The Honorable Sir Alexander Johnston, Chief Justice, originates the preparatory measure
towards the abolition of slavery, in which he is zealously supported by His Excellency the Governor — Address of the
proprietors of domestic slaves to His Royal Highness the Prince Regent, tendering the manumission of all children
born of their slaves on and after His Royal Highness’s birth-day of 1816 — No part of the Parliamentary grant of
£‘20,000,000 appropriated to the Ceylon slave proprietors — Paternal care of the slaves by the Ceylon government —
James Sutherland, Esq. — James Nicholas Mooyaart, Esq. — Foreign employes in the civil establishment — Extra¬
ordinary results of their peculations and perjuries — Degradation of the service and loss to the public — Consequences
of individual comments upon the measures of the colonial department, in re-employing or pensioning convicted
peculators — Number of female children of slaves enfranchised by the government — Substance of the provisions of
the government ordinance for the more efficient registration and protection of slaves.

That Asiatic Slavery should still exist in Ceylon, whilst the African Negro is alto¬
gether free to work or be idle, as may suit his purpose or his inclination, will appear
incredible to those who may have given the appropriation of the twenty millions
sterling, granted by Parliament for the abolition of Slavery in the British Colonies,
one moment’s consideration ; — nevertheless, the foregoing Census of the population
of the island, taken in the year 1835, exposes the real state of the case ; the number
of slaves being 27,397, including 14,108 males, and 13,289 females.

To the eternal honor of the humane Dutch and native proprietors of domestic
slaves in the Singhalese districts of the maritime provinces, Ceylon was the first and
only colony under the British flag to make a voluntary concession of prospective slave
property to the principle upon which the Imperial legislature subsequently acted. —
The Honorable the Chief Justice (the present Right Honorable Sir Alexander John¬
ston) had only to suggest a plan to the slave proprietors, to have it adopted. It was
not merely from the respect in which the community held Sir Alexander, for his
able, just, and patient exercise of the power attached to his high and important
office, that such ready deference was shown to his philanthropic recommendations,
every way congenial with the general feeling of the British nation and the best inter¬
ests of humanity, and presenting a moral basis for the ultimate abolition of slavery
throughout the island, but because they loved him with more than common affection,
for his general humanity and charity, and zeal for the welfare of them all.

c

18

SLAVE PROPRIETORS' ADDRESS TO THE PRINCE REGENT.

The cause which the Chief Justice had so warmly espoused, found a strenuous
supporter in His Excellency the Governor, the late General Sir Robert Brownrigg,
Bart., G. C. B. ; and the principal proprietors of domestic slaves amongst the Dutch
inhabitants, burghers, and native castes of Colombo, acting upon the conviction
that the Government and Parliament of the United Kingdom took a warm interest in
the cause of those branded with the name of slaves, and of the moral and religious obli¬
gation of commiserating the situation of that unfortunate class of their fellow creatures,
unanimously resolved to address a petition to His Ptoyal Highness, the then Prince
Regent, (in which they were subsequently joined by the proprietors of domestic slaves
throughout the Singhalese districts of the maritime provinces,) declaratory of their
determination to emancipate all children born of their sla\ es on, and after. His Royal
Highness’s birth-day, the 12th of August, 1816.

c

Of this document, so every way worthy of being recorded upon a more imperish¬
able tablet than paper, I feel both pride and pleasure in submitting a copy to my
readers ; for by this act of justice to the petitioners, I also confer a lasting honor
upon my own pages.

TO

HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES,

REGENT OF THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND,

&.C. &C. &C.

“ We His Majesty’s loyal subjects, the Dutch inhabitants, burghers, and native castes
of the maritime settlements in the island of Ceylon, animated with sentiments of sin¬
cere and fervent loyalty towards the person and government of His Majesty, and your
Royal Highness, and emulating the humane and disinterested spirit with which our
fellow subjects in the United Kingdom have moved the Legislature in favour of that
unfortunate class of beings, placed in the degraded condition of slavery, beg leave to
approach your Royal Highness with an humble tender of such tribute, on our parts, in
furtherance of the same benevolent object, as our circumstances enable us to afford.

“ In families long settled in this island, of whatever class, the household .establish¬
ment is usually so much dependent on the sendee of slaves, that a general discharge
of those persons would subject the inhabitants to privations, losses, and expense, such
as ordinary prudence forbids us to encounter ; at the same time we have reason to
know, that to great numbers of the persons now in our houses in the character of
slaves, bred up under our roofs, supported for a course of years with kind and con¬
siderate treatment and comfortable subsistence, many of them far advanced in life.

J V

Voluntary concession of the prospective rights of ownership. 19

and the greater part established in habits of attachment, a general emancipation would
withdraw the source of their support, without advancing their happiness, or improving
their condition.

“ We therefore humbly incline, both in consideration to them and to ourselves, to
adopt the principle sanctioned by the wisdom of British Legislation, of a gradual
abolition ; that which wre beg leave to offer, being indeed gradual in its progress, but
in its issue certain and complete.

“We respectfully and dutifully propose, that the era of future freedom to the slaves
of this colony shall take its commencement on the auspicious occasion of your Royal
Highness’s birth-day, the 12th of August in the present year 1816. And we declare
all children born of our slaves, from that date inclusive, to be free persons.

“ Some incidental provisions will be perceived to be necessary with regard to the
support and tutelage of these liberated children during their tender years. The lead¬
ing articles of enactment, which appear expedient for this purpose, have already been
indicated in Resolutions conveyed by the Honorable the Chief Justice for the infor¬
mation of His Excellency the Governor ; and we doubt not that these and such other
regulations as may be found calculated to place the intended measure on a footing
of mutual comfort to the emancipated slaves and their masters, will be distinctly and
favourably represented by His Excellency, and receive in substance the gracious
acceptance and confirmation of your Royal Highness.”

(Signed by the petitioners.)

His Royal Highness’s reception of this petition was as gracious as the most sanguine
philanthropist could have anticipated from the enlightened prince, who, “ Patriam,
pro patre, regens,” swayed the Imperial sceptre of these kingdoms : and its provi¬
sions, having been confirmed by His Royal Highness, took effect agreeably to the
intentions of the petitioners.

At that period, the domestic slaves were generally much happier than hired ser¬
vants, or free labourers, whose daily wages never exceeded sixpence for twelve hours’
labour ; but, upon what moral principle, the claims of the proprietors of African slaves
should have been considered so very paramount to those of the owners of Malabar
slaves in Ceylon, that not one shilling of the £20,000,000 could find its way nearer
to that island than the Mauritius, no one has hitherto attempted to explain.

Humanity will admit, that if the example set by the proprietors of domestic slaves
in Ceylon did not give them a priority of claim, in point of justice, over those of
African slaves, their voluntary relinquishment of their rights of ownership over the

c 2

20

PATERNAL CARE OF SLAVES BY THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT.

issue of their slaves from the L2th of August, 1816, had at least entitled them to an
equitable compensation out of the twenty millions of the public money voted by
Parliament for the enfranchisement of colonial slaves : — but these philanthropic indi¬
viduals, instead of sharing in the public grant, are now doubly burthened through
their own humanity ; for by slavery continuing until death shall have carried off the
present number of domestic slaves, they are bound to support the old and feeble, and
consequently useless individuals, without receiving any allowance whatever for their
maintenance ; little chance of obtaining relief by selling their rights as owners, because
few will purchase under the circumstances ; and no succession of service to anticipate
from the offspring of the slaves whom they are bound to maintain/

Ceylon had no agent in Parliament to advocate either the claims of its slave pro¬
prietors, or of the slaves themselves ; or, surely, the noble conduct of the Dutch
inhabitants, burghers, and native castes of Ceylon, who had set such an example of
humanity, and indeed of deference to the call of the nation, would not only not have
been overlooked, but have been deemed entitled to a fair and adequate compensation ;
and the Asiatic slaves of Ceylon to an equal right to emancipation with their African
contemporaries of the West Indies and Mauritius. — For the sake of justice to the one,
and of humanity to the other, I hope it is not even yet too late for their relative
claims to be considered and admitted by the British Legislature.

But whether the extinction of slavery in Ceylon is to be effected, or the evil to
continue for an indefinite period, every benevolent heart will rejoice at the paternal
care manifested towards those degraded beings by the local government, although
it may have overlooked certain rights of the owners in dispensing its own will and
pleasure in regard to their slaves.

The first enactment of a Regulation for the Registration of slaves in the Malabar
districts of the island, took place in the year 1806, during the administration of His
Excellency the late Right Honorable Sir Thomas Maitland, G. C. B. ; and so
important has this measure been considered by His Excellency’s successors in the
government, that a strict attention to its provisions has been continued, and is
still enforced.

During the administration of His Excellency the late General Sir Robert Brownrigg,
the registration of slaves was attended to with a still greater surveillance on the part
of the government than at any former period, from the circumstance of its being
entered into with all the ardour of personal interest, by the late James Sutherland,
Esq., the then talented superintendent, as deputy secretary to government, of the
home and judicial department of the Chief Secretary’s office.

FOREIGN PECULATORS AND THEIR REWARDS— PUBLIC INTEGRITY AND RUIN. 21

In the furtherance of this important measure, Mr. Sutherland found an active and
able coadjutor in James Nicholas Mooyaart, Esq., the humane and enlightened fiscal
of Jaffna at that period ; who, although a natural-born subject of Holland, has since
been appointed to the civil service ; in which, much to the satisfaction of all who know
him, he now holds a high and lucrative office.

I may, perhaps, be allowed to digress, for a moment, from the direct line of route
I had sketched for myself, to remark, that it would have been a wise precaution, if the
government had been equally as select in all its other appointments of foreigners, in¬
cluding the Frenchman, the Greek, the Italian, and the German : for, in that case, the
records of the civil establishment of Ceylon would not have exhibited the numerous
pollutions, which, through favoritism, the personal convenience of former Governors,
and the impunity with which private interest induced the then noble secretary for the
colonies' to allow the official convicts to escape, it now does.

The enormous peculations, and subsequent innumerable peijuries, committed by
these foreign employes, (from which British subjects were not, I regret to say, alto¬
gether exempt,) with a view to conceal their repeated breaches of official trust, with
the public monies under their charge, were either allowed to be committed with im¬
punity, or, if such total destitution of public duty and private principle did temporarily
subject them, after discovery and conviction, to the displeasure of the Right Honorable
Lord, who then held the seals of the colonial department, it was either followed,
through private influence, by restoration to the service, to secure a pension, or
employment, with an increase of salary, (to <£2000 a year in two instances,) in
defiance of the recorded judgment of the Governor in council ; but if an un¬
fortunate critic of such measures of encouragement to official villainy, gave vent
to his opinions, even while dispensing hospitality at his own table, it was sure
of repetition, at “ Head Quarters,” by some “ China carrier ” or other ; and Homer’s
truism, “He who has the power will have the revenge,” exemplified, as a matter
of course !

To return to the subject of slavery: — The government has enfranchised about
three thousand five hundred female children of slaves within the last twenty one years,
and the number of adult slaves who have purchased their own manumission, may be
estimated in round numbers at a thousand, including male children : but the Malabar
slaves do not now show so much anxiety, as formerly, to become free. This may
arise from their increased value, since their owners manifested such great objections
to the government system of compelling them to accept whatever sums the arbitrators
might fix for the manumission of adult slaves at their own cost ; and the consequent

22

ORDINANCE FOR THE REGISTRATION OF SLAVES.

amelioration of the condition of these unfortunate beings may have reconciled them
to a quiescent submission to their fate.

In the year 1837, the government extended the Registration of slaves, (which by the
former Regulations, and prior to the acquisition of the Kandyan kingdom, had been
limited to the maritime provinces,) throughout the island, by an Ordinance of the
Governor, with the advice and consent of the Legislative Council, of which the
following is the substance.

“ 1. The registration by proprietors or persons in charge of slaves in parts of the
island of Ceylon to which former Regulations did not extend, of the name, age, sex,
and description of their several slaves in the register of the District Court, before the
first day of July, 1838.

“ 2. The notification of the death of a registered slave, or of the birth of a child
of a slave, within eight days after the event, to. the Secretary of the District Court ;
and if the mother of the child whose birth is so reported, have not previously been
registered in that District, the proprietor or person in charge to produce a certificate
' of the last registry of such mother.

“ 3. Upon the acquisition of any registered slave, whether by purchase, gift, legacy,
inheritance or otherwise, the person acquiring the same, or his or her agent, to give
notice to the Secretary of the Court of the District in which such proprietor or agent
resides, within eight days ; and if the slave had not previously been registered in that
District, to produce a certificate of the last registry.

“ 4. The Secretary of the District Court, within forty eight hours (exclusive of Sun¬
days and Holidays) after the receipt of notice of the birth, death, or acquisition of a
slave, and on production of the certificate required in the two preceding clauses, to
register the same ; and if the slave whose death, or the mother of the slave whose
birth is reported, or the slave reported to have been acquired, had not previously been
registered in that District, to transmit, within forty eight hours of such notice, a full
report of particulars, to the Secretary of the District Court in which the slave had
been registered.

“ 5. Certificates of registry to be issued by the Secretary of the District Court to
persons making such registry (unless in cases of reasonable cause for delay) within
twenty four hours (exclusive of Sundays and Hobdays) after the application ; and in
the absence of the Secretary, the District Judge to order the certificates to be prepared
and issued by some other Officer of his Court.

<f 6. The certificates to be written upon a stamp of one shilbng, if appbed for within
three months after registration, and of five shillings at any subsequent period, at the

ORDINANCE FOR THE REGISTRATION OF SLAVES.

23

expense of the slave owner or holder ; and from and after the said first day of July,
1838, no Court to consider any person a slave unless a certificate of the last registry
be produced.

“ 7. A registered slave to be furnished by the Secretary of the District Court with
a copy of the registry within twenty four hours (exclusive of Sundays and Holidays)
after application, free of all charge.

“ 8. A proprietor or person in charge of a slave failing to comply with the pro¬
visions of the said Ordinance, is liable to the following penalties, viz. — For failing to
enregister any slave as required by the first clause, or acquisition of any slave, or birth
of any child of a slave, within the periods prescribed, the forfeiture of all right in any
slave or child not registered, and all the children of such slave if a female, who are
declared 'enfranchised ; and for omitting to notify the death of any slave, a fine not
exceeding five pounds, one half thereof to the informer ; and in all cases the Defendant
to prove his compliance with the provisions of the said Ordinance : and the penalties
it imposes to be over and above all such punishment as may by law be inflicted, or civil
damages for detaining free persons in slavery or selling them as slaves.

“ 9. The Secretary of a District Court neglecting or refusing to comply with the
provisions of the said Ordinance, is liable to a fine not exceeding ten pounds.

“ 10. Any person claiming to register any slave under the first clause of the said
Ordinance, to bring such slave openly before the District Court on the day of registra¬
tion ; and the Judge to put such questions to the person claiming to enregister, or
the person to be registered, as he may think necessary to satisfy himself that the said
person is actually the person intended to be registered, and cause it to be explained to
the said person that he is alleged to be a slave ; and further compare the slave with
the description given for the purpose of registration, and sign his name in the original
register opposite to the slave’s name and in the proper column, in token that the said
person agrees with the description ; and a copy of each register of a slave, and of any
alteration thereof, to be translated into the native language of the District and
placed in a conspicuous place at the Court House for three months after such
registration.

“11. The forms of registers and certificates to be according to the Schedules an¬
nexed to the said Ordinance, and a correct transcript of each registry to be transmitted
byr the District Judge of the District to the Colonial Secretary’s Office immediately
after the said first day of July, 1838, and of all new entries or alterations in the
registers for every three months subsequent thereto to be also sent to the Colonial
Secretary’s Office within one month after the termination of each quarter.

24

ORDINANCE FOR THE REGISTRATION OF SLAVES.

“ 12. Any person making a false report to the Secretary of a District Court, or
bringing any person not being the person intended to be registered, with a view to
make a false or fraudulent registry, or any person wilfully making any false entry in
the original registry or in the transcripts thereof for the Colonial Secretary’s Office,
or fraudulently erasing or altering such entry, or, being an Officer duly authorised to
issue extracts from the same, issuing any false or fraudulent paper purporting to be an
extract therefrom, to be deemed to be guilty of a misdemeanour.

“ 13. Every proprietor or person in charge of a slave to be held liable to support
every sick or infirm slave registered as his property or in his charge, and the District
Court, on application by or on behalf of any such sick or infirm slave, to ascertain the
truth of such complaint, and to make such order as it shall deem fit for the due
support of such slave, or medical assistance to such slave, at the cost of the owner or
person in charge, to be recovered from him by distress on his property.

“ 14. Within three months after the termination of three years from the closing of
the register directed by the said Ordinance to be opened in each District, or within
three months after the termination of three years from the registry of the birth or
acquisition of a slave, according to the circumstances of the case, and thereafter in
like manner trienially, every proprietor or person in charge of a slave to take out from
the District Court a renewed certificate of the registry of such slave, upon a stamp of
one shilling, at the cost of the proprietor or person in charge of such slave ; and prior
to the issue thereof, each slave for whom such renewed certificate is claimed to be
taken out to be brought before the District Court, when the registry is to be examined,
and such questions put as the Court shall deem necessary to satisfy itself that the per¬
son before the Court is the person registered ; and the District Judge to enter in the
register, the date of such slave appearing before the Court, and such alteration of the
description of such slave as he shall find necessary, and affix his initials thereto ; and
where the proprietor or person in charge of a slave shall omit to take out a renewed
certificate of registry, such slave to be declared absolutely free ; provided, that such
neglect shall not exonerate the owner or holder from the obligation to maintain
any sick or infirm slave to which he is liable by the said Ordinance ; and such
renewed certificates of registry shall be issued in like manner as certificates of
original registry.”

CHAP. III.

Facilities of irrigation — Culture of Rice very inadequate to the consumption — Classification of Rivers — Mavuli-
Ganga, Kalane-Ganga, Kalu-Ganga, Wallewe-Ganga — Analysis of their waters — Second-rate Rivers, Maha-Oya,
Parapa-Oya, Dedroo-Oya, Navil-Aar — Inferior Streams — Mountains — Lakes or Tanks of Padeviel-Kolom, Kan-
delle, and Miner e — Suggestions for the introduction of Hindoo Agriculturists from the Peninsula of India — Ralph
Backhouse, Esq. — His description of the Kandelle Lake — Singhalese King Maha-Sen, A. D. 275 — Dedication <j
Lands to Temples — Oppressive system of Rajah-Karia, or royal service, abolished by Lord Viscount Goderich, His
Majesty's principal secretary of state for the colonies, in 1832 — Suggestions for the restoration of the ancient tanks
— Duties upon paddee fields and coco-nut topes — Amount paid for rice to French colonies in 1840 — Suggestions to
Her Majesty's secretary of state for the colonies, far a general sui-vey of temple and other lands adapted to the cul¬
ture of rice — Caution as to the reports made by natives — Suggestions for the non-removal of provincial agents.

The means of irrigation are boundless ; for the island being intersected in almost
every direction by perennial mountain streams, every facility is afforded by nature for
the formation of canals, where they do not yet exist ; and where these may not be
practicable, for the formation of tanks and reservoirs, and the restoration of many
ancient ones, that are capable of being repaired.

These cover an immense area, sufficient for the inundation of hundreds of thousands
of acre§ for the cultivation of rice, by which the island, instead of being, as it is now,
partly dependent upon extraneous supplies of that staff of life to the native inhabi¬
tants, may again become one of the principal granaries of India, and, as in the year
1639,* supply the whole coast of Coromandel from the surplus of its produce.

A chief river is locally styled Ganga, but this term is indiscriminately applied to
streams of minor importance ; a second-rate river, Oya.

Of the former, the principal is the Mavali-Ganga,f which river has its source in the
mountainous region of Neuwara-Eliya, flows through part of the Kotmale district,
where it is called the Kotmale-Ganga, and washing the capital of the interior, Kandy,
the Muragramum of the ancient Romans, rapidly descends through the plains of the
district of Bintenne, and part of the savage country called Vedahratte, about thirty five

* Mandelsloh’s Travels into the Indies, book ii. page 115.

f According to Chambers’s account of the Tamul language, the Tamulians (or Malabars) having no h in then
alphabet, are under a necessity of shortening the Sanscrit wor4 Maha, great, and write it Ma. They are obliged
also for a similar reason to substitute a v for a b in Sanscrit words or other foreign originals that begin with that
letter. Hence the Mavali-Ganga, which waters the eastern side of Ceylon, where the Tamulic prevails, has pro¬
bably taken its name from Bali, the famour hero of Hindoo romance, and Ganga, one of the Indian goddesses
of the waters, who is painted as a beautiful woman walking upon a river, and bearing in each hand a flower of the
Nympheea Lotos. J — Ganga is described as having sprung, like the armed Pallas of the Romans, from the head
of Indra, the Indian Jupiter.

D

26

CHIEF RIVERS— KALANE— SINGHALESE KING KAL AN ETISS A.

miles from Kandy, where its fall is calculated at from 900 to 1000 feet, and receiving
in its way various tributary streams, meanders through a dry and almost level country,
whence it diverges into several branches ; and finally forming a delta of the district
of Kottiaar, the northern branch, which is there called the Kotti-Aar, debouches at
the bay of that name, and the southern branch between the ports of Trincomale and
Batticaloa, on the east side of the island, where it is called the Virgel-Ganga.

That the Mavali-Ganga may be made navigable, and of boundless utility to the in¬
ferior, by means of locks, there can ’scarcely exist a doubt ; and as cultivation extends,
and additional means are required for transporting the increased quantity of produce
to a port of export, it will become a matter of general importance to the country.
But so long a period must elapse before there would be a return for capital employed,
that it would be nothing less than madness for private speculation to attempt it.
Whether made navigable or not, there is nothing to prevent the agriculturist from
turning the waste waters of this splendid river to the advantageous irrigation of the
valuable lands through which it meanders.

In the rainy season the Mavali-Ganga has been known to rise sixty feet above its
usual level at Paradenia, near Kandy, in the course of a few hours, overflowing the
road to Colombo, which could only be traversed in boats.

The second river in magnitude, but chief in point of importance, is the Kalane-
Ganga, which derives its name from a very ancient city, called Kalane, whose sovereign,
Kalanetissa, is said to have flourished about 250 or 260 B. C.,* but the date of his
reign is not definitively ascertained. Kalane, now a mere village, has a celebrated
temple, and its banks are washed by this stream, whidh rises in the mountains of Saff-
ragam, near Hamalell or Adam’s Peak, in the southern province ; but it only takes
that name at the confluence of the Maskelli-Ganga and Kehelgamua-Ganga, whose
united waters form the Kalane-Ganga, at Weraloo-Ella, and debouches at Modera,
about four miles north of the fort of Colombo, where it is called the Mutwaal river ; but
a bar of sand at the entrance occasionally acts as effectually as a dam, and greatly
increases the width of the river, which is crossed at Pasbetal, on the northern road,
by a bridge of boats.

The third is the Kaltura river, called by the Singhalese Kalu-Ganga,f and Setagon-
gola-Oya at its source, about 4000 feet above the level of the sea, in the mountain called

* Tumour’s Epitome of Singhalese History.

+ From Kalu, black, and Ganga, river, owing to the deep shade over its waters, which, —

“ Darkened by their native scenes.

Create wild images, and phantoms dire.

Strange as their hills, and gloomy as their storms.”

CHIEF RIVERS, ANALYSIS OF THEIR WATERS— SECOND-RATE RIVERS.

27

Adam’s Peak, and flowing past Battugeddera and Ratnapora, (where, in the rainy season,
it has been known to rise twenty five feet above its usual level, in the course of a few
hours ;) and receiving several tributary streams, rapidly descends to Kaltura, and joins
the sea through a narrow channel formed by two sand banks.

The Wallewe-Ganga is the fourth ; but of much less importance than either of the
former, and a bar of sand forms a dam at its extremity, except during the rainy season,
when it rises full twenty feet above its usual level. At other times it is almost every¬
where fordable, from about half a mile above the ferry at the village of Wanderope,
(which is about two miles from the sea,) to its source in the mountains of Ouva, in
the southern province.

These mountain springs form the grand drains of the high lands of the interior,
and are remarkable for their purity, differing only from rain water in containing slight
traces of muriate of soda, or common salt, or of vegetable matter, and occasionally
of carbonat of lime and suspened clay.* But nevertheless the natives residing noon
the banks of the Wallewe-Ganga, will not even bathe in that river during the rany
season, on account of the quantity of decomposing vegetable matter carried down by
the stream, rendering not only the water but the air unwholesome, and producing
jungle fever if drunk or bathed in. Perhaps this very circumstance may be one cause
of the great salubrity of the interior, by washing the dead and putrifying vegetable
matter from the surface, and preventing its accumulation.

Of the second-rate rivers, by which the country between the mountains and the low
lands, as well as the latter, are drained, the Kaymel river, as it is called at its mouth
in the western province, and Maha-Oya at its source and intermediate meanderings, is
the most important. The next are the Parapa-Oya, which has its source to the east
ward of the mountains of Ouva, and flowing past the Hindoo temple of Kattregam.
enters the sea, under the name of the Yalle river, in the southern province ; the Chi lav
river, called also Dedroo-Oya in the interior, which debouches at Chilaw in the western
province ; and the Navil-Aar, which rises in the mountains of Bintenne, and debouches
between Karetivoe and Singharetopoe in the eastern province.

The other streams which have their sources and flow into the sea on the east side
of the island are the Waroewekale-Aar, Nay-Aar, Kokele-Aar, Malekante-Aar, Irikante-
Aar, Virgel-Aar and Virgel-Ganga, the latter being the largest stream, and both rivers
merely branches of the Mavali-Ganga ; Pannitchicanie-Ganga, also a branch of the
Mavali-Ganga ; Bampore or Nallore-Aar, Batticaloa river,. Viriadi-Aar, Periekel-Aai;
Mootoe-Aar, (a branch of the Navil-Aar,) Aroekgam-Aar, and Konokan-Aar.

* By Dr. John Davy’s analysis.

MINOR STREAMS— MOUNTAINS— LAKES OR TANKS.

T he rivers which disembogue on the western side of the island are the Mandekal-
Aar, Pali-Aar, Perie-Aar, Kambotokke-Aar, Awarie-Aar, Kal-Aar, Marchikatte-Aar,
Pomparipo-Aar, W ellikar-Aar, Pantura-Oya, and Bentotte-Oya (a branch of the
M apelgam-Ganga), which rises in the Saffragam mountains.

Several streams which also branch from the Mapelgam-Ganga, debouche at Bailepitie-
Modera, Amblamgodde, Hiccode, Dodandewe, and Gindurah, as well as the Matura,
Tangalle, Ranne, Yalle (a branch of the Parapa-Oya), and Kirinde rivers in the
southern province.

The mountains, from whence these perennial streams derive their sources, are not
situate in the middle of the island, as many imagine, from the circumstance of that
part of it being called Kandy, or Highlands, from the Singhalese word Kandi, high,
but between the parallels of 6° 40' and 7° 40’ of north latitude, about the middle
of the southern half of it.

Lieut. Colonel Fraser, the Deputy Quarter Master General to the Forces in Ceylon,
ascertained the height of the principal highlands by geometrical operations ; the fol¬
lowing is the ascending scale of elevation of the several mountains in English feet.
At given by that highly respected and gallant officer.

The highest point in the road leading through the Kadooganawa pass, 1731 feet; this
was ascertained by levelling ; the hill above Mattan Pattanna, 3192 feet ; Alloogalle
near Amoonapoorre, 3440 ; Amboolluawa near Gampalla, 3540 ; Oorragalle the rocky
ndge of Hantanne to the southward of the town, 4380 ; Hoonasagiria peak, 4990 ;
Diatatawe, near Hangorankette , 5030 ; the Knuckles, a part of the same chain of
mountains as the Homasagiria peak, 6180 ; plain of Neuwara-Eliya, 6210 ; Kammoona-
koole near Badula, 6740; plain of Wilmanie, 6990; Adam's Peak , 7420; Totapella,
7720 ; Kirigalpatta, 7810 ; and Pedrotallagala close to the Rest House of Neuwara-
Eliya, the highest land in Ceylon, 8280 feet above the level of the sea. This proves
that the far-famed Adam’s Peak, heretofore described as the highest of the Ceylon
mountains, holds only the fourth rank in point of altitude.

According to the author already cited, and whose analysis may be relied on, the
difference between the water of the smaller rivers and that of the mountain springs
consists in their containing, with the exception of the suspened clay, larger propor¬
tions of common salt, carbonat of lime, and of vegetable matter.

But these are not the only means of irrigation that the island possesses ; for its artifi¬
cial lakes or tanks, in repair or capable of being repaired, may be called innumerable.

Of the most ancient and extensive, those of Padeviel-Kolom in the northern, and
of Kandelle and Minere in the eastern province, are deservedly the chief objects of

SUGGESTIONS FOR EXTENDING THE CULTURE OF RICE.

29

the traveller’s attention ; and it is to be hoped, that at no very distant period the
government of the country, if individual speculators will not, will set a proper estimate
upon their value and importance ; and by restoring them to their pristine efficiency,
induce Hindoo agriculturists from the peninsula of India to settle in this part of Ceylon.
The agriculture of the country will soon recover its former wholesome state of vigorous
usefulness, and the island once more become independent of other countries for rice, and
an exporter of the surplus of its produce of that prime necessary of native consumption.

According to the late Mr. Ralph Backhouse’s description to me of the lakes of
Kandelle and Minere, both of which he visited, as well as the ancient capital of
Anaradahpoora, between the years 1820 and 1822, at which period he was collector
(synonymous with government agent) of the district of Manaar, the extent of the
former was fifteen miles in circumference ; but as upon this point authors differ greatly,
one making it three or four miles, and another twenty miles, perhaps Mr. Backhouse
was governed by his own ideas of extent and distance in judging of its superficies. —
Mr. Backhouse however measured the height and length of the embankment, which
rested upon solid rock at one extremity, and upon an artificial mound of earth at the
other, and found the former 22 feet, the latter 11 furlongs, and the base 180 feet.

However greatly inferior in size the Kandelle tank to that of Minere, its construction
affords proofs, by the hewn blocks of rock composing its solid wall, of the superior
skill in the art of masonry which the ancient inhabitants of the country possessed,
and almost everywhere displayed in their public works. The lake is environed with
extensive and verdant plains, capable of affording pasturage to many thousands of
cattle, o’* for an unlimited cultivation of paddee,* and the neighbourhood has almost
inexhaustible resources in timber trees of great bulk, adapted for every useful and
domestic purpose of construction and ornament. — Kandelle is situate in the Tamblegam
district, in the eastern province, and about thirty miles S. W. of Trincomale.

The lake of Minere is about the same distance and bearings from that of Kandelle,
and in the district of T ambankadewe. also in the eastern province. The country
between them is diversified with woods and plains, which latter are in some parts
inundated during the rainy season. The tank of Minere is twenty miles in circum¬
ference, surrounded with marshy lands, capable of a very extensive cultivation of rice,
and having abundant forests of the most valuable timber trees in their vicinity.

These lakes were formerly connected by an aquaduct ; and there is a connexion
between that of Kandelle and the Mavali-Ganga by what may be called the western
branch of the Virgel-Ganga, and with that of Minere by the western branch of the

* Rice in the husk, or state of culture.

30

KING MAHA-SEN— TEMPLE LANDS— RAJAH-KARrA

same river, there called the Kotti-Aar. There are but very few inhabitants occupying
the village of Minere.

These lakes, together with that of Padeviel-Kolom in the northern province, are
the chief of that denomination in the island ; but Singhalese history affirms that there
were at one time above 200,000 artificial tanks in Ceylon ; and that the immense
work called the lake or tank of Minere, or Mennairia, was formed in the reign of the
Singhalese king, Maha-Sen, whose capital was Anaradahpoora, (now a mere village,)
in the year of Christ 275, and of Buddha 818 ; and that, by means of dams, the stream
of the Kara-Ganga was turned into it.*

To this king, the same orthodox authority attributes the formation of sixteen other
tanks, and of the Tallawattuella canal, by which 20,000 paddee fields were formed
and dedicated to the temple of Danawetta, whereby the fields got the name of Dan -
talawe, (synonymous with Gantalawe, which signifies a voluntary gift to temples,) and
are now called Kandelle.

Though the sovereign was considered to have been originally the sole landlord,
extensive lands belonged to lay individuals and to the priesthood. Temple lands were
chiefly royal donatives ; and we may infer that the same were originally granted by the
king for signal services to the state. It is true that they might become retainers to
the crown or to the temples ; but, as the latter service was less oppressive, and held
out spiritual consolation, they generally dedicated their lands to the vihare in prefer¬
ence to the rajah.

When lands had thus been consecrated to the temple, the donor received protection,
and pledged himself to perform certain personal services. In cases where lands were
dedicated to temples by rajahs, the services to be rendered by cultivators of the soil,
were minutely detailed in inscriptions upon stone, still extant, and even upon .solid
rocks, near the temples to which such lands were appropriated by the rajah or king.

Temple lands are free frem Rajah-Karia, or royal service ; and that duty, which in
the king’s villages was paid to the king, was then paid to the temple. This ancient
system may be traced to have obtained antecedently to the Christian era.

Forced labour however no longer exists, either under the name of Rajah-Karia, oi
any other definition ; but it is almost incredible that Englishmen, naturally jealous
of their own rights, could have really desired the continuance of the feudal oppressions,
which Lord Viscount Goderich took the best means of removing, root and branch,
from the Singhalese nation, by an order in council, which abolished personal service,
or forced and unpaid labour, and placed them upon equal privileges with ourselves,

* Tumour’s Epitome of Singhalese History.

SOUND POLICY— HINDOO AGRICULTURISTS— RICE IMPORTED.

31

their fellow men and fellow subjects ; and yet this glorious act of the most consummate
and benevolent policy was condemned by many in the colony !

The restoration of the ancient tanks would certainly be a work of time ; and as
cultivation only could be the result of that elementary measure, the settler would
naturally look to the Government for assistance in carrying the latter into effect, for
he would hesitate to make any considerable outlay where the prospective advantages
were so very distant. By holding out adequate encouragement by a guarantee of
certain immunities and privileges for a fixed period, the principal of which should be
the grant of lands free of taxes for a certain number of years, (but charging a water
rate upon lands deriving benejit from the repaired tanks,) and further that the extension
of such term should be made proportionate to the increase of agriculture, the Govern¬
ment will insure the cultivation of the entire country by Hindoo settlers.

The Hindoos are a very superior race, in as far as regards industrious habits, to the
Singhalese, who are naturally inclined to indolence, for they are more sanguine in
their speculations, provided they have corresponding encouragement : and the more
liberal the conditions of settlement in Ceylon, the more beneficial will be the result
to the government and colony at large. In the list of advantages may be classed the
increase of trade coastwise, which would be more than an equivalent for the interest
of capital advanced by the local government for the restoration of the tanks to their
original state of agricultural utility.

But notwithstanding all the existing facilities for the cultivation of rice, the staple of
chief importance to the natives, what is the state of Singhalese agriculture connected
therewith ?

The duties upon paddee fields scarcely yield a moiety of the collections upon coco¬
nut and toddy topes ; and in the year ending the 5th of January 1841, the quantity
of rice produced in Ceylon was so very inadequate to the consumption, that the value
of the paddee and rice imported, amounted to £114,866, 1«. 4 d., of which sum £20,489
16s. was paid to French colonies!!

Such then is the state of the production of the staff of life for the population of
nearly a million and a half of British subjects ; and should this book be honored with
even a cursory perusal by Her Majesty’s principal Secretary of State for the Colonial
department, I do humbly but earnestly implore his Lordship to give this one point his
deliberate consideration.

Fwould begin by causing a survey of all crown lands to be made by district survey¬
ors, under the immediate inspection of the agents of government and their assistants,
in their respective provinces and districts, distinguishing such lands as are capable of

32

SURVEYS OF RICE GROUNDS SUGGESTED— AGENTS OF GOVERNMENT.

producing mountain rice, from those that have the means of irrigation ; for we all
know, who have resided in India, that certain qualities of excellent rice are adapted
solely to the former, but the greater variety to the latter mode of culture. Every
tank capable of repair should be also surveyed and reported, as to its extent, and em¬
bankments, the sources that supply it with water, and the means of carrying off its
superabundance, during the rainy season, so as to prevent those lands which it supplies
when the rice plant requires water, from being inundated at other times when it equ¬
ally requires the evaporation of moisture to attain maturity.

The report should also separately express the position and extent of the temple
lands, and those of private individuals, adapted to the growth of rice, and the quantity
of that staple that had been produced^ in each during the preceding seven years. It
may then be easily ascertained, upon a fair comparison of the superficies of the pro¬
vince with the number of its population, how far rice has been adequately cultivated
in that province.

But prior to any such survey being made, or report called for by the government,
there are a few important points deserving attention. First, the colonial government
should demand and seal up all former reports from the different cutcheries, so as to
prevent a reference thereto by the present government agents. I speak from my own
knowledge during my residence in the island, that in very many instances the annual
reports of the districts were merely transcribed by collectors, with here and there a few
alterations for the sake of consistency, from the reports of their predecessors. By this
means, the work was easily got rid of by the temporary occupier of office, and the
government not much enlightened by any report subsequently to the original one.
The qualification of a provincial agent for the office he holds might be ascertained by
his report of the capabilities of the province under his superintendence ; and it would
be a wise determination of the government to allow of no removal of its provincial
agents, except for misconduct and incapacity, during their period of service in the
colony ; and that would ensure a perfect acquaintance with the resources and population
of their provinces. Their rank might be defined by long standing, and their services
be rewarded by a gradual increase of salary. Secondly, no dependence should be
placed upon native, returns, but sufficient encouragement be held out to young and
well-qualified civil surveyors to serve in Ceylon, in addition to the present limited local
establishment of civil engineers.

CHAP. IV.

Fiscal division of the Island into Provinces — Variety of Soil — Ui successful Sugar speculation at Kaltura —
Successful experiments with the Sugar cane at Koondesale — Local h wenue — Exports — Imports — Suggestions for
extending the hours of business at the Colombo custom-house — Vexa ions to the Mercantile community and sugges¬
tions to H. M. Secretary of State for the Colonies for their removat — Imports at Colombo for the years 1840 and
1841 — Increase of Exports from that port — Imperial Standard weights and measures — Dutch Standard measures
— Singhalese specification of the nature and tenure of Lands.

The island is divided into five fiscal provinces, styled eastern, western, northern,
southern, and central, which are subdivided into districts. Each province is super¬
intended by an agent of government, with a limited number of assistant agents, to
whom the charge and collection of the land revenue and sea customs are entrusted,
with the exception of the customs of the port of Colombo in the western province ;
where, of late years, the new and distinct situation of comptroller of customs for the
island, with a salary of <£600 a year, and an establishment of three clerks, has super¬
seded the former method of conducting this duty, which was executed conjointly
with that of commissioner of stamps.

The eastern province comprises the former districts of Trincomale, Batticaloa, and
the interior provinces of Tamankadewe and Bintenne, except Wegampaha, Kooloo-
gampaha, and Miganagolla-Palata. The agent of government at Trincomale super¬
intends the custom-house duties, there, and the assistant agent, at Batticaloa. The
superficies of this province is 4895 square miles.

The western province comprises the former districts of Colombo, Chilaw, and
Putlam, upon the sea; the Dessavonies * of the Seven Kories, Four Kories, Three
Kories, and province of Lower Bulatgamme. The agent of government resides at
Colombo, and his assistants (including the superintendent of the salt department) at
Chilaw, Calpentyn, and Negombo. The customs’ department is distinct and super¬
intended by a collector, who has five assistants, by whom the duties of the minor
custom-houses of Pantura, Caltura, Negombo, Chilaw, and Calpentyn are executed.
The superficies of this province is 4452 square miles.

* A native term, synonymous with that of a provincial collectorship of revenue.

E

34

PROVINCES— VARIETY OF SOIL— SUGAR.

The northern province comprises the former districts of Jaffna, Manaar, Wanne,
the Dessavony of Neuwarakelawiye, and the island of Delft. The agent of government
at Jaffna acts also as collector of customs, and his assistants superintend the minor
custom-houses of Cayts, Point Pedro, and Manaar. The superficies of this province
is 6053 square miles.

The southern province comprises the former districts of Galle, Tangalle, Matura,
and Hambantotte, upon the coast, the Dessavony of Saffragam, and province of Lower
Ouva and Wellasse in the former Kandyan territory. The customs’ duties are exe¬
cuted by the agent of government, who resides at Point de Galle, and by his assistants
at the minor custom-houses of Dodandoowe-Modere, Ballepitte-Modere, and Bellegam.
The superficies of this province is 6032 square miles.

The central province comprises the whole of the former districts of Kandy, Yatti-
neuwara, Udu-neuwara, Harasia-Pattoo, Tumpane, Doombera, Hewahette, Kotmale,
Weyaloowa, Upper Bulatgamme, Wegampaha, Kooloogampaha, Miganagolla-Palata,
and the Dessavonies of Uwa, Matelle, Udapalata, and Wallapane, The superficies
of this province is 3016 square miles.

Every province presents such a varied soil, that whether alluvial, kabook,* sandy,
or vegetable mould be requisite for different objects of culture, settlers will find no
difficulty in fixing upon suitable localities. Opinion was at one time pretty general,
although I never concurred in it, that sugar could not be grown in the island, so as
to insure a sufficient return for capital laid out. This, I believe, originated in the
failure of experiments at Kaltura, upon the estates of Charles Edward Layard and
James Anthony Mooyaart, Esqrs., who were alike indefatigable in every undertaking
of public or private utility. These gentlemen introduced the culture of the sugar cane,
but upon too extensive a scale for a first experiment; and, owing to the quantity of iron
with which the soil there is almost everywhere impregnated, were unsuccessful.

That sugar is now grown, equal to any produced in Siam or China, recent
extensive experiments at Koondesale, in the central province, have fully established.
In a few years the island will become independent of other countries for this article
of domestic consumption, whilst its greater cheapness, by rendering it accessible to the
lower classes, will increase the demand for it to an extent that must ensure its general
cultivation wherever the soil may be found adapted to it. And it is therefore to

t

* Ferruginous clay-soil, derived from the decomposition of clay- iron stone, of a reddish brown, of which a
well-dried specimen was found to consist, according to Dr. John Davy’s analysis, of 83.5 of ferruginous clay, and
16.5 of water, with traces of vegetable matter.

LOCAL REVENUE— EXPORTS.

35

be anticipated, from the justice and good policy of Parliament, that long before
this island produces a surplus for exportation, the import duties upon East and West
India sugars will have been equalized in the home tariff. If a judgment may be
formed from the few samples that have been brought by private individuals to this
country, the quality of the Kandyan sugar is not surpassed by that of Mauritius or
Bengal, either in the quantity of its saccharine matter, or in point of crystalization.
It would, however, be more satisfactory if those proofs could be established, by larger
samples of Ceylon sugar being analyzed with equal quantities of the produce of Mau-
riti.i , and Bengal, by disinterested parties, and for the result of such analysis to be
made generally known in the British market.

The local revenue is derived from the duties on cinnamon, salt, tobacco, fish farms,
pear! and chank ( Valuta gravis ) fisheries, marriage and spirit licences, judicial and
commercial stamps, fines, land commutation tax, auction duties, post-office receipts,
charges for boat hire and pilotage, anchorage dues, sales of gunpowder, horses from
the government stud at Delft island, Ceylon Gazette, and Calendar, house and land
rents, premiums upon sales of bills upon the Treasury, timber, Yedah tribute, and
customs’ duties upon exports and imports.

Ceylon exports arrack (distilled from the toddy of the Cocos-nucifera ), arrow root
(. Maranta arundinacea ), Areka nuts {Areka Catechu), bark for tanning, bees’ wax,
betel leaves and flower ( Piper Betel), bicho de mar or sea slug ( Holothurion Tripari),
castor oil and seed ( Ricinus palma Christi), cassia fistula, greater and lesser cardamoms,
cummim seed, cinnamon, cinnamon oil, clove oil, coffee, coco-nuts, coco-nut oil, copperah
or sun-dried pulp of the coco-nut for making oil, coir cordage, and loose coir for rope
making, stuffing mattresses, &c. chunam or shell lime, cotton, chank shells ( Voluta
gravis), chaya root ( Oldenlandia umbellata), country manufactured cotton cloth, dornatil
or wood oil, elephants’ tusks, fruits, gingely seed ( Sessamum orientals) and oil, dried
ghorkas (fruit of the Gambogia gutta), ginger, ghee or clarified buffalo’s butter, fine
hemp called hane (Crotolaria juncea), honey, hides, Aralunuts (Terminalia Chebulla, L.),
Illepei seed and oil ( Bassia longifdlia), Margosa seed and oil ( Melia Azaditachta, L.),
mats, marmelle water (extracted from the flower and fruits of the Cratceva Marmelos ),
Odil or Palmyra roots (Borassus jlabelliformis), coco-nut oil-cake or Poonac, pearls,
precious stones, resin, sappan wood ( Ccesalpinia Sappan), shells, sharks’ fins for the
China market, taggary seed ( Cassia Tora), tamarinds, twine, tobacco, turmeric, timber,
vinegar, and country winnows.

The imports consist of ale, almonds, anchovies, aniseed, ambergris, antimony, whifr,
red, and yellow arsenic, assafcetida, astronomical instruments, salted beef from Bengal

e 2

36

IMPORTS— CUSTOM-HOUSE VEXATIONS.

and Europe, beer of all kinds (including spruce), biscuits, blacking, books, boots and
shoes from Europe and Bengal, bottles, brandy, bullion, salt butter, black hellebore
root, camphor, chocolate and cocoa ( Theobroma Cacao), chamomile ( Anthemis Pyrethum),
cloves, broad cloths, wax and spermaceti candles, hemp and cotton canvas from
Europe and Bengal, capers, cards, canary seed, cattle, cordage, chalk, cheese, China
root {. Smilax aspera), cables, cordials, bottled cider, cinnabar or vermilliorf, Euro¬
pean, Indian, and Chinese cottons, nankins, and chintzes, colors, confectionary, copper,
crapes, currants, cutlery, earthenware from Europe and China, dholl or guinea pea
(Ciftixus Cajan, L.), fireworks from Europe and China, flannel, garden seeds, gauze, gin,
gloves, glue, gram, gum Benjamin (Ficus Benjamina), guns, gunpowder, copper caps,
shot, hams from Europe and China, hardware, hats from Europe and China, smoked
and salted herrings, horses, iron hoops for casks, indigo, jewellery, looking glasses,
glass, rock salt, incense, iron, thread, cotton, gold, and silver lace ; lacksay or Chinese
vermicelli, pig and sheet lead, liqueurs, mace, manna, marble, maps, mats from China
and the Maidive islands, medicines, millinery, music and musical instruments, needles,
nutmegs, linseed, salad, and turpentine oils ; onions, opium, paints, pearl barley,
pease, black pepper ( Pipe r nigrum), cotton root ( Gossypium herbaceum), perry, porter,
philosophical instruments, pickles, salt pork, quicksilver, rice, rosin, rattans (Calamus
Rotang ) from Acheen, Batavia, Malacca, and Pulo Pinang or Prince of Wales Island ;
sal-ammoniac, salt petre, saffron, preserves, pickled salmon, salted tongues, humps,
and briskets from Bengal ; sandal wood, sarsaparilla, sashes, sriioked sausages, saddlery,
raw and manufactured silk, sitaratta or the lesser galangal root, raw and tanned goat
skins, snuff, soap, stationery, staves for casks, spirits, sugar from Bengal, Batavia,
China, and Siam ; sulphur, tar, tea, gold and silver tinsels, foils of all colours,
tobacco pipes, toys, tutenague from China, varnish, verdigris, vinegar, wines of all
descriptions and. qualities, wheat and other grains from Bengal and the coasts of Coro¬
mandel and Malabar.

The very short time (between four and five hours a day, Sundays excepted,) for the
exporter to transact business at the Colombo custom-house, is too limited, without the
further impediments which embarrass the commerce of that port. In addition to other
difficulties, the merchant incurs serious risk of injury to colonial produce, particularly
coffee, during bad weather, by any delay in its transmission from the jetty to the
shipping in Colombo roads. The accommodations at the custom-house are very
inadequate to the wants of the exporters ; and during the rainy season considerable
damage may be done to coffee intended for exportation, by exposure, and even by
absorption, during that damp period, in the custom-house godowns or export ware-

IMPORTS AT COLOMBO FOR 1840-1841.

37

houses. It is therefore to be hoped, that Her Majesty’s Secretary of State for the
Colonies will be pleased to remove these and all restrictions upon the commerce
of the island ; and, by commanding an extension of the hours of business at the
Ceylon custom-house, afford every requisite facility to merchants.

Amongst other vexations, the Ceylon merchant is obliged to submit to the weighing
of his consignments of coffee before shipment ; just as if the local government was
ignorant that by the exporter neglecting to take the exact weight of all coffee ex¬
ported the loss would be his own. The merchant’s interest is to make his returns
to the custom-house as correct as possible, for he himself places the valuation thereon,
and pays 2| per cent, duty on that valuation ; and he has then to get the custom¬
house certificate that the coffee so returned is the produce of the island, without
which it would not be admitted for home consumption at the low duty : and surely
that of itself is a sufficient guarantee for the full weight being given ; for otherwise,
the coffee so imported into this country would be liable to an extra duty of 28$. per
cwt. for the surplus accruing from a false return to the Ceylon custom-house on the
part of the exporter.

The imports into the port of Colombo for the year ending 5th Jan. 1841, were : —

From Europe . .

, Cotton goods . . .

. £49,892

13

9

Haberdashery and millinery ... 5,626

4

1

Cutlery and hardware

. 1,078

19

2

Machinery and tools ...

. 4,997

7

3

Malt liquor .

. . 7,934

15

6

Bullion and sundries ...

. 56,514

8

1

126,044

7

10

Ditto, 1840, £153,063

14 9

From Asia .

, Cotton goods . .

4

11

Paddee .

. 7,188

8

1

Rice .

. . 87,178

17

3

Bullion and sundries ...

. 258,236

18

5

360,713

8

8

Ditto, 1840, £419,135

17 3

From French Colonies.

. Rice .

. 20,498

16

0

Sundries .

. 5,358

11

5

26,857

7

5

Ditto, 1840, £27,190

14 1

From sundry places ...

. 28,892

17

7

Grand total of imports for 1841 .

. £541,508

1

6

38

COLOMBO IMPORTS AND EXPORTS FOR lei**-!. >41.

The duty levied upon the above imports amounted to 36,0S2/. 1 5s. 6d., or about 6^
per cent. The decrease on goods from Europe, as compared with the imports oi
Is 10, was chiefly to be attributed to the falling off in the demand for cotton goods,
haberdashery, millinery, cutlery, hardware, machinery, and tools ; whilst the im¬
port of malt liquor had been increased by 1,197"/. lSs. 3d. The decrease on the
imports from Asia was owing to the lesser demand lor cotton goods ; and from the
French colonies, to the smaller supply of rice.

The exports for the same period were : —

To Great Britain . Coffee . £197,387 10 4

Cinnamon . 28,866 5 6

Coco-nut oil . 29,284 6 1

Precious stones . 6,112 17 6

Sundries . 15,937 7 5

To Asia

Ditto, 1840, £215,101 4 6

277,588

6

10

Arrack .

3,283

3

2

Areka nuts .

12,701

0

0

Bullion .

1,489

0

0

Cotton goods .

1,092

12

2

Sundries . .

7,773

3

3

26,338 18 7

Ditto, 1840, £46,536 8 4

To France . .. Cinnamon . 73 15 0

To sundry places . 6,359 9 1 1

The increase in the exports to Great Britain consisted principally of coffee, coco-nut
oil, and precious stones ; and the decrease to Asia was occasioned by the falling off
in the demand for arrack, betel nuts, and bullion. The duty paid on goods exported
amounted to 49,677/. 1$. Id., or equal to about 16 per cent. The great difference
between the rate of duty levied on imports and exports ( nearly 250 per cent, against
the productions of the island!!) cannot fail to excite attention.

The total value of imports, in 1840-1841 . £541,508 1 6

Ditto . 1839-1840 . 483,627 16 5

Increase . 57,8W0 5 1

The total value of exports, in 1840-1841 . . . 310,360 10 4

Ditto . 1839-1840 . 275,592 10 1

Increase

34,768 0 3

WEIGHTS AND MEASURES.

39

Vessels entered inwards, for the year ending 7th Jan. 1840 . 740

Ditto . ditto . 5th Jan. 1841 . 067

Decrease . .. 73

Vessels cleared outwards in 1 840 . 538

Ditto . 1*41 585

Increase . 47

These tables show the growing importance of Ceylon, and the little fear that can
exist of too much land being brought under cultivation, when one-fifth of the vaine
of the imports had been paid to other countries, including French colonies, for
food only.

Notwithstanding the adoption of the imperial standard for colonial weights and
measures, by the ordinance of the governor and councils (No. 2 of 1836), the specu¬
lative capitalist disposed to purchase lands from the natives, will find it convenient to
understand both their original tenure under the former Dutch government, and the
native standard of dry measure connected therewith.

The former dry measure was the Dutch parah, a cylinder of 11-^ inches in depth
and breadth, which was divided into twenty-four seers, and the seer, a cylinder of
depth equal to its diameter, subdivided into half and quarter seers. Standard gauges
were deposited for reference in every cutcherry,* as a protection against fraud through
defective, measures ; an indispensable precaution where the natives are such adepts at
cheating, that they first place the wooden measures in boiling water, then dry them
in the sun, and complete their roguery by coating the interior surface with a thick
layer of transparent dammer.f

Dry Measure.

4 (cut) chundoos make . 1 (cut) measure or seer,

4 J seers . 1 coorney,

2 \ coornies . 1 markal,

2 markals . 1 parah,

8 parahs . 1 ammonam>

9 f ammonams . . . . . 1 laste.

* Revenue office and residence of the agent of government.

A I /ad of resin extracted from a species of Pinus, ( Dammara alba,) a native of Malacca and Sumatra.

40

SINGHALESE NATURE AND TENURE OF LANDS.

Two hundred seers of paddee, when cleared of the husk, will yield about one
hundred and seventy six seers of rice.

There is a great difference in the paddee of various districts, and particularly
between that of the highlands and lowlands : the former is smaller, and of the latter
there are several varieties ; but the most nutritious and the most palatable rice,
although considered common, and known by a reddish film, is the sort called Patcheru
by the Singhalese.

Singhalese Specification of the Nature and Tenure of Lands.

Owitte Lands
Wattoeware .
AJudla we . .

Deuie . . .
Cltena .

Bandare
Devill .

Malajtalla

Ratmahere

Moetettoo . . . .

A/ide .

Ottoe and Parvene .

Meadows on the borders of rivers and canals.

Muddy grounds overgrown with thick jungle or underwood.

A V here the jungle has been burnt and the ground cultivated for
the first time.

At the base of hills or mountains.

Cleared of jungle or underwood every ten or twelve years,
and then sown with small grains, such as tala ( Sessamam
or lent ale) and korakan (Cy nos urns Coracanus).

Crown property.

Exempted from all taxes on condition of personal service upon
public occasions when required by the provincial agent of
government.

Originally leased, but reverted (upon the lessees’ death) to tin
landlord.

Originally the property of the crown, but granted to individuals
in consideration of the payment of ten per cent, upon the
produce.

Assigned and cultivated gratuitously by the villagers for the
support of the dignity of their headmen.

Of which the crown receives one hall' the produce.

Nearly synonymous, both being liable to the tax of ten per
cent, upon their produce. Parvene literally means private
lands.

CHAP. V.

improved state of the colonial revenue under the Right Honorable Sir George Murray's administration — Lord
' iscount Goderich renders it permanent — Governor Sir Robert IVilmot Horton succeeds Lieut. General Sir Edward
Bn rues- — Reduction of the civil expenditure — Reform of the chief secretary's office — Hit Majesty's representative
•t inged in effigy — China carriers ■ — Suggestions for the restoration of the civil and widows' pension funds — Lord
'• ‘derich's liberality insufficiently appreciated — Civil and military pug, and enormous and unmerited pensions to
•■•blows of civilians, contrasted icitk the pittances allowed to naval and military officers' widows — Revenue and
xpciuliture — Heavy imposts — Excess of revenue — Apathy of colonists as to the culture of cotton — Smjgeethms for
(he formation of government cotton plantations, and for training thousands of idle females and children to habits
»f industry and profitable employment — Trade of Ceylon quadrupled since the acquisition of Kandy in IS 15 —
Extraordinary con trust between the current prices of certain articles of British manufacture and of colonial pro-
•iuci — Partiality of the Singhalese for British productions — Exceptions in favor of Dutch manufactures — Sntgha*
lest require British example, and reductions in taxation and customs' duties, to stbnidate them to industry and
agricultural improvement — Anticipated result to the home manufacturer and local revenue.

Although it was under the administration of the colonies by the Right Honorable
Sir George Murray, G. C. B., that, for the first time for many years, the public revenue
of Ceylon yielded an excess over the expenditure, it was during his successor, the
Iiiirht Honorable Viscount Goderich’s (now Earl of Ripon) second tenure of the colonial
seals, from 1830 to 1S33 inclusively, that it assumed the appearance of permanency
which it has since maintained.

In the year 1831, the Right Honorable Sir Robert Wilmot Horton was appointed
to succeed His Excellency Lieut. General Sir Edward Barnes, as governor and com-
rnander-in-chief of Ceylon and its dependencies, upon the appointment of the latter
to the command-in-chief of the Bengal army ; and, as if example were in some degree
expedient to reconcile the heads of the civil departments to the reductions that
awaited them. His Excellency accepted the governorship at the reduced salary
of A' 7,000 a year.

His Excellency Sir Wilmot Horton was instructed to effect reductions in the civil
expenditure to the amount of 4?3S,000 a year ;* and Lord Goderich deserved the
gratitude of the colony for having delegated this peculiarly unpleasant task to the
management of a gentleman, pre-eminently qualified for carrying it into effect with
the utmost delicacy towards those who were about to suffer by the long-required
reforms, which had, at length, been determined upon by his Lordship, as His Majesty s
secretary of state for the colonies.

Communicated to the Author bv letter from the late governor. Sir Robert Wilmot Horten, Bart., G. C. H

42

REFORM OF THE CHIEF SECRETARY’S OFFICE.

A single instance may suffice to show the excessive amount that was expended
for the support of one department only ; and the manner in which the same duties
have, been since executed at the reduced rate, affords a clear proof that it has sustained
no loss, in point of efficiency, by the alteration.

In 1816, the chief secretary’s office at Colombo was superintended by two deputy
secretaries, (the chief secretaryship being a mere sinecure of £3000 a year,*) of whom,
the senior held also the office of secretary for the Kandyan provinces, at salaries of
£2000 and £1500 ; a first assistant at £640, a second assistant at £512, and an inde¬
finite number of extra assistants at £300 a year each ; but, allowing two extra
assistants, as an average, the seven salaries amounted to £8252 ! — and, in the year
1838, the same department was equally as efficient under the management of a “ Co¬
lonial Secretary” at a salary of £2000 a year, (which is more by £500 a year than
the pay of Her Majesty’s under secretaries of state for the still more laborious duties
of the colonial department,) and one assistant at £620 a year.

Thus, in one civil department, and without the slightest detriment to the public ser¬
vice, Cord Goderich effected a saving of £5632 per annum, which, if it had been carried
into effect, as in common justice to the state of the revenue it ought to have been, ar
least thirty two years earlier, (or rather, such a burden upon the public ought never to
have been tolerated,) would have made a difference of £ ISO, 224 in favor of the colony
and at a time when its public expenditure considerably exceeded its income.

Notwithstanding the governor’s anxiety to act with the utmost delicacy towards thosu
civil servants, whose offices were to be abolished or salaries reduced. His Excellency
did not fare better than others similarly employed upon an ungracious mission ; bin
the governor had surely no reason to expect, that by conscientiously fulfilling the grand
objects of his mission, as commanded by his noble superior, he would subject himself
to personal insult : and it will scarcely be believed, that there were individuals ran¬
corous enough to cause the representative of their Gracious Sovereign to be hanged in
effigy, (’tis true it was a splendidly-dressed and decorated effigy, and “ pity ’tis, ’tis true,”

* Although the chief secretary had enjoyed a salary of £2000 — £3000 a year for nearly twenty years, In
was not in the “ Civil Service ” until the year 1821 ; hut, upon its being resolved that the benefit of the projected
'* Widows’ Pension Fund ’’should be limited to the widows of subscribers to the “ Civil Fund,” he was allowed >
subscribe to the latter, although contrary to the established rules of the service, because he had for so many years
previously refused to do so ; and consequently the fund was a considerable loser by his not subscribing tie principto.-
This was an act of great injustice to others similarly circumstanced, (including the judges of the Honorable tin
Supreme Court,) who were precluded from securing a similar pension of £300 a year for their widows, upon
the grounds that they were not subscribers to the Civil Fund; which, nevertheless, included the superintend' n
of Delft Island, and the chief gardener !

GOVERNOR HANGED IN EFFIGY— CIVIL AND WIDOWS’ FUNDS.

43

but it actually took place ; and in addition thereto His Excellency was as much cut
up and hashed behind his back (very probably by those most obsequious, and the greatest
“ China carriers,” * to his face) as if he had originated the objectionable reductions.

Nothing would make Her Majesty’s present secretary of state for the colonies more
deservedly popular at Ceylon, than by restoring the civil fund to its original state ;
making, however, sixteen or twenty years, instead of twelve, the period of actual ser¬
vice in the island, as the title to a pension upon retirement ; and admitting all civilians,
whether on half-pay or otherwise, who might choose to subscribe to it, from its insti¬
tution, or upon their first appointment, but not afterwards, to that privilege.

This would have the effect of annulling all grounds for that prevailing heartburn
between those who do, and those who do not, subscribe to the civil fund ; and be more
just than the measure adopted some years ago by the colonial department, of taking
out of the hands of the civil fund committee, into its own, the treasure of that and the
widows’ pension fund, and charging itself with the pensions due, or falling due, upon the
old system ; but precluding all further subscriptions, in order to abolish that excellent
institution, and avail itself of the large surplus of the accumulated funds.

But Lord Goderich’s liberality in allowing so extensive a civil establishment as the
island even now supports, to continue, ought to have been done more justice to by
the civilians in general, when the cheapness of ’living, and the large fortunes that
have been accumulated in the colonial service by those who went out with nothing, or
were involved in debt at home, be fully and fairly considered, and candidly contrasted
with the pay of the naval and ordnance civil establishments, and the very inadequately
paid (upon the same comparison) military staff of the colony. The military secretary
draws but 9s. 6d. a day, in addition to his pay as a captain in the army, and island
allowance of 13/. 16s. per mensem ; the deputy adjutant general, who has held that
situation twenty-three years, but 19s. a day, in addition to colonel’s half pay; and
the deputy quarter-master general, a lieutenant colonel (half pay unattached), the same
very small pay, when compared with that of the junior civil servants of the year 1830,
after having held that very arduous situation longer than the colonial secretary has
been in the public service.

* “ China carriers," — a local name, meaning the despicable sycophants, tale-bearers, and toad-eaters who have
been too much encouraged by more than one governor ; and who, instead of meeting their just deserts, a kicking
down the grand staircase, have been appointed to colonial situations. In some instances it mattered little whet hoi
their qualification for it reached so high as to know a Bible from Johnson's Dictionary, or to write a common
letter upon any common subject ! — So much for China carrying ! nevertheless it has long proved a very lucrutin
business in Ceylon '

F 2

44

CIVIL AND MILITARY PENSIONS CONTRASTED

These are but a few instances to what might be adduced, but they will, I hope, be
sufficient to merit attention from Her Majesty’s principal secretary of state for the
colonies, and, without doing injustice to any, induce justice to every branch of the
Ceylon service.

So reckless was the colonial government at one period about granting pensions, and
the colonial department at home in confirming them, without requiring any proof of merit,
that the following instances, of which I select but two in confirmation of my statement,
will, at this day perhaps, appear incredible, but do not these very abuses still exist ?

A foreigner and his wife (also a foreigner), without any claim upon the government
or connexion in the colony, went to Ceylon from the Cape of Good Hope, where,
report stated, he had served as a soldier in a French regiment. He soon wormed
himself into a situation of <£800 a year as a provincial judge!! and in that capacity
he appropriated to his private purposes all the deposits belonging to the poor suitors in
his court, to the amount of 32,000 rix dollars ; and when called upon to account for
the deficiency, he poisoned himself. An annuity of £300 was conferred by the governor
upon the widow, and her five sons were subsequently provided for by commissions in
the army, or civil situations, by which they receive nearly £3000 a year between them,
and yet allow their mother to continue a pensioner upon the colony ! ! !

The next case is not so bad ; because although the widow is a French creole lady,
her husband had been a lieutenant in the army. This gentleman failed in trade,*
whilst belonging to the civil service, and died in less than three years after his
appointment, when a pension of £300 a year was settled upon his widow, which she
still enjoys ; but although her sons have been provided for in the army and civil ser¬
vice, and one of them (a bachelor) enjoys a salary of £2000 a year, the mother
still continues a burthen upon the colony.

That I have limited myself to only two instances, does not arise from having ex¬
hausted my data, as Her Majesty’s secretary of state may easily ascertain, by referring
to the Ceylon pension list, and inquiring upon what grounds such pensions were ori¬
ginally granted, or subsequently confirmed at home.

With these incontestible facts on the one hand, it may not be considered anomalous
to cite a few naval and military officers’ widows’ pensions by way of contrast on the
other ; widows, whose husbands, after having passed their lives in one unsullied career
of glory, have died, perhaps fallen on the field of battle, in the service of their king
and country ! !

* Neither his bankruptcy, nor the peculation or insolvency of other civil servants, have hitherto affected their
official positions.

CONTRASTS— REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

4 S

E. G. Seven widows of full colonels, or of post captains of three

years standing, at <£80 per annum . 560

One lieutenant’s widow (army) . H>

£600!'

Or twelve captains’ widows (army), or twelve lieutenants’ widows (navy), at £50
a year ; or fifteen lieutenants’ widows in the army at <£40 a year.

I must stop here ! for if I were to detail the official iniquities that fell undo my
own view, whilst I served in the islatid, I should have no room left for other matters.

“ Revenons a nos moutons,” — the revenue of Ceylon. The last data, or rather the
most recent that I possess, is “ a statement of the revenue and expenditure of Ceylon
for the year 1836.” The amount in that year of the Jived revenue from sea customs,
export duty on cinnamon, cinnamon oil, land rents, land customs, licenses, pearl
fishery, fish farms, salt farms, assessment tax on houses, commutation tax, tithes
redeemed, tobacco tithes, auction duty, collection of postage, sale of stamps, &c., was
as follows, —

Total fixed revenue . £354,491 0 114

Incidental receipts . 41,629 0 4,

Receipts in aid of revenue . 6,254 11 4 ,

Arrears of revenue of former years 4,413 0 114

Grand total . 406,787 13 »4

Expenditure for the year 1836.

Arrears of former years . . . . £ 23,328 7 3

Ordinary civil, judicial, revenue, and ecclesiastical charges . 106,819 3 8

Extraordinary ditto . 117,177 7 5

Miscellaneous charges, including colonial agents, loss in exchange of
bills and remittances, surcharges refunded, old unsettled advances

written off, sundry incidental receipts repaid . 5,950 5 64

Ordinary military expenditure . 37,742 9 94

Extraordinary ditto . 8,111 2 54

Ordinary commissariat expenditure . 2,307 5 0

Extraordinary ditto . 29,769 4 34

Expenditure of the agent for Ceylon in London.

Agent's salary and establishment . 500 0 0

Civil and widows of civil servants’ pensions . 14,268 8 1

Pensions to judges, &c . 5,513 5 0

Stores, supplies, and miscellaneous charges . 1,499 19 8

352,986 18 24...

352,986

18

24

Balance of revenue over the expenditure

£ 53,800 15 6

46

EXCESS OF REVENUE— CULTURE OF COTTON.

This proves that in spite of the heavy imposts to which the natives of Ceylon are
subject, by their taxation, first upon every article of European manufacture, and
secondly upon the export of their principal staple, cinnamon, and the subsequent levy
of duties upon every other article of Ceylon produce when imported into this country,
and notwithstanding that scarcely a fifth of its immense area is under cultivation, the
island of Ceylon, after paying for the support of an enormous civil establishment, and
an adequate military defensive force,” as it is called, but what may be called scarcely
large enough for “ these piping times of peace ” for the regular garrison duties of the
eolony, yielded an excess of revenue over the public expenditure, for the year 1S36,
of 53,800/. 15,y. 6d.

In 1829 Sir George Murray was colonial secretary, and the excess of the revenue
of Ceylon over its expenditure, the first time that it had occurred for

some years, amounted to . <£44,777 0 0

In 1830 Lord Goderich succeeded Sir G. Murray, and the excess was 56,446 0 0

1831 . 73,605 0 0

1832 . 31,337 0 0

1833 the excess was larger than at any former period . 105,791 0 0

1S34 . 43,117 0 0

1835 . 48,7 1 S 0 0

1836 . 53,800 15 6

£457,591 15 6

Showing an excess of income over expenditure,! in eight years, spite of all mis¬
management, and oppression of the native agriculturist, of £457,591 15 6 !!!

If the government, acting upon the justifiable grounds for its interference, the
apathy of individuals as to the cultivation of cotton, (principally arising from the belief
that less ground planted with coffee affords a greater profit,) were to cause a third
of the crown lands to be at once cleared and planted with the best varieties of cotton,
(giving a fair trial to the Maltese, Sicilian, Egyptian, American, and Bourbon cotton
shrubs,) it would cause such a revolution in the opinions of the present speculators in
colonial produce, as to insure a ready sale of all such crown lands, as soon as the
first proof, of the immense returns to the government that will undoubtedly result to
it, shall have excited their cupidity.

Ceylon will never be benefited in a right proportion to its claims, unless the govern- -
ment sets the example. There would be no occasion to appoint one additional agent
or assistant agent, unless from the military officers quartered in the districts where the

SUGGESTIONS FOR GOVERNMENT COTTON PLANTATIONS.

47

culture -ef cotton might take place, for, and on account of the government, by wav of
preliminary experiment in different districts, upon a moderate scale, under the super¬
intendence of the several assistant government agents, who have sufficient native,
headmen to keep the labourers to their duty.

But, for the purpose of a mo.re extensive establishment, the appointment of a well-
informed individual, possessed of adequate local knowledge, as “ Superintendent of
Cotton Plantations,” with a moderate salary, accompanied by the stipulation that its
continuance and increase will be made to depend upon the successful result of his
exertions, for the first five years, is indispensable. — This would afford ample time to
establish the fact, that my anticipations of its eventually eliciting propositions to
the government to transfer its interest in such establishment to an incorporated com¬
pany of British capitalists, or for the subdivision and sale of the cotton grounds, as in
the case of the late government cinnamon plantations, at a remunerating price to the
crown, are by no means Eutopian ; for there are many individual capitalists, who only
now require a more intimate acquaintance with Ceylon and its capabilities, to put the
latter to the test of practical experience.

The successful result of such a measure, under the immediate auspices of the
government, will not be considered hypothetical, by those, who are capable of forming
an opinion of it, from local experience and observation ; and if it be the moral duty
of the government to avail itself of the ample means at its own disposal in Ceylon, for
lessening the dependence of the mother country upon foreign nations for the supply
of one of the principal staples of British manufacture, the gradual cultivation of 4000
square miles of now waste lands (less than one fourth of the present uncultivated
portion of the island) with cotton, would materially assist towards its accomplishment.

Women and children might be employed to clear and pick the cotton for exporta¬
tion, with their little cross sticks, without injury to the staple ; and thousands of now
idle people be thereby brought into habits of industry and profitable employment, at a
less expense than the cost of machinery ; and all that would be requisite in the latter
shape, would be cotton screws to prepare it for shipment.

Whether the government, or a company @f British capitalists, adopt my humble sug¬
gestions, which are grounded upon a thorough conviction of their feasibleness, there
would be no deficiency of labourers ; for although many thousands of Malabar slaves
are now supine under their somewhat improved position, from having enfranchisement
at their command, if they possess the means and inclination to pay for it, (as I have
already explained in the preceding pages,) they would eagerly embrace an arrangement
for the purchase of their freedom by others, and for their services as apprentices, for
a given term, at a proportionately low rate of wages, in return for their emancipation.

46

SINGHALESE PARTIALITY FOR BRITISH PRODUCTIONS.

With fair encouragement to native agriculture, and proper management of the
natural resources of Ceylon, the island might be made to yield an incalculable excess
of colonial produce over its consumption, and consequently of revenue over its ex¬
penditure ; but the value of this splendid colony will scarcely ever be fully known and
appreciated, if the time for ascertaining it by experiments be further indefinitely de¬
ferred, as it has been, with but limited exceptions on the part of individuals of small
and inadequate capital, for the last forty six years.

Although the trade of Ceylon has quadrupled since the amalgamation of the
Kandyan kingdom with our former dominions in the island, in the year 1815, it may
with propriety be said to be only now in its infancy ; and therefore improved mea¬
sures are indispensable to insure relief to the native agriculturists, and stimulate them
to abandon their present habits of comparative indolence and inaction for those of
industry, by a more certain prospect of remunerating prices for their produce.

During the short period that I acted as Collector of Customs at Colombo, in the year
1816, a very inteligent Dutch gentleman drew my attention to the fact, that the quar¬
ter's pay of a clerk, after having served the government long and faithfully in the civil
departments, would barely supply him with an English broad cloth coat, and a beaver
hat ; the cost of the former being 42 rix dollars, or 31. 13,?., and of the latter 32 rix
dollars, or 2/. 16,?. ; and at the same time 250 lbs (avoirdupois) of black pepper, or
360 lbs of coffee, or 200 lbs of tobacco, or 80 gallons of arrack, of colonial produce,
could be purchased at a less price.

The Singhalese are partial to Manchester, Leeds, Sheffield, and Birmingham manu¬
factures, except certain agricultural implements, manufactured in the latter place,
which, they consider inferior to those of Holland. The higher ranks indulge in the
best wines, particularly Madeira and Champagne, which are liberally dispensed at their
parties to European guests ; and no people in the world set a higher value upon
British medicines, stationery, and perfumery ; or relish with a keener zest, English
hams, cheeses, butter, porter, pale ale, cider, perry, herrings, salmon, anchovies,
pickles, and confectionary ; all which, they prefer to similar imports from France
and America, except in regard to price.

But to bring these articles into more general demand, the Singhalese must first be
taught to appreciate the value of industry, which can only result from British example :
this, and a considerable reduction in the taxes and customs’ duties, will conjointly
operate to increase the demand for British productions, and consequently the revenue
of the crown.

CHAP. VI.

Judicial division if Ike Island — Circuits of the Honorable the Supreme Court of Judicature — District Courts
and extent of their jurisdiction — Charter of justice — Suggestions for the appointment of barristers at law as judges
of the superior district courts — Supreme court of judicature — Rank of judges — Proctors for paupers and prisoners
— Queen's advocate — Laws of bankruptcy and cessio bonorum — No jury in civil causes — In criminal causes jury
decides by the majority — Judges — Introduction of trial by jury — Native attachment to that system — Improper
mode of administering oaths to Buddhists in courts of justice — Hallan — Extraordinary consent to a nonsuit by
a Singhalese plaintiff — Buddhist priests, how sworn in courts of justice — Original Dutch method of swearing
Buddhist witnesses, the best to elicit truth — Extraordinary coincidence respecting the Aspen, or Pop-ulus trcmula,
md Bogaha, or Ficus religiosa.

The Judicial division of the island comprises three Circuits, styled the Eastern,
Northern, and Southern Circuits of the Honorable the Supreme Court of Judicature :
but this is exclusively of what might very appropriately have been styled the Home
or Western Circuit, now designated the Colombo District Courts.

The district of Colombo, as regards the exercise of the jurisdiction of the supreme
court, consists of that space of country heretofore forming the collectorship of
Colombo, together with that of the Three Kories and Lower Bulatgamme, and the
des'savony of Saffragam. This district is bounded on the north by the Kaymel
liver, on the south by the Bentotte river, and on the west by the sea. The dis¬
trict of Colombo is subdivided, according to its present limits and jurisdiction, into
six districts, known and designated respectively as — District No. 1 north of Colombo,
district No. 1 south of Colombo, and districts No. 2, 3, 4, and 6 of Colombo.

The Colombo district No. 1 north, consists of so much of the town and the space
contained in the four gravets of Colombo as is bounded on the south by St. John’s
river. Dam street, Hulfsdorp street. Silversmith street, and the high road to Kandy
as far as the bridge of boats — so much of the Allootkoor Korle as is situated to
the southward of the Dandogam river, and of the Addicare-pattoo and Medde-pattoo
of the Sina Korle (excluding the two Vidhan villages of Benmoelle and Galgomo-
owe) — and of so much of the Gangebadde-pattoo in the said Korle as is situated west
of the road from Hangwelle to Attenegalle. The district court is held at Colombo.

G

50

COLOMBO DISTRICT COURTS— EASTRRN CIRCUIT.

The Colombo district No. 1 south (court held at Colombo) consists of so much ol
The town and the space contained within the four gravets of Colombo as is bounded on
the north by St. Johns river. Dam street, Hulfsdorp street. Silversmith street, and
the high road to Kandy as far as the bridge of boats — of the Meddepattoo, the Palle-
pattoo, and the Addicaepattoo of the Hewagam Korle — the Salpitty Korle, and the
villages of the Vidhan of Pantura north of the Pantura river.

The Colombo district No. 2 (court held at Negombo) consists of the town of Ne-
gombo, and so much of the Alootkopr Korle as is situated north of the Dandogam river ;
the Hapitigam Korle ; and so much of the Sina Korle as is comprized within the divisions
known as the Vidhan villages of Galgomoowe and Benmoelle in the Meddepattoo.

The Colombo district No. 3 (court held at Ruanwelle) consists of the space form¬
ing the Three Kories, and Lower Bulatgamme, together with the Oodoogaha Pattoo
of the Sina Korle ; so much of the Gangabadde Pattoo of the Sina Korle as is
situated east of the road from Hangwelle to Attenegalle ; and the Oodoogaha Pattoo
of the Hewagam Korle.

The Colombo district No 4 (court held at Caltura) consists of the Pasdoon Korle,
and so much of Walalawitty Korle as is attached to it ; Welapora Caltura and all the
villages between the Bentotte river and the Caltura river, or Kalu-Ganga, which are
situated between the Pasdoon Korle and the sea — the town of Pantura and adjoining
villages south of the Pantura river ; and the Raygam Korle.

The Colombo district No. 6 (court held at Ratnapoora) consists of the dessavony
or province of Saffragam.

The Eastern Circuit is divided into eight districts, viz. the districts of the Seven
Kories, Four Kories, Kandy, Madawalatenne, Matele, Neuwara-Eliya, Badula, and
Alipoot. The district court of the first is held at Kornegalle ; of the second, at
Ootuankandy ; of the third, at Kandy ; of the fourth, at Madawalatenne ; of the fifth,
at Fort Mac Dowall ; of the sixth, at Neuwara-Eliya, of the seventh, at Badula ;
and of the eighth, at Alipoot.

The district of Seven Kories consists of the dessavony of that name.

The district of Four Kories consists of the dessavony of that name.

The district of Kandy consists of the provinces of Udunuwara, Yattinuwara, Dum-
bera, Hewahette, Megoddatihe, the Hangurankette and Gannawe Kories of Hewahette
Eggodatihe, Udapalata, Udabulatgama, and Dolosbage.

The district of Madawalatenne consists of the provinces of Harasiapattoo & Tumpane.

The district of Matele is the dessavony of that name.

NORTHERN CIRCUIT— DISTRICT COURTS.

51

The district of Neuwara-Eliya includes the province of Kotmale and the Maturatta
and Kohoke Kories ; of Hewahette, Eggodatihe, and the portion of the province of
Uwa contiguous to Neuwara-Eliya and to the northward and westward of the Hakgalla
range of mountains.

The district of Badula consists of the provinces of Wallapana, Weyaloowa, Ouda-
kinde, Meddakinde, and Yattekinde of Uwa ; Wegampaha, Kooloogampaha, and
Miganagollapalata of Bintenne ; and Pattipola and Polwatte of Welasse.

The district of Alipoot consists of the province of Welasse, and Kandukara,
extending from the Wallawe river to Welasse.

The Northern Circuit comprises eleven districts, viz. the districts of Chilaw and
Putlam, Manaar, Neuwarakalawiye, Jaffna, Walligammo, Waddimoratchie, Tenmo-
ratchie and Patchelapelle, the Islands, the Wanne, Trincomale, and Batticaloa. The
district court of the first is held at Putlam and Chilaw ; of the second, at Manaar
and Silawatorre ; of the third, at Anarajapoora ; of the fourth, at Jaffna ; of the fifth,
at Mallagam ; of the sixth, at Point Pedro ; of the seventh, at Chavagacherry ; of
the eighth, at Kayts and Delft ; of the ninth, at Moolitivoe ; of the tenth, at Trinco¬
male ; and of the eleventh, at Batticaloa.

The district of Chilaw and Putlam consists of the several divisions of Chilaw,
Putlam, Calpentyn, and the Demellepattoo.

The district of Manaar consists of the province, of that name, together with the
parish of Illepecadadewe, and the following provinces, which formerly formed part
of the collectorship of the Wanne, — Kelekomole north, Kelekomole south, Odeaoor,
Nadoe Chetty Kolom, Sinne Chetty Kolom, Meerkomole, Pannengammo, and
Toonukay.

The district of Neuwarakalawiye consists of the province or dessavony of that name.

The district of Jaffna consists of the parishes of Nalloor, Wanarponne, Chundi-
cooly, Kopay, Poottoor, Oodooville, Manipaay, Poonoryn, Polwerayencadoo, and
Trentivoe or Two Brothers’ Island.

The district of Walligammo consists of the parishes of Atchowely, Mylitty, Malla¬
gam, Tellipalle, Pandeterrippo, Changane, and Batticotte.

The district of Waddimoratchie consists of the parishes of Oodopitty, Cattewele,
and Point Pedro.

The district of Tenmoratchie and Patchelapelle consists of the parishes of Nawa-
kooly, Chavagacherry, Warrene, Elludumutual, Catche, Mogomale, Tambogammo.
Plopalle, Mullipattoo, and Caretche.

g 2

52

SOUTHERN CIRCUIT— DISTRICT COURTS.

The district of the Islands consists of the parishes of Kayts, Welene, and
Alleputte ; and of the islands of Pungertivoe, Anneletivoe, Nytiativoe, Karativoe,
and Delft.

The district of the Wanne consists of the following provinces, which formerly
formed a part of the district or collectorship of the Wanne, — Karrikattemolle
North, Karrikattemolle South, Mulliawelle, Melpattoo North, Melpattoo South,
Melpattoo East, Karnawelpattoo North, Karnawelpattoo South, and Poodookoo-
dieruppoo.

The district of Trincomale consists of the district of that name and the province
of Tamankadewe.

The district of Batticaloa consists of the district of that name, and the province ol
Bintenne, excepting Wegampaha, Kooloogampaha, and Miganagollapalata.

The Southern Circuit is divided into five districts, viz. the districts of Amblangodde,
Galle, Matura, Hambantotte, and Tangalle. The district court of the first is held a.
Ballepitte-Moderah ; of the second, at Galle ; of the third, at Matura ; of the fourth,
at Hambantotte ; and of the fifth, at Tangalle.

The district of Amblangodde consists of the upper division of the Wellebodde-
pattoo, being that situated to the northward of Hickode river, and the Wallallawitte
Korle, excepting so much as is included in the Colombo district No. 4.

The district of Galle, consists of the town and four gravets of Galle, the Gange-
bodde Pattoo (of Galle), the Talpepattoo, and the lower division of the Wallebodde
Pattoo, being that situated to the southward of the Hickode river.

The district of Matura consists of the whole of the Bellegam Korle and Tote-
moone, four gravets of Matura and the Angooroogams, Makawitte, the Gangebodde-
pattoo of Matura, and the four Baygams, the Kandeboddepattoo, the Wellebodde-
pattoo of Matura, and the Muruwe Korle.

The district of Hambantotte consists of the Mahagampattoo.

The district of Tangalle consists of the Girewah-Pattoo, Kireme, Cattone, Oedoe-
bokke, and Julampitye.

Many and greatly beneficial changes were effected by the charter of justice
granted by his late Majesty king William IV., on the 18th of February, 1833, in
the third year of his Majesty’s reign ; but a few judicious alterations might be made
for facilitating justice to the people, and conjoining greater weight and dignity with
the judicial office.

CHARTER OF JUSTICE — SUPREME COURT.

53

A new, or amended, charter of justice * became a matter of expediency, conse¬
quent upon the annexation of the Kandyan kingdom to the British territories, in
the year 1815, during the late gallant General Sir Robert Brownrigg’s administration
of the island.

The principal alteration to be now desired, is the appointment of junior bar¬
risters at law from the English, Scotch, and Irish bars, as senior district judges :
instead of allowing colonial civil servants, who have not received a legal education
to qualify them for such duties, to preside over the superior district courts.

But in order to induce the acceptance of such situations by barristers, it should be
established as a rule by Her Majesty’s secretary of state, that these learned gentlemen,
after having served a certain period as senior district judges, shall be eligible for the
appointments of Queen’s advocate and Queen’s deputy advocate ; and ultimately for
the bench, as vacancies occur by the death or retirement of the chief and puisne
justices of the Honorable the Supreme Court.

A succession of legal functionaries for the higher offices would thus be ensured to
the colony, and the executive be relieved of the necessity of appointing persons who
are not duly qualified for permanently holding such judicial situations ; or, as upon
former occasions, of applying to the Madras bar, for acting chief, or puisne justices,
much to the prejudice of the learned gentlemen, for after having sacrificed a lucrative
practice in India in the justifiable anticipation of succeeding to the Ceylon bench,
they have been cruelly disappointed, and superseded in their temporary judicial appoint¬
ments by barristers from the English courts, without compensation or pension.

At the present moment, the salaries of the chief and puisne judges are scarcely
adequate to the proper support of their high colonial rank ; the former having
only <£2500 a year, and the latter £1500 a year, instead of the £7000 and £4000
enjoyed by their predecessors, which, by stipulations upon that point in the former
charter of justice, were considerably increased by payment in gold, instead of in
currency.

The Supreme Court possesses all the powers vested in the High Court of Chancery
and Court of Queen’s Bench ; and the officers of the Vice-admiralty Court are selected
from those of the Supreme Court. The chief justice is, ex-officio, the deputy and sur¬
rogate of the vice-admiral, who is His Excellency the Governor for the time being.

The chief justice takes rank in the colony immediately after the governor or lieut.-
governor, and the several puisne justices according to their patents, and next after
the commander of Her Majesty’s forces in the island.

* Vide Appendix.

54-

INTRODUCTION OF TRIAL BY JURY.

Two proctors of the Honorable the Supreme Court are appointed to officiate for
paupers and prisoners, with the small salaries of <£180 and £150 a year!

By the authority of the charter, appeals are made from the different district courts
to the supreme court; and in criminal cases offences are prosecuted by information,
in the name of the Queen’s advocate, without previous inquest by a grand jury.

All questions of law are decided by the judge of the circuit, who may reserve then,
for the opinions and decision of the whole court ; but no sentence of death can be
executed until it has been approved by the governor.

The laws in regard to bankruptcy and cessio bonorum are similar to the Scotch.
There is no jury in civil actions, and, in criminal cases, it consists of thirteen
members : but the unanimity of the jury, how much soever to be desired, is not
indispensable ; for the majority, as in Scotland, decides the guilt or innocence ot
the prisoner.

Of the Ceylon judges the country may well be proud ; for whilst justice, humanity,
and patience have been their characteristics on the bench, so urbanity, charity, anc!
benevolence have distinguished them in private life. There may have been a solitary
exception perhaps, but even the sun has spots upon its disk.

Since the benefit of trial by jury was established in the island, through the active
energy and devotion to the welfare of Ceylon which characterized the whole careei
of its then chief justice, the Honorable Sir Alexander Johnston, that inestimable
privilege has gained an extraordinary influence over the affections of the native people.

Very soon after the introduction of trial by jury into the maritime provinces, and
long before its advantages were sufficiently known to be fairly appreciated, it became
a favourite with the natives ; and now, after thirty years’ experience of its blessings,
which the wisdom of the supreme court of judicature had adapted even to their
prejudices, the attachment of the natives to the system, from conviction of its inesti¬
mable value, as the palladium of their civil liberties, is boundless ; and well may every
class and caste of the native population be proud of the supreme court’s admin¬
istration of justice, under a government administered upon truly British principles ;
and which, so long as it continues to be conducted with firmness and integrity, will
retain a paramount interest in their affections, which neither the Portuguese nor
Dutch, during their long possession of the maritime provinces of the island, were ever
able to establish.

It can truly be said, in the language of a former chief justice, “ Armies may waste
away by disease or climate, navies be dispersed by storms and shipwreck, seasons and
circumstances may baffle the utmost exercise of human foresight, but firmlv-rooted

THE SINGHALESE LITIGIOUS— OATHS IN COURTS OF JUSTICE.

55

in the attachment of the people of Ceylon to our British jurisprudence, the security
of our national interests and dominion in that island may be deemed impregnable.”

The Singhalese, taken collectively as a nation, may be justly described as most
litigious ; and their general disregard for truth is only equalled by their readiness,
whenever it suits their purpose, to commit wilful perjury. It would be extraordinary
indeed if there were not numerous exceptions, but these are limited to the highest
classes, and to educated persons of other grades ; and yet throughout the nation there
prevails a leaning towards the degrading vice, politely designated “ courtier-like
evasion.”

In the several courts of justice, oaths are administered to Hindoos upon the water
of the Ganges, and Tolse leaves ; to Arabs and other Mahommedans upon the Koran,
by a priest ; and to the Singhalese, whether Buddhists or devil-worshippers, upon the
Hallan, which consists of a couple of large cylindrical copper rings, containing small
iron balls. These rings are of an oblong form, about twelve inches in circumference,
and represent the Bangles of the Hindoo goddess Pattine, which, at devil-ceremonies
for the sick, the Kapurale places between the first and second toes of each foot, and
keeps in a revolving motion at certain intervals throughout the night, to the mis-called
music of conch-shells and tam-a-tams. But when produced in court for the purpose
of administering an oath to witnesses, these bangles, which are wrapped in a red hand¬
kerchief or cloth, and kept in a round box, ornamented with annular stripes of red,
yellow, and black paint, are held by the Kapurale towards the witness, who, extending
his hands in an attitude of prayer, and bending his head at the same time, repeats
the usual oath according to the custom of courts of justice at home.

But it is lamentable to observe the readiness with which the Singhalese perjure
themselves. This may partly be ascribed to the indifference which the local govern¬
ment has too long manifested to the mode of administering oaths to Singhalese
witnesses ; and for this among other reasons none but persons descended from the
Portuguese and Dutch families, and styled Europeans, should be selected for police
Vidahns.

The facility of suborning evidence is as well known as the impossibility of eliciting
the truth from Buddhist witnesses, unless by an appeal to their superstitious fears ;
and therefore the sooner the Hallan is excluded from courts of justice, except for
those who are professed devil worshippers, the better ; and a reference to my official
representations upon this subject to the government, and advocate fiscal of Cey¬
lon, between, the years 1823 and 1827 inclusively, will show that this is not the first
attempt to bring the subject under the most serious consideration.

56

HALLAN— SUPERSTITION— BUDDHIST PRIESTS.

I derive my authority for stating that the Hallan is any thing but sacred in the eyes
of true Buddhists, from Buddhist priests in the Galle district, in answer to very perti¬
nent questions upon that point, during the time I was magistrate there, from 1823 to
1826 inclusively. A defendant in a civil action proposed that judgment should be given
in favor of the plaintiff, instead of the trial proceeding, if he would make oath that
the debt claimed was just ; — the plaintiff readily advanced with the palms of his hands
pressed together, to be sworn upon the Hallan ; but to that form of oath the defen¬
dant objected, for the reason that the plaintiff was a known Buddhist, and, according
to his ideas of right, ought to. be sworn upon the sacred books, within a temple, or
under a Bogaha .* The priests of the temple could alone decide the. point raised by
the objection ; for no other mode of swearing Buddhists except upon the Hallan was
provided for by the government, and the code of regulations laid a veto against resort
being had to “ any unusual way of administering oaths to Singhalese witnesses,” but
when the plaintiff heard the interpreter repeat the court's directions to send for the
priests from the temple, he, fearing that the oath was about to be put to him in the
form that had obtained during the occupation of the maritime provinces by the Dutch
government, namely, under a Bugaha, or in a Buddha temple, voluntarily submitted
to a nonsuit ! This mode, if re-adopted, would render the course of justice smoother
and much less troublesome to its dispensers.

Buddhist priests are sworn upon the sacred books of the temple. The Bogaha is
of rapid growth, and easily propagated, so that a court of justice should not be with¬
out one near or within its precincts. By this simple method, the truth may be expected
from Buddhist witnesses, even if it suited their purpose to commit peijury.

* Bogaha. — Bo, abbreviation of Bod or Buddha, and gaha, tree, — the Ficus religiosa, L. There is a remark¬
able coincidence between the stories told in Syria of the aspen tree, Populua Iremula, L., class Dioecia, order
Octandria, and the Singhalese stories of the Bogaha, or Ficus religiosa, class Polygamia, order Triaecia. The
Syrians aver that the wood of the cross of our Saviour was made of aspen, and that the leaves of the aspen have
trembled ever since, in commemoration of that event. The Buddhists attribute the similar property in the
foliage of the Bogaha, or Buddha’s tree, to Buddha’s preferring, when on earth, a seat under its shade to that
of every other tree ; since which period its leaves have always an apparent motion, whether there be any wind
stirring or not.

CHAP. VII.

Ecclesiastical establishment — Lnjust distinctions among the clergy — Suggestions for Ceylon being made a bishop¬
ric — Consistory of the Reformed Church of Holland — Portuguese mission of the Oratorio of San Felippe de Neri —
Papal mission from Rome — Suggestions for its removal — Baptist mission — Wesleyan mission — American mission
— Church of England mission — Caste of Sorcerers — Conversion to Mahommedanism — Military establishment—
Civil branch of the Ordnance — Pay and Island allowances — Batta to Naval officers — Staff allowances.

The ecclesiastical establishment, in official language, includes only the clergy of
the Established Church of England and Ireland, and the consistory of the Reformed
Church of Holland.

The seniors of the colonial clergy enjoy the privileges of the pension fund, in com¬
mon with those civil servants who subscribed to it prior to the year 1822, agreeably
to the regulations established by the late Earl Bathurst, at that time His Majesty’s
secretary of state, for the colonies ; but those who have since been appointed, have
no such advantages ; this causes serious heart-burnings, which, however concealed, are
deeply felt as a most undeserved and unjust difference

Considering the population of the island, the establishment of a separate bishopric
in Ceylon would afford general satisfaction to all sincere Protestants, for the diocese
of Madras, of which it at present forms an archdeaconry, is so extensive, that a very
small proportion of the Lord Bishop’s attention can be devoted to Ceylon, if justice
be done to the rest of his diocese.

The consistory of the Reformed Church of Holland comprises four elders and six
deacons ; but it cannot boast much of the liberality of the British government ; for
the president has but £350 a year, which is less by £50 than the stipend of the native
Singhalese colonial chaplain ; and the consistory’s exemplary proponent at Galle has
but <£54 per annum, after having preached in Dutch and Portuguese in that church
for upwards of thirty years.

Of Christian missions, the Roman Catholic mission of the Oratorio of San Felippe
de Neri of Goa is the most ancient. The Portuguese take credit to themselves for
having been the first to introduce Christianity into Ceylon ; but history informs us

H

58

PORTUGUESE MISSION OF THE ORATORIO OF SAN FELIPPE DE NERI.

that they were preceded by Persian missionaries of the Nestorian churches, who
planted churches there, subsequently to the subversion of the Parthian empire by the
Persians, and the restoration of the ancient line of the Persian monarchy ; and that
the functions of religion were performed by priests ordained by the archbishop of
Seleucia, at that time the capital of the Persian kingdom. — But there are no known
records of the Nestorian churches now extant in the island ; and the next power, to
whom credit is due for its Christian zeal in favour of the heathen, is Portugal.

The chief residence of this mission is at Santa Lucia, near Colombo. Three mis¬
sionaries reside at Colombo ; three at Negombo ; one in the southern province, who
officiates at Galle and Matura ; one at Kaltura, who also has the church at Morotto
under his cure ; one in Kandy, and for Alootkoor ; one at Chilaw, and for Calpentyn ;
one at Arippo, and for Bangalle ; one at Manaar, and for the Wanne district ; one at
Kaits, one at Jaffnapatam, one at Walligammoe, one at Point Pedro, and one at Trin-
comale, who also officiates at Batticaloa ; but the immense tract of country from
Tangalle to Batticaloa, where devil worship now reigns paramount, is destitute of the
means of acquiring the light of the gospel.

This mission estimates its converts at 150,000, for which number, seventeen mission¬
aries may well be considered a very scanty establishment. Perhaps the poverty of the
Roman Catholic churches in Ceylon, and the limited number of padres,* may arise
from the apathy of native converts ; but such is the present very degenerated state
of the Roman religion in the island, that those who have been accustomed to the
splendid cathedrals of Malta, Spain, and Italy, can scarcely imagine it possible, when
they enter a Santa Gri, or holy church, in Ceylon, that the same faith is professed
by both.

The reverend fathers of this mission are subjects of Her Most Faithful Majesty :
they superintend 118 schools, and are humane, pious, charitable to the poor, and
hospitable to the stranger.

Upon the anniversary of St. Cecilia’s day, (Nov. 22,) a splendid dinner is given in
the refectory of Santa Lucia, where religion presents no bar to the equal enjoyment
of the genuine hospitality of the reverend fathers by their Protestant as well as Roman
Catholic guests.

About two years ago. His Holiness Gregory XVI. despatched a vicar apostolic and
several priests from Rome to Ceylon. For this there was no occasion, and it is hard
upon the numerous and well-educated English and Irish Roman Catholic clergymen,

* The general name, among the natives, for the clergy and missionaries throughout the island.

PAPAL MISSION— RECIPROCAL CONDITIONS SUGGESTED— BAPTIST MISSION. 59

that the government should allow the ministry of that church to be exercised by
foreign priests in a British colony, for which our own and sister country could have
better and more consistently provided. These reverend intruders would very soon
take their departure, if Her Majesty’s secretary of state for the colonies were to stipu¬
late with His Holiness the Pope, for the establishment of a Protestant church and
mission at Rome, as the condition of their continuance in the island.

The first British mission to Ceylon was that of the Baptists, in the year 1812, but
it only now occupies four stations ; namely, at Colombo, Byanville, Matelle, Hanwelle,
and the adjoining villages. This mission superintends eleven schools, and two Sunday
schools, consisting of between 400 and 500 children.

There are but two missionaries, with five native teachers to assist them ; these
gentlemen are themselves so very exemplary in every moral and religious duty, that
they are universally respected ; and for their genuine zeal in promoting the objects of
their mission, they will ever stand high upon the records of the colony, for it has
effected great good, in spite of the disadvantages of limited funds and paucity of
labourers.

The next, but nulli secundus in good works, is the Wesleyan mission, established in
the year 1814.

I must leave it to an abler pen to do justice to the reverend gentlemen of this mis¬
sion ; their works speak for themselves ; these are not limited to matters of religion,
and are productive of great and universal good throughout the island. Every month
is ushered in with the publication of “ The Friend,” and “ The Protestant Vindicator,”
the former a miscellany for the promotion of the moral and social, as well as religious
interests of the colony, the latter that which its title implies.

The natives of Ceylon might be much benefitted, if, amongst other means adopted
for extending the blessings of useful knowledge amongst them, a translation of the
Penny and Saturday Magazines were published in the island ; — the engraved wood¬
blocks belonging to these works, after having answered all the purposes of the “ Society
for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge,” might be well devoted to this object, and it
would be a boon of such incalculable benefit to the rising native population, that it
would be unjust to doubt the readiness of the Wesleyan mission to translate, and
publish them in the native languages. The demand for these works would gradually
become extensive, for they would find their way throughout India.

The Wesleyan missionaries minister in the Hindoo-Portuguese, Singhalese, and
English languages ; and their chapels are conspicuous for the plain, but convenient
and well-ordered regularity of Protestant places of worship. The affairs of this mission

60

WESLEYAN MISSION— AMERICAN MISSION.

are regulated at annual meetings, held at Colombo in January, the decisions of which
are subject to the control of the general committee of the home mission. From the
funds of this last, that of Ceylon is supported ; but much more might be realized by
the friends of missions in this country, if they would but do their utmost to increase
them ; for Ceylon, although presenting a most ample field for the labours of at least
ten times its numbers of Wesleyan ministers, is now limited to eight missionaries and
fourteen assistants, who have the management of the education of nearly six thousand
scholars, in eighty one schools.

Never did the ministers of the Established Church, of which at that time the Hon¬
orable Thomas James Twistleton, afterwards archdeacon of Colombo, was the senior
colonial chaplain, do themselves greater honor than by the manner in which they
collectively and individually extended the right hand of Christian fellowship aud hos¬
pitality to the Wesleyan missionaries, upon the first establishment of their mission in
the island in the year 1815. This laid the foundation for that long continued and
existing cordiality, which the then government appeared most desirous of encouraging ;
for when the Wesleyan chapel was first opened at Colombo for divine service. His
Excellency the governor (Sir Robert Brownrigg, G. C. B.) with his family, the clergy¬
men of the Established Church, and the majority of the civil and military officers,
whose duties would admit of it, were present at that most interesting ceremonial to
the Almighty’s honor, and for the propagation of “ peace on earth, and of good-will
towards men ! ”

The American mission was first establised in the northern districts of Ceylon, in
the year 1816, and many still living will recollect the official jealousy with which the
settlement at Jaffna, of the very exemplary individuals who originally composed it,
was regarded. Experience has proved that it was unjust and unworthy of the gener¬
ous character of a British government ; and it would be difficult to find an individual
in the colony, who has had an opportunity of witnessing the conduct of the respectable
and respected persons of the American mission, at all disposed to believe, that even if
the government of the United States would so far compromise its own dignity, as to
endeavour to induce its missionary citizens in Ceylon to exercise the degrading office
of spy, there would be found one amongst them so lost to his own character, as to
prostitute it for any national or worldly advantage.

This mission occupies seven stations in the northern province, to which its attention
is exclusively limited : namely, Tillipalle, Batticotta, Oodooville, Pondeteripo, Ma-
nepe, Chavagachere, and Varane; and they employ native catechists at Oodopitte,
Achoowele, Changane, Caradive, Valane, and Pungertive.

CHURCH OF ENGLALD MISSION AND PROSPECTS.

61

At Batticotta there is a seminary, superintended by a principal, a professor, a native
tutor m mathematics and natural philosophy, and a native teacher of arithmetic and
astronomy, according to the Hindoo system; the number of pupils is 101 ; of girls
in the central school, 90 ; native free schools 42 ; boys 1200, girls 300. The seminary
is entirely supported by the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions.

The printing and book-binding establishment belonging to the mission employs three
presses, and fifty workmen.

Although last in the field, having been established in 1818, the Church Mission has
distinguished itself for its Christian zeal, and in promoting native education : occupying
four stations, and having but nine missionaries in holy orders, their labours, in which
they are assisted by about 110 native catechists, school-masters, and school-mistresses,
may be estimated by the number of congregations and schools belonging to the mission.

The number of communicants bears no proportion to the attendants at public wor¬
ship, the former amounting, in 1838, to 133, and the latter to 2418. Of scholars,
male and female, there are, in the sixty-two schools, thirty adults, 2048 boys, and
426 girls.

A lay agent transacts the temporal concerns of this mission, and the number of
tracts already distributed amounts to 420,000.

The whole of the Scriptures and Book of Common Prayer have been translated into
familiar Singhalese, besides numerous elementary school books, and religious tracts:
all these have been printed at the Kotta Mission press, and extensively circulated
amongst the natives, by whom they are sought with avidity, and readily purchased
by those who can afford it ; whilst those who cannot, accept them with apparent
thankfulness.

The prospects of this mission are evidently great and very encouraging ; and as the
only rock upon which they can possibly be wrecked, is the want of competent funds,
it is earnestly to be hoped that the pure doctrine they preach will not be allowed to
fail of producing the desired effect, by adequate pecuniary support being niggardly
withheld at home. The scholars make constant and creditable progress in the acquire¬
ment of religious information and general knowledge.

It is, however, a subject of general regret to the missions, that although in the im¬
mediate neighbourhood of a nominally Christian population, scarcely one native family
out of a hundred, unless immediately connected with them, abstains, on religious prin¬
ciples, from the ceremonies and practice of devil worship. When their wizards, astro¬
logers, and conjurers are converted, they will quit the devil practices by which the
native minds are so extraordinarily worked upon as to render them pliant and subser-

62

SOI-DISANT MAGI— CASTE OF SORCERERS.

vient victims to the grossest impositions that ever fettered the spirit of man. This may
be calculated on as a certain effect of the light of Christianity upon the minds of the
soi-disant magi, who now hold bodies and souls in perpetual thraldom. But until this
grand evil be removed, and by the assistance of the magistracy wherever it may be
needful, in severely punishing all such impostors, the fears of the ignorant natives will
not be overcome by merely professing themselves converts to Christianity. The con¬
version of one greatly dreaded astrologer and devil worshipper will do much to recon¬
cile the natives to the power of Christianity over the wiles of the evil one, and tend to
reduce their fears of the maha yaka, or great demon, more than can be hoped for by
other means.

The caste of Seppidiwigie Karayo, or sorcerers, is one of the greatest stumbling
blocks to Christianity that now presents itself, and on its gradual conversion very much
depends ; for the superstitious natives will never altogether abandon devil worship, so
long as its priests have such power over their minds, as to inspire these deluded crea¬
tures with the dreadful conviction that both their own bodies and the lives of their cat¬
tle, are at their (the sorcerers’) command. May the Almighty’s blessing enable the
ministers of Christ to effect this grand object, and may it light upon the efforts of all
employed in so great and glorious a cause, whatever the denomination of the Christian
church, mission, sect, or creed, they profess to belong to !

Too much cannot be said of the amiable and exemplary divines to whom the affairs
of this mission are so happily entrusted ; for, like those who have preceded them in
the office, they are altogether unexceptionable, whether in a religious or moral point
of view.

Our missionaries may make proselytes of Singhalese, and Malabars, but they ap¬
pear to have little or no chance with any of the many thousands of the followers of
Ali and Mahommed, of whom I have not yet heard that they have converted even a
solitary individual ; but Ceylon has witnessed the conversion of an apostate English¬
man to Mahommedanism. The first and most ready Singhalese converts have been
those who anticipated employment in the missionary establishments.

The Peace establishment of the army in Ceylon consists of two companies of the
royal artillery, commanded by a lieutenant-colonel ; two of the royal engineers ; four
regiments of the line ; the Ceylon rifle regiment, consisting of sixteen companies, and
a troop of mounted orderlies.

The present governor, Lieut. General Sir Colin Campbell, K. C. B., is also com¬
mander of the forces.

MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT— CIVIL BRANCH OF THE ORDNANCE.

(>3

The general staff consists of a military secretary, two aids-de-camp, a deputy adju¬
tant general, deputy assistant adjutant general, deputy quarter-master general, deputy
assistant quarter-master general, and a deputy commissary general.

The medical staff includes one deputy inspector of hospitals, one staff surgeon,
and nine assistant staff surgeons.

The civil branch of the ordnance consists of two store keepers, one (who is also the
paymaster) at Colombo, and one at Trincomale ; four established clerks, two assistant
clerks, and one extra assistant clerk.

The amount of officers’ pay and island allowances, and of the latter to naval officers,
when employed as agents of transports, during their detention by, or employment un¬
der, the orders of Her Majesty’s colonial government, is given in the following tables.

Military and Army Medical Establishment at Ceylon.

Military Secretary's Office.

£

s.

D.

Military secretary .

0

9

0

Five clerks, senior at ....

.. per annum

135

0

0

and junior at .

.. —

27

0

0

Adjutant General’s Office.

Deputy adjutent general ..

0

19

0

Deputy assistant general ..

- —

0

10

0

Three clerks, senior at ....

103

10

0

and junior at .

.. —

49

10

0

Quarter -Master

General's Off

ce.

Deputy quarter-master general per diem

0

19

0

Deputy assistant ditto ....

. —

0

10

0

Two clerks, the first at ....

i03

10

0

and the second at .

.. —

72

0

0

Two draftsmen, the first at

—

54

0

0

and the second at . .

—

36

0

0

Staff Officer's Office.

Staff officer . per diem 0 10 0

Clerk, at . per annum 40 10 0

Royal Engineers' Office.

0 0
0 0

£ s. n.

and the third at . — 36 0 0

One draftsman, at . — 69 6 0

Prmcipal Medical Officer's Office.

Two clerks, the senior at . per diem 0 7 0

and the junior at . per annum 54 0 0

Kandy.

Staff Officer's Office.

Staff officer . per diem 0 10 0

One clerk, at . per annum 27 0 0

Royal Engineers' Offce.

One clerk of the works, at per annum 72 0 0
One assistant ditto . — 36 0 0

Trincomale.

Staff Officer's Office.

Staff officer . per diem 0 10 0

One clerk . per annum 27 0 0

Island allowances to officers, in addition to their Queen's
pay, in lieu of lodging-money, fuel, candles, &c.

Colonel . per mensem 45 9 0

Lieutenant-colonel . — 32 2 0

Major . — 23 19 0

Captain ,,,,,,,, . — 13 16 0

Three clerks, the first at ... per annum 96
the second at . — 60

64

ISLAND ALLOWANCES— BATTA TO NAVAL OFFICERS.

Lieutenant . .

Second lieutenant or ensign

Paymaster .

Surgeon .

Assistant surgeon .

Adjutant .

Quarter-master .

£

s.

D.

£

s.

D

— 8

5

0

Captain . —

3

19

6

— 6

6

0

Lieutenant . —

2

14

0

— 13

16

0

Second lieutenant or ensign —

2

0

6

— 17

10

0

— 12

10

0

The allowance of the commandant of

10

10

4

4

0

0

When officers, having been relieved, have ceased to do
duty in the island, they are allowed the following
rate of island allowances, to the day of their embar¬
kation inclusively.

Colombo is fixed at . per mensem 29 1 1

0

0

0

0

Ditto of Trincomale . — 30 0

Ditto of Kandy . — 25 6

Ditto of Galle . per diem 0 10

N. B. The allowance to the commandant of Colombo
is not drawn, except when the offices of governor and
commander of the forces are held by the same officer.

Colonel . per mensem 22 14 6

Inspector-general of hospitals — 22 14 6

Lieutenant-colonel . — 16 1 0

Deputy inspector-general of hospitals 16 1 0

Assistant inspector of ditto — 13 15 0

Major . — 11 19 6

Staff surgeon . — 11 19 6

Surgeon . — 11 13 4

Captain or paymaster . — 9 4 0

Apothecary or assistant surgeon — 8 16 8

Adjutant . — 8 16 0

Lieutenant or quarter-master — 5 10 0

Second lieutenant or ensign — 4 4 0

Lieutenants or masters in the Royal Navy, acting as
agents of transports, are entitled to 13/. 16s. per men¬
sem, being island allowances to captains of infantry,
during their detention or employment by Her Majesty’s
colonial government.

Additional allowances to officers in command of corps.

Colonel . per mensem 5 4 0

Lieutenant-colonel . — 5 4 0

Major . — 8 3 0

Captain . — 10 4 0

Lieutenant . — 5 11 0

Additional allowances to officers in command of garri¬
sons, with the exception of Colombo, Trincomale,
Kandy, and Galle.

Colonel . per mensem 29 11 0

Lieutenant-colonel . . — * 8 18 0

Major . . . — 6 14 0

General and Medical Staff.
Major-general . per mensem 275 13 4-i

Deputy quarter-master general, being

a lieutenant-colonel . 16 1 0

Deputy assistant ditto, being a lieut. ... 4 2 6

Deputy adjutant-general, being a lieu-

tenant-colonel . 16 1 0

Deputy assistant ditto, being a lieut. ... 4 2 6

Assistant military secretary . 6 18 0

But if this office be held by an aid-de-camp, then ii
is not drawn, there being no island allowance for mon
than one staff situation to the same officer.

Aid-de-camp to the governor and general

officer, whether captains or subalterns 6 18 0

Besides the regimental allowance thus regulated, and
where the ranks of stall’ officers do not correspond with
this table, the addition equals one half the regimental
rate of island allowances.

Aids-de-camp, if subalterns, have the staff and island
allowances of captains.

Brevet inspectors of hospitals, per mensem 68 3 0

Stall’ surgeon . — 23 19 0

Assistant ditto . — 12 10 0

Apothecary to the forces ... — 13 5 u

In 1827 the inspector of hospitals enjoved the lucra¬
tive posts of inspector of vaccination, at 45/. per mensem,
and deputy inspector, at 84/. 10s. per mensem, togethci
with a commission of half a pice per pound upon all
cinnamon assorted ! !

CHAP. VIII.

-Cinnamon first introduced into Europe from Ceylon by the Portuguese — Tribute of the Singhalese Rajah D Hanna
Pruakramabahoo IX., to Emmanuel, king of Portugal — Cinnamon uncultivated until Governor Falck's adminis¬
tration of the government — Cinnamon plantations and roads a general benefit — Casual remarks in the planta-

jj *

dons — Dutch and British monopolies — Lord Viscount Goderich abolishes the cinnamon monopoly and all its
penalties and oppressions — Nature of the former oppressive system — Ceylon jackdaw and cinnamon pigeon —
Classification and varieties of the cinnamon laurel — Nepenthes distillatoria, Gloriosa superba, Ixora coccinea,
and Vinca rosea — Soil of the cinnamon plantations near Colombo — Chalias or cinnamon peelers — mode of ascer¬
taining the maturity of the bark — process of barking, assorting, and tasting — Cinnamon tasters — Prices of cinnamon
lands at the sale in 1840 — Prices of the spice — Revenue from cinnamon — Cinnamon oil, water, and candles — Clove-
oil made from the leaf of the cinnamon laurel — Cinnamon known to the ancient Greeks and Romans — Best quality
known by the bark — Black pepper indispensable to the preservation of cinnamon — Cinnamon breezes bubbles of the
imagination — Pandanus odoralissimus — Arum fxtidum — Hoax upon Griffins practised on board an East Indiaman .

It is scarcely possible to present much novelty to the reader upon a subject which
has been extensively handled by the many abler writers who have preceded me ; but
as no account of this interesting island can be even moderately perfect without some
notice of the cinnamon laurel, I avail myself of the correctest information that I
could obtain upon the spot where it is principally cultivated, and from the best authors
who have described its characters and properties.

When the cinnamon of Ceylon first attracted the attention of the Lusitanian disco¬
verer of the island* in the year 1506, it was only known in its wild state ; nevertheless
this spice was at that period so highly esteemed, that the Portuguese admiral at
once determined to turn it to the advantage of his country ; and he consequently
entered into a treaty with D’ Harma Praakramabahoo IX., the rajah of Ceylon,
whose capital was Kotta, for an annual tribute of 2500 quintals or 250,000 pounds
avoirdupois of cinnamon ; for which he guaranteed the then powerful protection of
his sovereign, Dom Emmanuel, king of Portugal, to the Singhalese rajah and his
dominions.f

* Admiral Lourenco D’ Almeyda, son of the Count D’ Abrantes, at that time vice-roy and governor general
of the Indies.

f Papal permission was deemed necessary to authorize a commercial intercourse with the heathen ; and as a
license had previously been granted by His Holiness, Nicholas V., by bull, in favour of prince Henry of Portugal,

I

66

ORIGINAL CULTURE OF CINNAMON— MONOPOLIES.

Cinnamon had never been cultivated in Ceylon until about the year 1770, when
the Dutch governor, Iman Willem Falck, determined to try the effect of culture upon
that laurel, malgre the opinions of the headmen that the result would be an useless
expenditure of time, labour, and money, and the quality of the spice be deteriorated
by the projected undertaking.

To this excellent governor is to be attributed the twofold benefit which resulted
to the public, from the adoption of a line of policy, calculated, in his opinion, to
increase the value of the principal staple of the colony in the European markets, and
the general salubrity of Colombo, by clearing the impervious underwood in its im¬
mediate vicinity, and forming roads through the cinnamon plantations. These roads
were subsequently improved by the British, and perfected during the late Sir Edward
Barnes’s administration of the government.

Very many Europeans traverse the cinnamon gardens, as the plantations are locally
designated, at full gallop, without allowing a single remark to escape them upon this
elegant and aromatic laurel, except in the language of disappointment at the absence
of all odour of the spice from its innumerable blossoms : some may pluck a cluster
of the small white monopetalous flowers, and express surprise that they exhale a slight
perfume of the tuberose ( Polyanthes tuberosa ) instead of that of cinnamon ; others
may admire only the bright scarlet foliage of the extreme branches^ or the purple
acorn-shaped drupe, which contains the seed, merely because it bears a miniature
resemblance to that of the oak tree ; or perhaps pluck a leaf, as they ride or
drive, and, upon crushing it in the hand, wonder that it exhales the odour of the
clove only.

We readily accuse the Dutch of monopolizing the principal staples of colonial
commerce, and we call that policy illiberal which restricted the culture of cinnamon
to Ceylon, of the clove to the Moluccas, and of the nutmeg to the Banda islands ;
but what did not the British government in Ceylon monopolize, over which it had
power ? and even during the continuance of its own monopolies of cinnamon and
salt, cum multis aliis, which had obtained from the cession of the island by the
Dutch in 1796, the Kandyan kingdom had scarcely been eighteen months in our pos¬
session when the government declared the late king of Kandy’s “ monopoly in areka
nuts, cardamoms, bee’s wax, coffee, and pepper, to be highly prejudicial to the growth
of those valuable articles of inland produce, and injurious to the commercial interests

to trade with the Mahomedans, and which referred to similar concessions from his papal predecessors, Martin V.
and Eugenius, to the kings of Portugal, so it was continued in favour of Doin Emmanuel. — Osorio, vol. i. p. 253.

MONOPOLY IN CINNAMON ABOLISHED.

6> m

U

of the colony!!” and it was thereupon abandoned by proclamation dated 15th June,
1816, in the Kandyan territories : but it was not until the Right Honorable the Lord
Viscount Goderich, His Majesty’s principal secretary of state for the colonies, from
1830 — 1833 inclusively, abolished the iniquitous and arbitrary system altogether, that
the monopoly in cinnamon ceased in the maritime provinces.

For nearly three centuries before Lord Goderich’s fiat went forth, every regulation
oi the Portuguese, Dutch, and British governments, in regard to cinnamon, teemed
with tyranny and oppression. The proprietor of the soil, whether European or native,
dared not destroy a plant, which a passing jackdaw* ( Corvus Monedula of Pennant)
or pompadour pigeon f ( Vinago aromatica of Shaw) by dropping its ordure, containing
the indigested seed, might have been the vehicle of generating in his grounds ;
and a penalty was attached to the party omitting to report to the superintendent
of cinnamon plantations the presence of such an unwelcome intruder upon his
property.

But this was not all that was expected from the occupier of the soil. He neither
dared to cut a cinnamon stick for his own use, nor a particle of the bark for his
domestic purposes, nor to distil camphor from its roots, or clove oil from its foliage.

* This, the most impudent and numerous of the Ceylon birds, is described by all authors who have preceded
me, except by the celebrated ornithologist. Dr. Stanley, the present Lord Bishop of Norwich, as the Corvus
Corax, or crow ; and some very tolerable anecdotes have been related, with, I doubt not, a very scrupulous
adherence to truth, but which are nevertheless calculated to raise doubts in the minds of the majority of those
whose fate has limited them to the perusal of the statements of what others have seen. — This bird is much
smaller than the European crow, and I prefer adopting the opinion of the Right Reverend Prelate, that it is
the Corvus Monedula, P., and not the Corvus Corax, L., that inhabits Ceylon. It is thus described in the
work alluded to. “ In the island of Ceylon, these birds are extremely impudent and troublesome, and it
is found very difficult to exclude them from the houses, which, on account of the heat, are built open, and much
exposed to intruders. In the town of Colombo, where they are in the habit of picking up bones and other things
from the streets and yards, and carrying them to the tops of the houses, a battle usually takes place for the
plunder, to the great annoyance of the people below, on whose heads they shower down the loosened tiles, leaving
the roofs exposed to the weather. They frequently snatch bread and meat from the dining table, even when it is
surrounded with guests, always seeming to prefer the company of man, as they are continually seen hopping about
near houses, and rarely to be met with in woods and retired places. They are, however, important benefactors to
the Indians, making ample compensation for their intrusion and knavery, for they are all voracious devourers of
carrion, and consume all sorts of dirt, offal, and dead vermin : they in fact carry off those substances which, if
allowed to remain, would in that hot climate produce the most noxious smells, and probably give rise to putrid
disorders. On this account they are much esteemed by the natives ; their mischievous tricks and impudence are
put up with, and they are never suffered to be shot or otherwise molested.

f Columba pompadoura, Gmel. Syst. Nat. 1. 775. 9.

i 2

68

LAURUS C IN N AMOMUM, AND ITS SINGHALESE CLASSIFICATION.

because a heavy penalty stared him in the face, for all cinnamon plants and bushes
were public property : and whenever the superintendent chose, he despatched chalias
to decorticate them and carry the bark to the government godowns or stores,
without the slightest remuneration to the landlord. Not only the proprietors, but
every body and thing, including bullocks and even carts,* were made liable to -prose¬
cution and imprisonment .■f

The following is the classification of the Laurus Cinnamomum , according to the
Linnsean system.

Class IX. Enneandria — Order I. Monogynia. Flower white, having a brownish
shade in the middle ; monopetalous ; stellated, having six points ; fruit a drupe,
about the size of a small hedge strawberry, containing one seed, and of the shape
of an acorn ; leaf trinervous, egg-oblong, nerves vanishing towards the tip, and
reticulated.

The principal, and the only cultivated species, is distinguished above all others by
the Singhalese name of Penne or Rasse Kuroondu, which signifies honey or sweet
cinnamon ; the second variety is called Nay a Kuroondu, or snake cinnamon ; the
third, Kapooru Kuroondu, or camphor cinnamon ; the fourth, Kabatte Kuroondu,
or astringent cinnamon ; the fifth, Sevel Kuroondu, or mucilaginous cinnamon ; the
sixth, Darcool Kuroondu, or flat or drum cinnamon ; the seventh, Nika Kuroondu, or
wild cinnamon, whose leaf resembles that of the nicasol, or Vitex Negundo ; the
eighth, Mai Kuroondu, or bloom or flower cinnamon ; and the ninth, Tompat Kuroondu,
or trefoil cinnamon. J But it is only the first four that are strictly varieties of the
Laurus Cinnamomum.

When in full bloom, the cinnamon bushes have a very beautiful appearance ; the
small white petals affording a most agreeable contrast with the flame-coloured ex¬
tremities of the upper, and the dark green of the inferior foliage, intermingled with
the climbing monkey or pitcher plant ( Nepenthes clistillatoria), which, conjointly with

* Bandies.

f Government Advertisement. — “ Notice is hereby given, that no Bullock Bandies, loaded or unloaded,
are allowed to pass through the Cinnamon Gardens, on the roads or otherwise, on any pretence whatever ;
and all Bullock Bandies found so trespassing, with the Cattle belonging to the same, will be seized by and
prosecuted before the Sitting Magistrate.

Signed, JOHN RODNEY,

Chief Secretary’s Office, Chief Secretary to Government.

Colombo, 14th Feb. 1812.”

% Burmanni Thesaurus Zeylanicus.

BEST CINNAMON SOIL— ITS ANALYSIS.

69

the flame-coloured Glor 'iosci superba, entwines its tendrils around this umbrageous and
spicy laurel, and the scarlet-flowered Ivor a coccinea, and pink-petaled Vinca rosea,
enjoying the shade beneath it.

The best cinnamon is obtained from the shoots which spring almost perpendicularly
from the roots, after the parent bush or tree has been cut down ; — these afford the
hazel-like walking sticks so much esteemed by persons visiting the island, and which,
although very great difficulty formerly existed in procuring them, owing to the
oppressive nature of the cinnamon regulations, may now be very easily obtained from
proprietors of grounds producing that spice.

The external appearance of the cinnamon suckers, prior to their decortication,
resembles ^ that of the hazel. The best soil for cinnamon is a pure quartz sand;
which, from the surface to the depth of a few inches, is as fine in its nature and as
white in its appearance as the best table salt ; but below that depth, and near the
roots of the bushes, the sand is greyish.*

There are two regular seasons for barking cinnamon, namely from April to August,
and from November to January, but considerable quantities are collected at other
times, as the spice attains maturity.

In order to ascertain the maturity of the liber, or inner bark, which is the cinnamon
of commerce, the peeler gives the stick a diagonal cut with a heavy knife, and if the
bark readily separate itself from the wood of the shoot that he has selected, he
cuts it down, and having scraped off the outer brown and green pellicles with a blunt
knife, he removes the bark by passing a sharp-pointed knife longitudinally from one
extremity to the other. He then places the smaller portions of the bark within the
larger, and dries it in the air and shade, where it curls and contracts, as it is imported
into Europe.

The peelers form the cinnamon into bundles, from three to four feet in length, and
85 pounds avoirdupois in weight, but reckoned only as 80 pounds, the surplus being
allowed for waste ; and they have so delicate a sense of taste, that they can distinguish
either of the four best sorts of cinnamon in the dark. The government cinnamon
tasters are necessitated to eat bread and butter at intervals during that pungent duty,
in order to preserve the skin of their tongues.

* According to Dr. John Davy's analysis, the greyish sand, thoroughly dried, consists of 98.5 silicious sand,

1 .0 vegetable matter,
0.5 water.

100.0

70

CINNAMO-MAN1A— KANDYAN SPOILS.

At the time of the abolition of the monopoly, a sort of cinnamo-mama prevailed
for purchasing the partitioned plantations from the crown ; but in 1840 cinnamon
lands sold for about 4/. to 4/. 10*. per acre.

This spice is sold at 6d., 9d., and 1*. per pound avoirdupois ; the duty upon
exportation of the first and second sorts is 2s. 6d. per pound, and upon the third sort
'2s., provided it be assorted by the government assorters ; and 3*. 6d. per pound upon
its importation into this country. The oil of cinnamon, which is made from the refuse
of the stores, is subject to a duty of 1*. per ounce. The Dutch limited the quantity
of cinnamon for exportation, in order to maintain high prices for it in the home
markets.

The Ceylon government derives an average revenue of £120,000 a year from
cinnamon, cinnamon oil, and clove oil. In the year 1S36 it amounted to 127,164/.
18*. 3 \d. which included the export duty of 74,631/. 0*. 10 d.

It may naturally be inferred, that the increased production of cinnamon will eventu¬
ally cause a glut, which nothing less than a reduction of duty will obviate, or the
accumulated stock must sell much below remunerating prices.

The most pungent and delicious cinnamon water, which, after having undergone
adulteration in the proportion of four to one, would still excel the best that is sold as
such at home, does not exceed 2*. 6d. per gallon in the island.

Amongst the Kandyan spoils were some cinnamon candles belonging to the
rajah, of which Lieut. Lyttelton, of the 73rd regiment, gave me a few specimens ;
but they exhaled no very grateful odour, nor was there any peculiar brilliancy in
their light.

Nature in some degree thwarted Dutch policy, in as far as regards one staple ot
Ceylon production ; namely, that called clove oil, which is there manufactured solely
from the cinnamon leaf, and equal, in point of aromatic pungency, to the oil made
from the clove itself at the Molucca islands.

Cinnamon was well known to the ancient Greeks by the name of lLiwifiufiov, and to
the Romans by that of Cinnamomum. It was chiefly used in perfumes and unguents,
but its price was so exorbitant that none but affluent people could purchase it. Gen¬
uine cinnamon oil is made in this country, and is considered equal to the best that
was formerly imported from Holland ; and the essential oil, distilled from cinnamon
grown in Jamaica, cannot be distinguished from that imported from Ceylon.

The best cinnamon is not thicker than stout writing paper, of a light yellowish red
color, and of a sweetly pungent taste. The inferior sort is thicker and darker in color,
and pungent to the taste, which subsequently becomes most unpleasant. Many

BLACK PEPPER— PANDAXUS ODORATISSIMUS.

71

impositions are practised in this country by selling the bark, as genuine cinnamon,
after its essential oil has been distilled from it.

Owing to the limited quantity of black pepper that is produced in Ceylon, in
proportion to the demand for it, and the means of growing it, the island is dependent
for supplies of that spice upon the coast of Malabar. Ships, chartered for the purpose
of conveying cinnamon to England, have been detained for several weeks through the
want of pepper to fill the interstices between the bales of cinnamon in the ships’ holds ;
without which, the latter spice would lose one half its value upon being imported into
this country ; but, by being stowed together, each spice is preserved in the utmost
perfection during the homeward-bound voyage. The apathy shown to the culture
of the pepper vine is altogether as unaccountable as the neglect of the other very
many valuable productions that are noticed in these pages.

But as to those bubbles of imagination, the cinnamon breezes of Ceylon, many
leagues at sea, they explode before the experience of the resident in the country.—
If all the cinnamon trees growing in the island were being barked at one and the
same time, it is impossible to say whether or not, or how far at sea, with the
wind off shore, the perfume of the spice might extend ; though as there is nothing
peculiar in its diffusiveness, it is fair to infer that its influence would not extend very
far. As the operations are now effected, in particular spots as the cinnamon becomes
mature for the purpose, and over an extensive surface, at uncertain periods and in
Limited quantities, in comparison with its produce, it is physically impossible that
cinnamon breezes can be perceived at sea.

Whatever fragrance may accompany Ceylon breezes, near and from the island, is
more likely to arise from the immense variety of the odoriferous blossoms and flowers,
of the wild orange, lime, and shaddock, and varieties of the white and yellow jessa¬
mine, and above all, in its diffusive properties, the Pandanus odoratissimus, a species
of Mellori, or Nicobar Islands’ bread fruit, most objectionable as the latter name is,
when contrasted with the produce of the true bread-fruit tree ( Artocarpus incisa, L.),
for none' but the lowest and poorest natives will eat it, and then only after having
been prepared in a manner peculiar to themselves.

It’s common name among Europeans is the wild pine apple, from the great resem¬
blance it bears to the Bromelia Ananas ;* but it is of a very different nature, class, and
order, f The fruit of the Pandanus is composed of wedge-shaped drupes, angular, and

* Bromelia Ananas , L. Class IV. Hexandria, Order I. Monogynia.

f Pandanus odoratissimus, L. Class XXII. Diaacia, Order I. Monandria.

72

ARUM FCETEDUM— HOAX ON GRIFFINS.

one-seeded ; the leaf is much longer than that of the pine apple, but is also serrated
and spinous ; and its flower, which is indispensable at all the native devil-ceremonials,
exhales so powerful an odour, that when dried it becomes the best preservative of
clothes, and of specimens in natural history, from the ravages of the Termes, or white
ant. The flower is an erect spike, thick and silky, of a lightish brown color, and rises
from a spathe, which is double, strong, and similar in substance to that of the Indian
com (Zea Mais).

The Singhalese call it Wetta-gaka, and they aver, that unless the male and
female plant be near each oth6r, the fruit never becomes edible. The seed is
oval and glossy.

But odours “ not of Araby ” sometimes prevail within the island : such are those
which are wafted by the sea-breezes from the southward, and assail the traveller upon
the coast of the southern province, particularly between Rogalle and Mirse, arising
from a large species of the Arum fcetidum, which taints the air, to a considerable
distance, with a smell scarcely inferior to the noxious effluvia which some hundreds
of decomposing carcases would diffuse.

If proof were wanting of the effect of imagination in regard to cinnamon breezes off
Ceylon, I might adduce an incident that occurred on board an outward bound East
Indiaman, whilst standing along the island, but not in sight of it, and with the wind
dead upon the land. The surgeon having rubbed a little oil of cinnamon upon the
weather hammock nettings, the Griffins,*, who formed a majority of the passengers,
and who generally assembled on the poop just before the dinner hour, were so con¬
vinced of the reality of the cinnamon breeze, that one of them actually published
an account of it, “ from his own experience of its fragrance many leagues at sea.”

* Griffin, m East Indian tram, synonymous with the West Indian, Johnny Newcome.

CHAP. IX.

The culture and manufacture of indigenous Indigo entirely neglected — Apathy displayed by the government
and individuals almost incredible — Every thing favourable to the culture of Indigo — None of the vicissitudes of
climate, as in Bengal, to be dreaded — Varieties of indigenous Indigo — None exported since 1794 — District of
Tangalle in the southern province abounds with Indigo — Facilities for establishing an Indigo factory — Mr. Fawkener,
an eminent Indigo planter, proposes to the government to establish an Indigo farm and manufactory — This propo¬
sition refused — Extraordinary hypothesis — Indigo largely exported by the Dutch government of Ceylon — Governor s
protracted stay in Kandy — John Tranchell, Esq. — Projected Indigo company of Tangalle — Stipulations in favour
of the proposed superintendent — The company to be a body corporate — Anticipation of profit — The governor
readily supports and becomes the patron of the company — Protracted correspondence — Questions of the committee —
Mr. Tranchell s death-— The governor's promotion and removal — Abandonment of the scheme — Fxcula of the Indigo
leaf a valuable manure — Madung Appo — Specimens of Indigo made from other indigenous plants — Best mode of
selecting Indigo seeds — Linnvean classification — Different methods of manufacturing Indigo — Cost of establishing
an Indigo factory — Indigo maistry and labourers — Indigo sown every second year — Singhalese anxious for Indigo
plantations in the Tangalle district — Cultivation of coffee — Land not in the same insecure state in Ceylon as in
India — Hints to intending emigrants — Suggestions to Her Majesty's secretary of state for the colonies for encou¬
raging the cultivation of Indigo — Settlement in Ceylon and in Australia contrasted.

Perhaps I cannot do better than continue,, consecutively, the subject, connected
with the capabilities of the island, and with the grand staples of commerce, for which
Providence has pre-eminently qualified it.

The local agriculture does not yet include the culture of indigo ; nor, during the
forty-four years that Ceylon has been under the British flag, has a pound of indigo
been manufactured for exportation, from the indigenous material, which is both
excellent and abundant ; but, on the contrary, manufactured indigo is still imported
from the Indian continent.

The apathy of the government to an object of such incalculable importance to the
colony, is almost incredible ; but the neglect of this valuable dye by individuals, can
only have arisen from a lamentable state of ignorance respecting it, or from the want
of capital.

Here every thing is favourable to the speculation, if it may be called one, where
the prospect for early and abundant returns for capital laid out is not clouded with
the remotest probability of a contrary result ; for there are none of the vicissitudes
of climate to be dreaded, that in the course of a night have devastated the most

K

74

INDIGENOUS INDIGO— PROPOSITIONS FOR A FACTORY.

extensive plantations in Bengal, which, on the preceding day, had appeared in all the
luxuriance of approaching maturity, and, with their destruction, annihilated the hopes
and calculations of the planter.

It is almost incredible, but nevertheless an absolute fact, that although the plant
itself, ( Indigofer a tinctoria, L.), in both the varieties, sativa and agrestis, grows in the
most prolific abundance, the last export of that dye took place, under the Dutch
government of the island, in the year 1794 !!

The district of Tangalle, in the southern province, is the best adapted to the culture
and manufacture of indigo, for various reasons ; namely, abundance of the indigenous
material — similarity of climate to that of the coast of Coromandel, where the best
indigo is produced — facility of transport by water to either of the ports of export,
Galle or Colombo, during the north-east monsoon, or to Trincomale by the south¬
west — and every necessary material for building a first-rate indigo factory, including
drying yards, leaf godowns, steeping vats, and presses, (except roof and floor tiles,
which may be obtained in any quantity from Colombo, during the south-west monsoon,
at a moderate rate, compared with their cost at home,) is at hand ; for wood is abun¬
dant, and may be obtained in any quantity, upon a license from government to fell it,
for which a trifling duty is charged ; and shells or coral for lime, for the mere expense
of collecting and burning, upon the spot ; and any number of carpenters, bricklayers,
masons, and labourers may be had at moderate wages, the latter for sixpence a day.

In the year 1817, a gentleman named Fawkener, an extensive indigo planter in
Bengal, came to Ceylon for change of air. He soon became delighted with the
climate, and having accidently seen the true and bastard indigo growing spontaneously
in my compound at Colpetty, he forthwith submitted a proposition to His Excellency
General Sir Robert Brownrigg, Bart., G. C. B., the then governor, to establish an exten¬
sive indigo farm and manufactory in the island, provided the government would assign
to him certain waste lands, the property of the crown, free of the usual taxes upon
Parveny or private lands, for thirty years ; and at the expiration of that period, to be
subject to the usual duty of ten per cent, upon the produce. Mr. Fawkener offered
full security for continuing the cultivation of indigo, and that in failure thereof, the
lands were to revert to the crown.

This proposition was replete with certain advantage to the revenue, because there
was no stipulation made that government should allow indigo to be exported duty free ;
and one successful speculation would have induced others. The benefit to the colony,
and the increase of agricultural labour, would have been certain and progressive, and
the profits to Mr. Fawkener, incalculable.

INDIGO LARGELY EXPORTED UNDER THE DUTCH GOVERNMENT.

75

It may be presumed that the multiplicity of business which then pressed upon
Governor Sir Robert Brownrigg, who was occupied in suppressing the Kandyan
rebellion that had broken out, precluded the deliberate attention to Mr. Fawkener’s
proposition which it might otherwise have received, for sound policy would surely
have dictated its acceptance, both as a certain means of increasing the revenue, and
of extensively benefitting the agriculture of the colony, by introducing at one and
the same time an improved method of cultivation, and bringing into general notice
as a grand stgple of colonial produce, a most valuable and indigenous, but altogether
neglected dye.

It was stated, but how far correctly I cannot vouch, that doubts were expressed by
the executive, whether indigo could be successfully cultivated in the colony ! But
surely, that point was for the speculator’s consideration, and Mr. Fawkener had no
doubts whatever upon the subject ; for he had found it growing spontaneously, and
subsequently ascertained that in certain localities it was most abundant, and required
nothing but culture to improve it, when the manufacture would follow as a matter
of course ; and secondly, such a doubt on the part of the executive would have
betrayed gross ignorance of the history of the colony, for it had long been a recorded
fact, that during the Dutch administration of the government, vast quantities of indigo
had been manufactured for the European market, and exported from Trincomale :
besides which, a preliminary trial of its growth and manufacture upon a limited scale,
would have soon solved the hypothesis.

The governor’s protracted stay in Kandy, and the very uncertain state of affairs in
that country, together with Mr. Fawkener’s desire to avail himself of the south-west
monsoon, to return to Bengal, determined him to abandon his original intention,
which may be justly considered a very severe loss to the island, for no similarly
advantageous propositions were subsequently made.

The next in the field was Mr. John Tranchell, a Swedish gentleman of great ability,
skill, and enterprise ; but unfortunately without capital. Mr. Tranchell had long
previously ascertained that an abundance of indigo grew spontaneously in the Tan-
galle district, and at length, failing in private channels, he proposed to the then
governor. His Excellency, Lieut. General Sir Edward Barnes, G. C. B., to patronize
the formation of an indigo factory, by a joint-stock company, in fifty shares of 500
rix dollars, or 37/. 10,?. each share. The governor approved of the plan, and most
cheerfully consented to become the patron.

It was then proposed, that as original mover of the scheme, Mr. Tranchell should
be appointed the company’s resident superintendent of such factory, and have a vested

k 2

76

PROJECTED INDIGO FACTORY COMPANY OF TANGALLE.

right to ten shares for his own benefit, such ten shares to be paid for by the sub¬
scribers, in proportion to the number of shares purchased for themselves — that the
land should be granted by the government as the bona fide property of Mr. Tranchell,
subject to the cultivation of indigo, so long as it should be found to make an ample
return to the company, or that the company continued to exist — that the said com¬
pany should be a body corporate, under the title of The Indigo Factory Company of
Tangalle, with the privilege of being allowed to sue and defend, in all causes of action
before the supreme court of judicature, and minor courts, as a body corporate.

“ That two thousand acres of crown lands, in the province of Tangalle, to be chosen
by Mr. Tranchell, should be granted, free of all tax to government, for thirty years ;
and after that period, to be chargeable, as the property of Mr. Tranchell, with the
usual duty upon private lands, namely, one tenth of their produce per annum ; and
that the proprietors, or a majority of them, at public meetings, should nominate a
committee of inspection, from time to time, of the progress of the establishment.”

It was calculated, after a liberal estimate of the expenses, that the proprietors would
only have to make a sacrifice of the interest of their capital for the first eighteen
months, and that in the third year a considerable dividend might be anticipated ; and
it was at the same time suggested, that as an encouragement to the superintendent to
give up all his time to the concerns of the factory, he should have the right of pre¬
emption of such shares as might at any time be offered for sale, and also the power
of disposing of all his own shares above five, which number he was to be obliged to
retain : but that if, at any subsequent period, the superintendent should desire to
relinquish that situation, it could only be done with the consent of three-fourths
of the proprietors.

His Excellency the governor readily entered into the spirit of the propositions, but
with certain modifications. The formation of the company was then proposed to the
literary and agricultural society of Ceylon, and that measure eventually decided its
fate ; for protracted correspondence ensued, innumerable questions were asked, and
answers required for the “select committee’s” information; which led to an extensive
correspondence between Mr. Tranchell and some eminent indigo factors in India, with
a view to give every satisfactory information to the select committee, as to the cost of
erecting the necessary buildings, from such plan < as might be received from Madras.

The committee next wished to ascertain if a less sum than £2000 would not be
sufficient, taking it for granted that the government would give the land required —
secondly, whether the previous appropriation of a number of shares to Mr. Tranchell
in the outset, might not be impolitic ; and in lieu thereof, to remunerate his services

CAUSES OF ITS ABANDONMENT— VIOLET-COLORED INDIGO.

77

according to the profits of the concern — thirdly, whether the company might not
proceed upon a less scale at first, and have the conveyance of the land to trustees for
the subscribers generally; and finally, suggested, in order to secure Mr. Tranchell
against caprice on the part of the proprietors, that he should not be liable to removal
from the office of superintendent, except by the vote of four-fifths of the company.

To all these suggestions Mr. Tranchell readily assented; for he felt satisfied that the
speculation would succeed, and surpass all possible expectation or calculation. But
alas ! L’ homme propose, mais Dieu dispose ! Mr. Tranchell died ; the principal sub¬
scribers, upon whom the formation of the indigo company of Tangalle depended, did not
complete its establishment ; most probably from the difficulty of finding a competent
superintendent; and the subsequent promotion of the governor to the chief command
of the Bengal army, put a finishing stroke to the abandonment of a scheme, by which
numerous families might at this moment have been in the full enjoyment of indepen¬
dent incomes, obtained with but little comparative trouble, and altogether without risk
of capital ; because such speculation must have been a lucrative one where the climate
is every way congenial to the plant itself, and altogether exempt from the vicissitudes
affecting either its growth or manufacture.

It would not be difficult to select 500,000 acres, the property of the crown, which,
at a comparatively small expenditure, might be brought into a proper state of cultiva¬
tion for the reception of indigo seed ; for very little would be required to be done be¬
yond clearing the ground of weeds, and burning the grass, and then lightly ploughing
and levelling the ground ; and whenever manure might be requisite, the foecula of
the leaf affords one of the richest that could be employed : nothing indeed is wanting
to ensure success but a moderate capital and perseverance. I brought with me to
England full powers for establishing an indigo company in this country, in the year
1827, but Mr. Tranchell’s death in 1S28, cancelled the power of attorney that I held
to act in his behalf.

Ceylon produces two other plants that I am well acquainted with ; from which a
very valuable blue dye may be obtained by a similar process to that of making indigo.
An intelligent Singhalese doctor at Gallepiadde, near Galle, in the southern province,
named Madung Appo, brought me samples of the dye, which were extensively shown
to Anglo-Indian merchants connected with the indigo trade in this country, by the
late Lieut. J. W. Philips, royal navy, (who at that time commanded the ship Eliza¬
beth,) by whom it was declared to be a very superior violet-colored indigo. Here then
is a new and extensive field for further speculation and energy in developing the
natural capabilities of this incomparable island.

78

DIFFERENT METHODS OF MANUFACTURING INDIGO.

Mr. Fawkener pointed out to me the best mode of selecting seeds of the true indigo
{Indigofer a tinctoria var sativa, L.) from the bastard variety (Indigofera tinctoria var
agrestis, L.) by the leaf. The first, when held between the thumb and forefinger of
each hand, divides upon the least distension transversely ; the latter, tried in the same
way, breaks with a swallow-tail.

The Egyptian name for indigo is Nil, which is also the Singhalese name for it, and
one of many proofs of the great affinity between the Egyptian and Pali languages.

Linnaeus classifies indigo as of the XVII. class Diadelphia, and order III. Decandria.
Of this genus there are twenty five known varieties, but only two are natives of Ceylon.

The best plan for ascertaining the maturity of the indigo plant is by gently shaking
it, and if the leaf begins to fall, it is fit for the steeping vat. The plant, which is then
about two feet high, is cut with a sickle ; the smaller branches are stripped off, and
infused in water for about thirty six hours ; after which, the water is turned off into
a sort of churn, which is worked until the water is covered with a scum-like foam —
olive oil is then added in the proportion of one pound to sufficient water to produce
seventy five pounds of indigo — the oil causes the scum to separate, and appear like
curdled milk ; it is then allowed to settle for some time, when the water is drawn off,
and the sediment removed into straining bags, and allowed to drain for some time. It
is then made into lumps or cakes, and, when dried, forms the indigo of commerce.

There is another method of making indigo, by infusion of the smaller branches in
boiling water, after the manner of tea, and employing quick lime as a precipitate ; but
if it were not for the additional expense of labour, a superior indigo would be obtained
by using the leaf only.

The expenses of erecting a substantial indigo factory upon a large scale, including
leaf godowns, drying yards, and every necessary apparatus for the manufacture, would
not exceed <£1500 sterling; and, admitting that 2000 acres of land were to be pur¬
chased from the government, at 5s. per acre, the whole outlay would not exceed
£2000 sterling.

An indigo maistry may be obtained from Madras for about four pagodas, or thirty
two shillings sterling a month ; and any number of labourers may be procured at
sixpence a day in the maritime provinces. It is only in the interior that labour is
higher, because labourers are not to be procured there in sufficient numbers for the
plantations now under cultivation ; and Hindoo labourers are consequently hired from
the continent, for the natives of the maritime provinces have great objection to service
in Kandy, or (adopting their owrn words) “ that other country.”

Upon the coast of Coromandel, the Ryots, who grow indigo, sow the crop but

HINTS TO INTENDING EMIGRANTS.

79

every third year, permitting the ground to iie fallow during the intermediate period,

*

and feeding sheep on it ; or else they cultivate it with dry grains, oil plants. &c. Good
and well-manured ground may be sown with indigo every second year ; the fcecula of
the indigo leaf is a very powerful manure, and requires caution in its employment.

The Singhalese headmen of the Tangalle district in the southern province have
long been anxious for the establishment of an indigo plantation and factory there, and
would readily take shares in a company established for that purpose ; but the govern¬
ment must set the example, if it wish to extend and improve the agriculture of Ceylon,
as regards a more extensive culture of rice by the natives, and of cotton, indigo, cocoa,
cochineal, pepper, annatto, silk, hemp, and opium by Europeans.

I repeat that it must not be left to the private energy of the present colonists, or
cultivation, as far as regards these articles of commerce, will be just in the same state
of abeyance twenty years hence, as, with all the great natural capabilities of the
island, it is at this moment.

The cultivation of coffee will run away with all the capital that the Europeans in
the colony can command, because the foundations for it had been laid long before the
present proprietors ventured upon the speculation ; and because they imagine that
more profit is likely to accrue from the culture of a less quantity of land with coffee ;
and therefore, other equally important articles of commerce (except sugar, which be¬
gins to attract attention) are to be left to chance, or to be altogether neglected, except
in such small proportions as may suffice for private instead of national wants.

Land is not in the same insecure and unsettled state in Ceylon, that it is in India,
notwithstanding the proximity of the two countries ; and, moreover, Ceylon offers
that which India does not, a fair field for the adventure of capital, accompanied by
permanent settlement ; and particularly in the interior, without risking any disastrous
effects of climate upon European constitutions.

If Ceylon were better or sufficiently known to the generality of persons, intent upon
emigration to new and almost unknown lands, for its great and indigenous resources
to be fully and fairly appreciated, speculation would not long remain idle ; but the
encouragement of hope or of even the slightest prospect of success to any other than
possessors of moderate capital, would be both criminal and delusive. To officers disposed
to become settlers, the government has a variety of means at its command to aug¬
ment the “advantages” held out by the colonial minister’s memorandum of August 15,
1834, and now extended to Ceylon ; amongst the rest, by advances of money out of
the annual excess of the local revenue over the expenditure, upon the security of the pro¬
duce, to enable them to form plantations of the valuable productions mentioned above.

80

CEYLON AND AUSTRALIA CONTRASTED.

If Her Majesty’s secretary of state for the colonies would, in his wisdom, follow the
precedent for encouraging the cultivation of indigo set by the Honorable the East
India Company in 1799, or adopt the plans now acted upon for the promotion of the
culture of cotton in India by the same Honorable body, many enterprising and intelli¬
gent officers and private individuals would eagerly grasp at the opportunity of further
developing the resources of Ceylon, and of encreasing its revenue ; and, at the same
time, their own means of providing for their families and dependents.

But without moderate capital, it would mislead an officer to recommend him to avail
himself of what are termed “ advantages” of emigrating to Ceylon, upon the same
terms provided for settling in the Australian colonies, south Australia excepted.

It is evident from the perusal of those documents to which I have given n place in
the appendix for general information, that the government has allowed one grand point
to escape its observation. An officer accustomed to society and the comforts, and I
may add, elegancies of life, resigns them the moment he becomes a settler in a country
like Australia. There, all settlers are bent upon the same objects ; — a location, fencing,
planting, &c., and however happy they may be to greet each other over the same prop,
they have no one better off than themselves, that may place them within the pale of
invidious comparison in the same neighbourhood, or country. But it is different,
widely different, in Ceylon ; and wretched will be the settler, who may have inconsider¬
ately proceeded to that island upon any such most discouraging terms. The best in¬
ducement to officers to become settlers in Ceylon, would be to grant them as much
land, at a nominal quit rent of a peppercorn, as they may undertake to bring into
cultivation, and advance them money upon the terms I have already suggested.

CHAP. X.

Conflicting descriptions of the Palms of Ceylon — Extraordinary accounts of the process of Sara or toddy
drawing — Classification and description of the coco-nnt tree — Process of toddy drawing, from personal observa¬
tion — Sinnet for sailors’ hats — Toddy, or palm wine — Varieties and domestic uses of the Cocos nucifera — Arrack —
Oil — Vinegar — Jaggery— Native method of planting it, and their superstition about salt — Uses of the fronds —
Coco-nut timber — Adhesive properties of the water of the green coco-nut — The Hiromane — Average produce of a
coco-nu,t tree — Uses of the shells — Medicinal oil from the bark— Medicinal properties of the root, leaves, and
flowers — Extraordinary notions about the superabundance of the coco-nut palm, and facility of planting it —
Coco-nut oil used in the manufacture of soap and candles — Suggestions for extending the culture of the coco-nut
palm in live British West Indian and West African colonies.

So many conflicting and erroneous accounts have been given of the palms of Geylon,
in travels, and extracts from the travels of various writers, that if I were not satisfied
to the contrary, I might be disposed to think the authors endeavoured to mislead,
instead of inform, their readers ; and if the former will be governed by native state¬
ments only, instead of witnessing the processes which they pretend to describe, one
cannot expect that the latter, how much soever they may be amused, will be enlight¬
ened by accounts at variance with facts.

The subjoined notes* from the works of authors who have obtained general credence
for the correctness of their representations, are (a,s all who hate really witnessed the

* “Toddy is the juice running from an incision made in the stem of the leaves; and constitutes a verv
pleassnt beverage When first gathered in.” — Stidham's Indian Recollect iems, page 29.

“ A pot sufficient to hold two quarts is fixed to a shoot where an incision is made in the evening, and is
brought down full at sunrise in the morning.” — Cordiners Ceylon, vol. i. page 352.

“ A small incision being made, there oozes in gentle drops a cool pleasant liquor, called tarce or toddy, the
palm wine of the poets.” — Forbes's Oriental Memoirs, page 24.

“ Toddy is procured by incision. It is only necessary to make a slit in the top of the tree, where the leaves
shoot up, with a knife over night, and suspend a chatty, or earthen pot, from the branches so as to receive the
juice, which immediately begins to distil, and continues to do so till next morning, when the pot is removed.’ —
Percival's Ceylon.

“ Between the cabbage like shoot and the leaves, there spring several buds, from which, on making an
incision, there distils a juice differing little from water in color or consistence. This liquor is sold in the bazaars
fry the natives under the name of toddy.” — Tennant's Indian Recreations, vol. ii. page 283.

See also Kerr’s Voyages, vol. vii. page 476 ; and Pennant’s Hindoostan, vol. i. page 139.

L

I

82

THE COCO-NUT PALM— ITS FAVORITE SOIL, AND DESCRIPTION.

tedious process of preparing the coco-nut tree for the production of toddy will admit)
absolute illusions.

Let it be supposed, for instance, that a planter in the West Indies, (where toddy
drawing was, some few years ago, and probably continues to be, entirely unknown,)
being desirous of testing these plans, adopted either one or all of them ; and let his
disappointment be imagined, when, anxiously anticipating the assured morning’s
draught of the “ Palm wine of the poets,” he found it altogether Eutopian ! and
if either of these incisive measures had been resorted to, and the pot hung up at
the times these accounts were written, the authors would have waited a long time
for their toddy ; for it would not, even yet, after an interval of so many years, have
begun to distil.

I will, therefore, briefly describe the various natural properties and domestic useful¬
ness of this splendid palm, from my own personal observations.

The Coco-nut palm (Cocos nucifera , L., and Polgaha of the Singhalese, Class XXI.
Moncecia, Order VI. Hexandria, Natural Order Palmed), delights in a sandy soil, and
the nearer to the margin of the sea, the quicker its growth, and the more abundant its
produce. It requires little or no care, beyond being well fenced from the inroads
of cattle, for, fanned by the winds of the Indian ocean, it gains fecundity by exposure :
and although its general height is from sixty to eighty feet, it is not uncommon for it
to exceed a hundred. Its diameter, at the base, is from two to three feet ; and the
root, which is composed of strong flexible fibres, about the thickness of a small rattan
cane ( Calamus Rotang, L.), spreads in a circle ; and of these, some run to a great
depth, and others creep along the surface of the soil.

One may imagine a beautiful and verdant circle, formed of feathery fronds, from
fourteen to sixteen feet in length, radiating from a common centre at the top of a
tapering stem eighty feet in height, and that will afford some idea of the magnificence
of the coco-nut palm.

The fronds are supported at the base by diagonal and horizontal layers of strong
elastic fibres, capable of sustaining great weight, and so closely united as to form,
when gently stretched, an excellent substitute for a hair sieve for straining liquids.
This fibrous support lies in lamince between the branches, which it envelopes, as well
as the incipient ones, even to their rudiments, or what is commonly called the cabbage ,
and seems providentially adapted for the security of the passing traveller from the
constant danger that would otherwise attend him, whilst traversing the coco-nut
topes, from the sudden falling of decayed branches, which its very firm adhesion to
the trunk prevents ; but it is not made into gunny bags, ( Gungesaaken of the Dutch,)

PROCESS OF TODDY DRAWING— SINNET FOR SAILORS’ HATS.

83

as some authors have stated, arid is merely used for straining toddy and other liquids,
and for kindling fires.

During the many years that I resided in Ceylon, I never heard of but one fatal
accident from the falling of a coco-nut ; a remarkable circumstance, when one considers
the many thousands of people constantly passing and repassing through the topes.*

Trees, intended for toddy drawing, are prevented from producing fruit by the follow¬
ing process. The toddy drawer first ties the spathe in three places, with strips of the
tough white pbincej- of the young fronds ; which latter shoot perpendicularly at first,
and are then of a beautiful white, but soon change to a straw color ; these are
concave towards the heart of the crest, and when they are successively forced from
their position by new fronds, they gradually expand their pinnated leaves, and ulti¬
mately become horizontal. The old fronds have a strong mid-rib, with the footstalks
nearest the tree proportionally thick ; these embrace the stem, and as they gradually
fall off, after hanging for weeks together by their fibrous support, or are pulled down
for fuel, torches,^; and fences, they leave successive and very visible scars.

The purpose of tying the spathe is to prevent its expansion ; it is then cut
transversely, to the extent of about two inches from the point, and beaten with
an ebony or iron-wood batoon, by the toddy drawer, for five or six mornings and
evenings successively. The next operation is to remove a portion of the footstalk
of the spathe, so as to admit of its depression, for the juice to flow freely, and it is
kept in that position by attaching it to an inferior branch ; in the course of five or six
days, the toddy drawer suspends a calabash, or earthen pot, called a chatty, from the
decapitated spathe, so as to receive the juice as it exudes from the flower, and this
he repeats every morning and evening, taking off a slice of the flower as occasion
requires, whilst any part of it remains.

This delicious liquid, combining a pleasant but slight degree of sweetness with a
still less degree of acidity, when fresh, and of peculiar flavor, is called by us toddy ;

* An Indian name for groves. In Bengal, Mango plantations are called topes, as well as those of the coco-nut
tree ; but where groves of palms are reserved for toddy drawing, they are called toddy topes.

t These are in general request by sailors in India, for making hats. Jack first reduces the pinnae into very
narrow strips, then plats them into what he calls sinnet, and, with a needle and thread, soon forms a good but
heavy substitute for a chip hat; for it wears remarkably well, and, bfeing cooler than one of glazed leather, is
better for inter-tropical service. Of the mid-rib (costa) the natives make'neat whisks and bird cages.

I Chulos, and, (Anglice,) Chides. These the natives make, by laying dowm the pinnm horizontally from the
footstalk towards the point ; but they leave one or two, at certain distances, in their natural position, for the purpose
of tying the others round the mid-rib, or rather, the longitudinal section of it, for each frond makes two chules.

L 2

84

SURA— VARIETIES OF THE COCO-NUT PALM— KING COCO-NUT.

Ra, by the Singhalese ; and Suri or Sura,* (which means palm wine,) by the Hindoos
and Hindo-Portuguese ; and, being esteemed a gentle aperient, it is very often resorted
to at the earliest peep of dawn, by the bon-vivant, by way of removing the unpleasant
effects of more potent libations over night.

There are five varieties of this palm at Ceylon, and the grounds adjoining the
Buddha temples generally contain the best specimens of the indigenous species. The
priests readily afford strangers every information, but only upon inquiry, for tlieir dif¬
fidence, which arises from the dread of being considered obtrusive, does not proceed
from disinclination to gratify the curiosity of the European visitor ; and without asking
for information when required, one may remain all one’s life-time in Ceylon and know
no more of the varieties of the coco-nut palm than casual observation might suggest,
from the mere circumstance of the difference in point of color of the nuts, from the
Koroomba, or water coco-nut, to that which approaches, or has attained maturity.

The peculiar shape and bright orange color of the King coco-nut cannot fail to
attract observation, but it is scarcely ever to be seen in the bazaars. It is occasionally
presented, by the priests, or headmen, by way of compliment, to Europeans.

The next in beauty is of an orange color, but not of the beautiful pear shape of
the king coco-nut. The third is of a pale yellow, rather cordiform, and the fleshy
substance of its husk, which is between the epidermis and the nut, is edible in its
green state. The fourth is the common coco-nut, which is abundantly imported into
this country from the West Indies ; and the fifth is a sort of Maldive,f or dwarf coco¬
nut, about the size of a duck’s egg ; this is esteemed as a rariety.

I have remarked the coco-nut palm, in its various stages, in many countries ;
namely, the Azores, West Indies, Mauritius, Coast of Coromandel, Bengal, Pinang,
Malacca, Moluccas, Banda Islands, Celebes, and Timor ; but I never saw it attain the
height that it does in Ceylon.

The finest arrack in the world is distilled by the Singhalese from the fermenting toddy,
(which, owing to the rapidity of that process, becomes an intoxicating beverage in the
course of a few hours,) and not from sweet toddy, as some travellers have erroneously

* “ The word Sura in Sanscrit signifies both wine and true wealth ; hence in the first C'hand of the Ramayan
of V almic, it is expressly said that the Devalas having received the Sura, acquired the title ot Suras, and the
Daityas that of Asura, from not having received it. The Veda is represented as that wine and true wealth ;
and the Devatds as enjoying it, in a superior degree, being termed Suras, the prince, or supreme leader of the
Suras, became, in the Grecian deity Bacchus, (by a confined translation of the word,) the god of wine and
drunkards.” — Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. page 50.

t So called, because the Maldivian boats which visit the island bring a few extremely small nuts as curiosities.

POLWAKERE, OR ARRACK— PUNTJEE— OIL— VINEGAR— JAGGERY.

85

asserted. One hundred gallons produce, by the simple chymical process of the Singha¬
lese, twenty five of arrack,* ( Polwakere ,) which, when very new, is injurious to the
constitution, but gradually acquires wholesomeness by age. Toddy is also used by
bread bakers for the purposes of yeast.

Pine apples, steeped in arrack, impart a delicious flavor, and reduce its strength to
that of a liqueur, unrivalled for making nectarial punch, or Puntjee of the Hindoos,
meaning five : — thus our compound of sugar, limejuice, spirit, water, and lemon-peel,
derives its English name from a Hindoo numeral.

Lamp oil is made from the kernel of the ripe coco-nut, after it has been exposed
to the sun on mats until it has become rancid and discolored, (in which state the
natives call it Kopperah ,) by means of a simple press turned by bullocks ; and oil
for culinary purposes, by boiling the fresh pulp, and skimming it as it rises. The
former is no\V made into candles and soap, and the oil-cake, or Poonac , is used for
feeding cattle and poultry.

Vinegar is made by putting toddy, drawn in dry weather, into jars, and keeping
them closely covered, but exposed to the sun, for a month ; the toddy is then strained,
and replaced in the same jars, with a little bird pepper (Capsicum frutescens, L.),
a small piece of the red Ghorkah ( Cambogia gutta), and of Moringa pod ( Hyperanthera
moringa), the jars are then laid in the earth for a month or five weeks, and thus
a very excellent vinegar is produced.

Jaggery, a sort of sugar, is made by suspending a clean and dry calabash, or chatty,
instead of one in common use for toddy drawing, and containing some chips of the
bark of the Shorea robusta, ( Halghas of the Singhalese,) which will cause the toddy to
become sweet. Eight gallons of it boiled over a slow fire, yield two gallons of syrup,
called in Singhalese Penni ; which, being again boiled, produces a coarse brown sugar,
called Jaggery ; this is formed into cakes in bottoms of coco-nut shells, by way oi
moulds ; which, having been enveloped in pieces of dried plantain leaf, are hardened,
and preserved from humidity by being suspended where smoke has free access to them.

A coco-nut tree, planted near the sea, generally blossoms in the fourth or fifth year ;
but in elevated situations of the interior, six or seven years may be considered the
average period ; and from that time to upwards of sixty years, this most prolific palm
will continue to produce fruit in abundance, unless the tree be devoted entirely to the
toddy-drawer, in which case it produces no fruit.

The maturity of coco-nuts, reserved for planting, is indicated by the brown color
of the husk ; they are then plucked, and, having been laid aside for a few days, are

* Batavian arrack is distilled from rice.

86 SUPERSTITION ABOUT SALT— FRONDS— TIMBER— GREEN COCO-NUT WATER.

ranged in rows, and partly covered with earth ; or, as in many parts of the country,
suspended from the branches of trees until vegetation has commenced. In about
three months, more or less, the plant will have appeared, and in less than five months
from that time, will have attained the height of sixteen or eighteen inches, and have
thrown out three or four foliacious fronds. The best time for transplanting is
during the rainy season, when the plants receive that abundant .nourishment which
their nature requires.

The Singhalese are so extremely superstitious, that they invariably throw a little
salt into the holes, before they place the coco-nut plants in them ; and they observe
great regularity in forming their topes, by making holes for the plants in parallel lines,
from twenty to twenty four feet apart, about three feet deep, of the same diameter at
the top, and in the shape of inverted cones, for the purpose of collecting the necessary
moisture. If the salt were omitted, they would not expect the plant to flourish.

The green fronds split, and their pinnated leaves interwoven, make covers for plants,
baskets, and thatch ; * and, when burnt, produce a superior alkali. The young pinnae,
which are white and tough, make beautiful mats, baskets, and boxes for ladies’ work.

The stem is at first of a very spongy nature, and full of tough perpendicular and
ligneous fibres ; and, until it is about twenty years old, is applicable only to the pur¬
poses of gutters, water pipes, and fences ; but when it becomes old, it is fit for rafters,
shingles, ornamental cabinet work, rice pounders, walking sticks, and for building
country vessels, called Dhonies. f

The water of the green coco-nut is a delicious drink, if it be plucked before sunrise ;
it is also used by house-plasterers, for its adhesive quality, in mixing their white and
colored washes, and, conjointly with Jaggery and shell-lime, for stucco.

The pulp of the young coco-nut is an admirable vegetable blancmange; and the
kernel of the seed coco-nut, after vegetation has commenced, is among the delicacies
of a Singhalese dessert. It is spongy, but pleasant to the taste, and greatly esteemed by
the natives. The expressed juice of the pulp of the ripe nut is properly the milk, and is
obtained by first rasping it with an instrument called Hiromane,% then soaking it in

* Called by the natives, Cajan. -f- From 80 to 200 tons burthen.

I The Hiromane is the best kind of grater that can he employed to reduce the kernel for culinary purposes,
because it obviates the necessity of breaking the nut-shell in pieces, or the previous removal of the kernel frcm it,
which, in its ripe state, is no very easy matter. It consists of a circle of notched iron fastened to tile end of a
stout piece of wood, cut in a peculiar shape, which immemorial custom has induced the Singhalese to consider
the most convenient for this domestic purpose; and considered by Europeans to resemble a boot-jack, but why,
l have yet to learn.

PALM CABBAGE— KOIR— USES OF THE COCO-NUT SHELL— MEDICINAL OIL. 87

water and pressing it through a cloth, when it forms an ingredient in all good curries.
The cabbage is delicious, whether fficaseed, or pickled, or in its raw state, when it is
as sweet and crisp as the Catappa almond ( Terminalia Catappa, L.).

A bunch of coco-nuts seldom exceeds fifteen or twenty good ones ; and from trees
growing in sandy situations, the fruit is gathered four or five times a year. The ex¬
ternal husk, after having been soaked in water for a certain period, is beaten out into
a fibre called Koir or Koya , of which, yarn, ropes, cables, brooms, plasterers’ brushes,
bed and sofa mattresses, and bags, are manufactured. Coco-nut shells* are made into
cups, basons, lamps, sportsmen’s liquor flasks, ladles, skimmers, spoons, lampblack,
and charcoal ; which latter, when pulverized, forms an excellent dentifrice.

A powerful oil is extracted from the bark of the coco-nut tree, which is employed
as a liniment in cutaneous diseases, and considered by the Singhalese doctors emi¬
nently efficacious, provided that, in such cases, a free use of the green coco-nut, as
the principal article of diet, be strictly adhered to ; and an ointment is prepared from
the kernel, which is a certain cure for the ring-worm in children.

The root is considered by the native doctors so efficacious in intermittent and
remittent fevers, that it is almost invariably employed by them. Small pieces of it
are boiled with dried ginger and jaggery, and the decocture is given to the patient at
regular intervals. The same decocture, when used, as a gargle, is mixed with the oil
of the nut, freshly made, and generally affords considerable relief to the patient, in
cases where pustules have formed in the mouth or glands of the throat.

In hemorrhoids, the expressed juice of the leaves, mixed with fresh oil of the nut,
and taken internally, is considered a sovereign remedy ; and in ophthalmic complaints,
the external application of the expressed juice of the nut, mixed with new milk from
the cow or goat, mitigates, if it do not entirely remove, inflammation.

The juice of the flower is of so astringent a nature, that it has the same effect as
a solution of alum upon the inside of the mouth ; this, mixed with new milk, and
taken in small quantities, not exceeding a wine-glass full, but at regular periods,
affords almost immediate temporary relief, and, if persevered in, effectual cure, in
that most debilitating disease in tropical climates. Lues Gonorrhoea.

The shade of the coco-nut tree is wholesome ; for wherever there are coco-nut
topes, very little underwood is found.

An odd notion has long prevailed, that if all the coco-nut trees in Ceylon were cut
down, the natives would be obliged to cultivate rice more extensively, and that it

* See page 103, for the Singhalese musical instrument, the Vinah.

SB

PRESERVATIVE FOR THE HAIR— COCO-NUT-OIL SOAP AND CANDLES.

would operate as a general blessing!! To me it appears a subject of regret, that the
many virtues of this invaluable palm, apparently bestowed by the hands of a beneficent
Providence, for the use and happiness of the natives of tropical climes, are not more
universally known and encouraged throughout the British West India Islands. Those
whose duties may have called them, as in my own case, to both countries, cannot
have failed to remark the apparently degenerated state of the coco-nut tree of the
West Indies, in comparison with that of the East.*

The facility of planting the coco-nut palm, — the small portion of care requisite
for its growth and preservation, — the multiplied benefits which, in its maturity, it
bestows on man, — all tend to render it an object of peculiar regard to those who are
the guardians, deputed by the Giver of all good, of the labourer of the tropics.

The Singhalese are very remarkable for their luxuriant and beautiful hair, and attri¬
bute it to the use of coco-nut oil, which, in a perfumed state, is also employed by
Europeans ; but it is only by habitual use that its virtues can be sufficiently ascertained
to insure its general adoption as a promoter and preserver of the hair, unless its natural
properties are destroyed by adulteration ; and as steam and other English oil-mills are
now used, and the demand for coco-nut oil has greatly increased, since its employment
in the manufacture of candles and soap, it may be anticipated, that from the recent
improvement of the quality of the coco-nut oil for table use, by its being rendered free
from smoke, its importation will continue in an increasing ratio ; and consequently, too
much attention and encouragement cannot be given to a more extensive cultivation
of this invaluable palm, not only at Ceylon, but throughout our West Indian and
West African colonies.

Independently of the general consumption of the! produce of the coco-nut palm
by the native inhabitants, and its extensive employment in the domestic economy of
Europeans, it finds a ready market for exportation ; and the manufacture of koir yarn,
ropes and cables, oil, vinegar, arrack, jaggery, and cajans for thatching bungalows and
native houses, affords employment to a considerable portion of the Singhalese and
Malabar population.

* If' the reader have not previously read “ A Treatise upon the Coco-nut Palm, bv a Fellow cf the Linn. car.
and Horticultural Societies” publi-ffed in the year 1830, and a second edition of it, in toy own name, in 1836,
it will afford him some amusement to compare the former with the second volume of “ Wanderings in New South
V\ al 's Batavia, Pedir Coast, Singapore, and China, by George Bennett, Esq., F. L. S., and fellow of the Ro\al
College of Surgeons,” (published by Mr. Bentley in 1834,) pages 297 to 335 inclusively. Author.

CHAP. XI.

The Areka Palm and its Limits an classification — Flower and fruit used for ornamenting temporary buildings for
festivals — Areka nut anti-scorbutic — Spathe, and its uses — Terra Japonica — Properties of the areka nut as a dye —
Suggestions for condensing the dye — Heat generated by the nuts — Barter through the agency of Buddhist priests —
Wood excellent for bows — Palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis, L.) common in the Northern and Eastern Provinces
— Buddhist priests and their fans — Native books — Palm oil — Kellingo — Palmyra toddy and Jaggery — Timber and
its principal uses — Sugar palm (Caryota urens, L.) — Kettule fishing rods — Sago — Elephant bows, and snares or
nooses — Kettule toddy and Jaggery — Hookahs — Calabashes — Sugar palm chiefly cultivated in the Southern Province
— Talipat tree ( Corypha umbraculifera, L., and Licuala spinosa of Thunberg) — Its classification — Talipat leaf —
Its uses — Conflicting accounts of the report caused by the bursting of the spathe of the talipat tree — Mabole —
Talipat sago — Talipat palm at Colombo — Privileges of the priests of Buddha — M. de la Loubere's notice of the use
of the talipat fan by the priests of Siam — Talipat plants sent to England by the author — Tavelam tents — Palms
from Mauritius introduced into Ceylon — Phoenix sylvestris, L. — Dwarf palm.

In a commercial point of view, the Areka palm ( Areca Catechu, L., Class Moncecia,
Order Monadelphia, and Natural Order Palmce ; Puak-gaha of the Singhalese, Faufel
of Bauhine, and Pinanga of Rumphius) is next in value to the coco-nut tree.

The flower, which, like that of the coco-nut palm, is white, is used, conjointly with
its beautiful drupes, and the flower and fruit of the coco-nut tree, and the wild flowers
and moss ( Lycopodium Zeylanicum ) with which the cinnamon gardens abound, in orna¬
menting temporary buildings for balls and other festivities.

This palm so greatly resembles the cabbage palm ( Areca oleracea, L.) of the West
Indies, that, upon a cursory view, it is scarcely to be distinguished from the latter,
except by its drupes. The heart of the crest of the Areca Catechu is also edible, but
it is both inferior to that of the cabbage and coco-nut palms.

The drupes are about the size of a hen’s egg,* with a smooth epidermis of a bright
gold or orange color, occasionally speckled with brown ; these grow in clusters, like
coco-nuts in miniature, but at the very base of the verdant crest, instead of between the
fronds, as in the coco-nut palm. The average annual produce is from 280 to 300 nuts.

The nut forms a principal ingredient in the betel masticatory, so general throughout
India and the Eastern Archipelago, where it is called Padn or Pawn, and is the first
thing offered by way of compliment by natives of all classes. It is considered an anti¬
scorbutic for the teeth and gums, and to give the breath an aromatic odour ; but its

Described in the Hortus Botanicus Americanus as of the size of a coco-nut ! !

90

AREKA PALM— PUAK-PATA— TERRA JAPONICA— AREKA NUT DYE.

habitual use imparts an appearance of bleeding at the mouth, which is particularly dis¬
gusting in women. The pulverized charcoal of the nut forms an excellent dentifrice.

The fronds are more bushy in foliage than those of the coco-nut tree, and about
half their length ; they have also a strong mid-rib, but the leaflets are folded back,
and being more irregular in shape, and thicker than those of the cocomut palm,
cannot be interwoven into Cajans.

The base of the crest, to the height of three feet, is enveloped in a sort of spathe,
which the Singhalese call Puak-pata ; this being extrfemely tough and elastic, is of
great utility to the |iatives for domestic purposes, particularly for carrying milk and
oil, and their curry and rice, when travelling ; but where the sugar palm ( Caryota
urens, L.) abounds, it is principally in request for the purpose of holding the Kettule
Penni, or sweet syrup, and will retain its original elasticity for many years.

I have heard it asserted, that the extract of the areka nut is the Terra Japonica
of commerce, and if a few of the nuts are boiled in water with a little chunam,
the decoction has both the taste and odour of that drug ; but if this be the case, its
present name is greatly misapplied.

The properties of the areka nut, as a dye, are well known in Scotland ; it is of a
peculiar red, and cannot be mistaken by any one accustomed to the color. I should
conceive it practicable to condense the dye, so as to save a great deal in freight, instead
of importing the nuts ; and strong objections to their exportation to any great distance
arises from the excessive heat which is generated by their stowage in bulk ; this is
perceptible even whilst lying in heaps for a few days before they are shipped.

The Ceylon areka tree is famous for the superior quality of its nut, which was always
a great article of barter between the Kandyan inhabitants of SafFregam, and Bar-
beryn, via Kaltura, long before our occupation of the interior. This traffic was
chiefly carried on through the agency and connivance of the Buddhist priests, who
allowed depots of nuts to be formed at the various Pamelas * on each side of the Kalu-
Ganga, from whence they were conveyed away, in Pardie f boats, to the sea coast.

The tree itself is beautiful, and delights in a sandy soil. The stem slender, and,
with occasional exceptions, straight as an arrow to the height of seventy or eighty feet.
Its circumference varies little throughout its length, seldom exceeding two feet at the
base, from which to the crest, the annular marks of the fallen petioles are distinct.
When very old, the wood is as tough as whalebone, and the best in the world for
bows and pingos. — There is a wild species of this palm {Areca sylvestris), which the
Singhalese call Lenatesi gaha.

* Temporary residences for priests; derived from the Pali words Pun, leaf, and sala, shed.

+ Flat-bottomed boats, iron fastened, and with sliding roofs, thatched with Cajuns.

PROPERTIES OF THE PALMYRA— FANS OF THE BUDDHIST PRIESTS.

91

The third palm, in point of value for its domestic properties, is the fan palm, or
palmyra (Borassus flabelliformis, L.), class XXII. Dicecia, and order VI. Hexandria.
The Singhalese call it Talgaha. Linnseus describes the male tree by the Malabar
name of Ampana, and the female tree by that of Carim-panu.

Male flower, calyx ; universal spathe, compound ; spadix amentaceous, imbricated ;
corol three-parted ; petals egg’d, concave ; stamens , filaments six, thickish, anthers
thicker, striated. — Female flower, calyx ; spathe and spadix as in the male ; corol three-
parted ; petals roundish, small, permanent ; pistil, germ roundish, styles three, small,
stigmas simple ; pericarp, drupe roundish, obtuse, rigid, one-cell’d ; seeds three, rather
egg’d, compressed, distinct, filamentous.

Like all the other palms, the fronds of the palmyra grow on the top of the tree
only ; but as these are cut down, or fall off, they leave their vestigia much more dis¬
tinct than either of the other palms, and the bark is consequently so much rougher,
that the tree may be ascended with less difficulty, by inexpert climbers, than either
the coco-nut, areka, or sugar palms.

The spathe resembles that of the Areca Catechu in toughness and elasticity, and
is used by the natives for similar purposes.

This tree is more common in the northern and eastern provinces, than in any other
part of the island ; and those that I have seen, seldom exceeded thirty or forty feet
in height. The fronds are fan-leaved, armed with spines, radiating from a common
centre, and the stipes sawed at the edges. The fan-part is about four feet in diameter ;
the spines are cut off, and the middle is formed into fans, or Punkahs ; these are
lackered for sale, or used plain, as may suit the taste of the purchaser ; but one never
sees a Buddhist priest without one of the smaller sort, or a fan of some kind or other ;
of which, some are heart-shaped, others circular, with handles of carved ivory.

I have heard many arguments as to the fan being an emblem of authority ; * and
some pretend that the degrees of the Buddhist priesthood may be distinguished by
their fans ; but I do not state this as an ascertained fact, although I have myself
oberved, that the handsomest Punkahs are carried by the higher orders of the
priesthood.f

Palmyra leaves are subdivided longitudinally into strips for native books and letters,
and bear the general name of Olas. These are written upon with an iron style, and

* St. Matthew particularly alludes to the fan (or winnow) in his 3rd chapter, verse 12.

| Maha Nayeka Oonanse signifies a high priest, and Oonanse a priest. — Gooroonanse a teacher, and

Tirinanse a reader.

M 2

92

KELLIN GO — PALMYRA TIMBER— SUGAR PALM.

lampblack is then rubbed over the writing, which makes the characters more legible ;
this, from the smoothness of the surface, is easily wiped off, leaving the part that
is not impressed by the style perfectly clean.

The fruit, which is a large three-seeded drupe, grows in bunches, and is much
esteemed. Palm oil is made of the pulp, after having been exposed to the sun and
become rancid. The spring leaf, or Kellingo, is a most excellent vegetable, when
boiled or fricasseed ; this the natives manufacture into a nutritious meal, or flour,
of delicious flavour, by cutting it off close, after the seed nuts have been sown a few
months, then drying it in the sun, and afterwards pounding it in a rice mortar. The
Dutch formerly considered palmyra flour so very valuable as a convalescent diet, as
well as for presents to their friends, that they often exported it to the Cape of Good
Hope and Holland : — in both places it was much esteemed, and used for thickening,
and imparting its peculiar flavor, to soups and made dishes.

Palmyra toddy is drawn from the flower, and good Jaggery is made from it, by
a similar process to that described in the preceding pages.

On the outside and at the base of the fronds, just where they rise from the stem,
there is a soft cotton-like substance, of a light brown color, which is collected and
employed by the native doctors for staunching blood, or hemorrhage.

The timber, being dark and beautifully striated, is very much esteemed for cabinet
work ; and by builders, for rafters, &c. It is extremely durable, becoming harder
and tougher with age.

The next of the indigenous palms, in point of domestic utility, is the sugar palm
( Caryota urens, L.), or Kettule-Gaha of the Singhalese, of class XXI. Moncecia, and
order VIII. Polyandria.

Male flower calyx ; universal spathe, compound ; spadix branchy ; corol three-parted ;
petals lanced, concave ; stamens, filaments many, rather longer than the corol ; anthers
linear. — Female flower upon the same spadix with the male ones ; calyx common
with the males ; corol three-parted ; petals pointed, very small ; pistil, germ roundish,
style pointed, stigma simple ; pericarp, a berry, roundish, one-cell’d ; seeds two, large,
oblong,* roundish on one side, flat on the other.

The berries are about two and a half or three inches in circumference, and are
thickly studded upon dependent stems, from four to five feet in length, and about
three feet in circumference, like a mass of closely knotted ropes, diverging from a
common centre ; these, when ripe, are of a brilliant red color, from which the trivial
name of this palm is derived.

The tree is very straight in growth, and without fronds except at the top, where

PROPERTIES OF THE SUGAR PALM— HAKOOROOS— CHANDOOS.

93

they form a dark green crest, but are different to those of the other indigenous palms,
being twice-feather -leaved ; and the leaflets are of triangular shape: The transverse
divisions of the fronds are much esteemed by the native fishers, for angling rods.

The Kettule seldom exceeds forty feet in height. The petioles leave their annular
vestigia upon the bark, like those of the coco-nut and areka palms. The pith pro¬
duces a nutritious sago ; but, according to my humble judgement, it is very inferior to
the brown sago of the Moluccas, or the white sort of China. The wood, when very
old, is tough and heavy, and is made into rice pounders, bows,* and pingos for carry¬
ing burthens. The outer cuticle is so very strong and elastic that the natives make
it into nooses and ropes for securing elephants.

The toddy, which is also drawn from the flower, is so very luscious, that it is only
drunk when that from the coco-nut tree cannot be readily procured. Eight gallons of
this liquid, boiled over a slow fire, will produce four gallons of a very thick syrup,
called Kettule Penni ; to this is also added small pieces of the bark of the Halgas
(Shorea robusta ), and, being again boiled, double the quantity of Jaggery , and of a
superior quality to that from the coco-nut palm, is the product.

The Kandyan Jaggery is made entirely from this syrup, and will keep good for
several years. Although the common sort is of the color of the coarsest Muscovado
sugar, a finer sort, of very superior quality, and the best substitute that can be
obtained for Chinese sugar-candy, which it greatly resembles, is made for headmen.
Jaggery is a principal ingredient in the Chillum used throughout India by Hookah,
Gur-Gurree, and Habble-bubble smokers.

Clean chatties, or calabashes, are indispensable for collecting sweet toddy, which
would otherwise be affected by the acidity inseparable from using the same vessel
twice, without being well washed and dried. The Ceylon calabash is a gourd ( Cucur -
bita Lagenaria , L.) ; that of the West Indies is the fruit of the calabash tree ( Cresbentia
Cujete, L.), which is not produced in Ceylon.

The Jaggery, or sugar makers, are called Hakooroos, and toddy drawers, Chandoos ;
but both are included in the subdivisions of the same caste, ( Shudra Wanse ,) the second
in rank of the principal Singhalese castes.

Each cake of Jaggery is separately enveloped in a piece of the dried leaf of the
plantain ( Musa sapientum, L.), or banana ( Musa Paradisiaca, L.), and then suspended
where smoke has free access to it, until required for the market or other purposes.

* The elephant ows used by the natives of the Mahagampattoo, in the southern province, are made of this
wood, and tempered in the smoke of wetted rice straw, thrown upon a fire made of jungle leaves.

94

THE UMBRELLA PALM, OR TALIPAT— ITS ENORMOUS LEAF.

The shape and size of a cake of common Jaggery is that of the bun of our English
pastry cooks. The Kettule tree is more extensively cultivated in Saffragam, in the
southern province, than in any other.

The next in value, but the most magnificent of Ceylon palms in appearance, is the
talipat, or umbrella-bearing palm ( Corypha umbraculifera, L.) ; the Licuala spinosa of
Thunberg, and Talagaha of the Singhalese. Its classification has for many years
been in a most undecided state.

Thunberg describes the flower as follows, — Calyx ; perianth one-leaved, three-parted,
hairy within ; corol three-parted almost to the base, the divisions egg’d, acute, con¬
cave ; nectary garland form, twice as short as the corol ; stamen, filaments six, in¬
serted into the nectaries, erect, very short ; anthers oblong, twin ; pistil, germ above,
convex, furrowed, three-parted, smooth ; style one, simple ; stigmas two.

The talipat leaf is the largest known ; it is circular, feather handled, folded, and
intercepted with a thread. The natives subdivide it into eight parts, and these are
sewed at the side with the natural thread, and ornamented with talc and various
colors for the use of headmen. Its circumference is from thirty to forty feet ; and it
is so thoroughly impervious to the sun and impenetrable by the heaviest rains, that
its value to the native traveller may be easily imagined. The most valuable of the
Singhalese books are formed of strips of the leaf ; these are engraved with an iron
style, and some now extant, although written many centuries back, have all their
original freshness of appearance. Tents, of all forms and sizes, are also made of the
leaf, supported by bamboo poles, than which, nothing can be lighter for carriage, or
better for the purpose of temporary shelter.

One of the specimens of the talipat leaf that I brought with me from Ceylon, which
measures thirty six feet in circumference, may be seen in the museum of King’s
College, with my name attached to it ; but how it got there, I have yet to learn. It
is, however, most satisfactory to know that it is so well disposed of. The fate of the
other is still a mystery ; for although they were borrowed to be shown at certain
scientific institutions, neither of them have found their way back to the proper owner
for the last fourteen years.

There have been many conflicting statements published of this palm ; and although
I never was within view of a talipat tree at the moment of its spadix bursting the
spathe, it has been stated in one of the “ Annuals ” that I had witnessed it several
times. This perhaps was not the first, nor has been the last, of the same author’s
mistakes ; but I am not at all disposed, because I was not present, to dispute the native
accounts of the loud report, with which the bursting of the talipat’s compound spathe

BURSTING OF THE TALIPAT SPATHE— TALIPAT SAGO.

95

is accompanied, until it be refuted by some individual of unimpeachable veracity, who
may have been near the tree at the time of its taking place ; feeling satisfied, notwith¬
standing the opinions as to its gradual expansion, that, in calm weather, it may be
heard at a considerable distance ; for I was positively assured by several respectable
Dutch inhabitants at Grand Pass, as well as by two intelligent Malays, who had resided
for a considerable time at Matele, now part of the Central Province, where the Talagahu
abounds, that the bursting of the spathe is attended with a loud report.

The natives entertain a similar belief to that commonly entertained of the American
aloe, that the talipat lives a century before it blossoms ; but it is too well known,
that the growth of all the palm family is extremely rapid, and moreover that the
heart of the talipat stem consists of a spongy fibre, for this part of its description
to be credited.

In 1822, a talipat palm blossomed at Mabole, about six miles to the northward ol
Colombo ; and fot1 nearly three months, viz. from the time of the spadix bursting its
spathe to the flower attaining its full height, (nearly thirty feet,) and for a further
space of four months before it seeded, the road was occasionally thronged with the
curious, and among them the “ evening beauties ” of the Pettah, on their way to view
this wonder of the vegetable world, ere its floral magnificence departed.

Sago is prepared from the granulated pith of the talipat palm, which some consider
equal to the true sago of the Moluccas ; but if I may judge from the specimen that
I brought with me to this country, it is even inferior to that of the Caryota urens,
or Cycas circinalis.

There are very few objects in the vegetable kingdom more beautiful or remarkable
than this palm, or more useful to the countries where it is indigenous. There is a
beautiful specimen of it in the compound of the Cutchery at Colombo, where the
casual visitor, who may not have time or opportunity for seeing it in the interior, may
gratify a very commendable curiosity.

The Buddhist priests had the same privilege as Royalty, in the reign of the late
King, as to the talipat fan being borne over them with the broad end foremost ; and
M. de la Loubere, in his account of Siam, in alluding to the priests of Buddha, par¬
ticularly mentions the talipat fan, “ Pour se garantir du soleil, ils ont le talapat qui
est leur parasol en forme d’ ecran.”

In 1822 and 1825, I sent several talipat plants to the late Earl of Tankerville, Lord
Bagot, and the Horticultural Society of London, from Ceylon ; and, in 1839, I pre¬
sented the only perfect talipat seed that I had left, to Mr. James Carter, the eminent
seedsman of High Holborn.

96

TAVELAM TENTS— EXOTIC PALMS INTRODUCED FROM MAURITIUS.

Be the quantity of rain what it may, not a particle of moisture is imbibed by the
talipat leaf ; and, exclusively of the uses made of it by all classes of the natives, as a
defence from sun and rain, the Tavelam* people employ it for tents to cover their bags
of salt on their journies from the coast to the interior. A Tavelam bivouac is by no
means an uninteresting sight to an European. The bags of salt are piled together,
and the pointed ends of the segments of the talipat leaf are laid on the uppermost
bag, so as to radiate from the centre, by means of a heavy weight, which keeps them
in that position ; and, by means of koir or jungle lines and pegs, the whole are kept
in a circular shape, like a bell tent, and afford a sufficient covered space around the
salt bags, by way of verandah, for the traders and drovers to cook their victuals and
take repose.

During my stay at Reduit, the Governor’s country house at Mauritius, in 1821, I
availed myself of His Excellency’s (the late lamented Sir Robert Townshend Farquhar,
Bart., K. S. L.) kind permission to select whatever plants I pleased, from the Govern¬
ment garden; and, amongst very many others, I took two of the date palm ( Phienii •
dactylifera, L.), and two of the Cycas circinalis, L., to Ceylon ; both the former died,
but one of the latter, which I planted at Bagatelle, near Colombo, was a very fine
tree when I left the island, and the other was transferred, by the late Honorable the
Chief Justice, Sir Hardinge Giffard, to whom I had given it, to the Royal Botanic
Garden at Paradenia, near Kandy, where it flourished as well as in its natural soil.

Although Ceylon does not produce the date palm, there is no reason why it should
not, for two wild varieties of that palm (Phoenix sylvestris), called by the Singha¬
lese Indi and Mahindi, are plentiful enough, and well adapted for fences, owing to
their extremely strong and sharp spines. The drupe, which is rather more oblong,
but not larger than a common Bullace plum ( Prunus insititia, L.), and of a purplish
black, is insipidly sweet.

There is also an indigenous species of dwarf palm, or palmetto ( Chamerops , L.),
Class Polygamia, Order Dicccia , Natural Order Palmce, of which, small baskets ( Hem -
bill) are made, the only purpose to which its leaf is applied.

* See page 29q.

A Singhalese Gentleman in his Triacle.
From a Native Drawing.

rri

a

o

c

•S'

CHAP. XII.

Digression — The Singhalese — Extraordinary effeminacy of the men in habits and dress — Singhalese women —
Betel or Pawn — Kissing — Female dress — Inferiority of Singhalese to Malabar women — Dress of headmen — Mr.
John Brexius de Zielfa — Extraordina>~y decision respecting his assumption of shoes and stockings — Predictions
fulfilled — King William IV. — Lord Viscount Goderich — Sir R. W. Horton — Petty tyranny — Singhalese theatri¬
cals — Amphitheatre — Tragedy — Mode of illuminating the amphitheatre — Coco-nut lamps — Native music — Actors’
dresses — Native musical instruments of percussion — Wind instruments — Vinah the only stringed instrument.

By way of change to the reader, I beg leave to digress a little from the vegetable
productions of Ceylon, instead of postponing an account of the inhabitants, as I
had originally intended, upon the principle that the last of the Almighty’s creation
was man.

The higher castes of the Singhalese are, generally speaking, a fine handsome race ;
but the men are as notorious for the effeminacy of their appearance and habits, as
the women for their docility, industry, and devotion to their domestic duties. The
men allow their hair to grow to its full length, and support it with tortoise-shell combs
of an extravagantly large size ; this, together with their very prominent breasts and
effeminate costume, but more particularly when returning from bathing, at which time
they wear their hair loose upon a handkerchief, spread' over the shoulders and back,
and tied upon the forehead, gives them such a feminine appearance, that even at a
moderate distance, strangers very often mistake them for women ; and* their light
white jackets, and cloths ( Sarongs ) wrapped round the waist and descending to the
ankles like a petticoat, heighten the deception. The painted cloth worn by modeliars
and others of rank among the Singhalese, is called Soman.

The women are generally of an olive complexion, well formed, and pretty until
about twenty years of age, when they begin to fall off as much as females in England
do at fifty, without having any of the various resources of art that enable the latter
to affect youth, and keep off the dreaded wrinkles of age as long as they can.

From the vile habit of masticating Pawn, Singhalese ladies (for it is common to
both sexes) always appear as if their mouths and lips were bloody ; this, however,

98

PAWN— FEMALE DRESS— HEADMEN’S COSTUME.

is no loss to the Singhalese lover, for saluting the lips is unknown ; he merely applies
his nose to the cheek of his intended, and gives a sniff or two, which species of gal¬
lantry is the native substitute for the more ardent kiss of the British islanders.

This national masticatory is general throughout India and the Eastern Archipelago,
and consists of a leaf of the betel vine ( Piper betel), a small piece of the nut of the
areka palm (. Areka catechu, L.), but erroneously called betel nut ; a little betel chu-
nam (shell lime prepared for the purpose), and occasionally tobacco or cardamoms, or
a small portion of the leaf of the Alpinia nutans, which is very aromatic.

The female dress consists of a deep folded cloth or Cambay worn like a petticoat, a
neatly plaited chemise, and a white jacket trimmed with country lace, tight at the
arms, and thickly studded with small gold buttons from the wrist nearly to the elbow.
In full dress, the Singhalese ladies confine their hair by small arrows of gold or silver
filigree-work, and diamond ornaments, to the exclusion of combs. But in point of
figure and carriage they are generally very inferior to their more sable neighbours of
the Malabar coast ; who, from twelve to twenty years of age, display the natural graces
and proportion of the Medicean Venus in all the elegance of living originals.

The Portuguese government established, and the Dutch subsequently improved,
a descriptive dress for the various ranks of Singhalese headmen. As this dress is still
in use. but with the gentlemanly addition of shoes and stockings, I have detailed
it for the amusement of my readers.

Descriptive Dress of the Native Headmen.

WELLALE CASTE.

Maha Modeliars — Velvet, silk, or cloth coat, with gold or silver lace, loops, and
buttons : sword hilt and scabbard of pure massive or wrought gold, or silver inlaid
with gold, and shoulder belt of gold or silver lace, or silk embroidered or spangled
with gold or silver.

Modeliars of the gate or guard — Silk or cloth coat, with gold or silver lace, loops,
and buttons ; sword hilt and scabbard of silver inlaid with gold, and belt of gold or
silver lace, or silk embroidered or spangled with gold or silver.

Modeliars of the Attepattoo, Modeliars of the Kories, Mohotiars of the guard and
Attepattoo, and Mohandirams of the guard — Silk or cloth coat, with gold or silver
lace, loops, and buttons ; sword hilt and scabbard of silver, hilt inlaid with gold, and
belt of gold or silver lace, or silk embroidered or spangled with gold or silver.

WELLALES— FISHERS— CHANDOOS— BLACKSMITHS— WASHERS.

99

Mohandirams of the Attepattoo and the Basnaike and Padicarre Mohandirams
employed as interpreters in the courts of the several provincial judges — Silk or cloth
coat, with gold or silver lace, loops, and buttons ; sword hilt and scabbard of silver,
and the eyes and tongue of the lion’s head of gold ; the belt of gold or silver lace,
but not spangled.

The Corals, Mohandirams, and Mohandirams employed as interpreters in the courts
of the sitting magistrates — Silk or cloth coat, with gold or silver lace and buttons ;
sword hilt and scabbard of silver, and in the middle of the scabbard a plain silver
plate ; the belt of gold or silver lace, but not spangled.

Arrachies — Cloth or linen coat, with silver buttons and loops ; sword hilt and scab¬
bard of silver, with two plain plates of tortoise-shell on the scabbard ; the belt of
colored ribbon, embroidered with flowers of silver or silver thread.

Canganies — Cloth or linen coat, with silver buttons and loops ; sword hilt of horn
inlaid with silver, the scabbard of horn or wood with eight silver bands, and belt of
colored ribbon without embroidery.

FISHER AND CHANDOO CASTE.

Modeliars and Mahavidahn Modeliars — Silk or cloth coat, with silver buttons and
loops ; sword hilt and scabbard of silver, and the eyes and tongue of the lion’s head
of gold ; the belt of gold or silver lace, but not spangled.

Mahavidahns, Mahavidahn Mohandirams, Patengatyn Mohandirams, and all other
Mohandirams of the same caste — Cloth or linen coat, with silver buttons and loops :
sword hilt- and scabbard of silver, and in the middle of the scabbard a plain plate
of tortoise-shell ; the belt of gold or silver lace.

Arrachies — Cloth or linen coat, with silver buttons and silk loops ; sword hilt of
horn, embellished with silver, with three tortoise-shell plates ; the belt of colored
ribbon, embroidered with silk.

Canganies — Linen coat, with silver buttons and silk loops ; sword hilt of horn,
embellished with silver, the scabbard of horn or wood, with two silver plates, and the
belt of plain colored ribbon.

BLACKSMITH AND WASHER CASTE.

Mahavidahns and Mahavidahn Mohandirams — Cloth or linen coat, with silver buttons
and loops ; sword hilt and scabbard of silver, with one plate of tortoise-shell on the
scabbard, and two plates of tortoise-shell on the scabbard worn by the washermen ; thf
belt of ribbon, embroidered with flowers of gold or silver thread.

n 2

100

BARBERS— OFFICIAL OBJECTIONS TO SHOES AND STOCKINGS.

Arrachies — Linen coat, with silver buttons and silk loops ; sword hilt of horn, em¬
bellished with silver, the scabbard of horn or wood, with silver bands, and the belt
of plain colored ribbon.

Canganies — Linen coat, with horn or covered linen buttons ; sword hilt of horn,
the scabbard of horn or wood, with three copper bands, and the belt of plain ribbon.

BARBER CASTE.

Vidahn Mohandiram — Cloth or linen coat, with silk buttons and loops ; sword hilt
and scabbard of silver, but on the scabbard there must be two plates of tortoise-shell ;
the belt of colored ribbon, embroidered with flowers of silver thread.

N. B. Titular headmen of each rank dress in every respect as the headmen of the
rank and caste to which they belong, but the word “ Titular ” is engraven on their
sword hilts.

It may scarcely be supposed credible, but it is an absolute fact, that Englishmen in
the nineteenth century have wished for the continuance of native oppression, and for
the headmen to be compelled to leave their sandals at the cutcherry doors.

Mr. John Brexius de Zielfa, the present assessor to the district-court of Galle, who
1'ormerly held the office of Mohandiram interpreter of the magistrate’s court of that
district when I presided there, and who wore shoes and stockings in court with my
unqualified approbation, was refused admission to the cutcherry with such European
appendages. That gentleman felt that, as a British subject, he had as great a right to
wear shoes and stockings as those who were of European birth ; but as the collector
chose to make a reference to the governor, which was followed by the most extraordi¬
nary decision, that “ His Excellency would not sanction the adoption of the most
comfortable portions of the European and native costumes, and that the interpreter
must choose one or the other,” Mr. de Zielfa relinquished his visits to the cutcherry,
rather than the comforts of his adopted dress.

This was a most inconsiderate decision, because every step towards the adoption of
the English costume, was an advance in civilization ; and it ought to have been
recollected, that as natives do not suddenly relinquish either their dress or habits,
individuals were entitled to credit for setting an example fraught with advantages to
the manufactures and commerce of the mother country.

My predictions at that time (1825) as to the future admission of natives to the
rights and privileges of British subjects, have been since fulfilled by Lord Viscount

KING WILLIAM IV., HIS REIGN IMMORTALIZED— PETTY TYRANNY.

101

Goderich’s abolition of all that militated against the equal enjoyment of those blessings,
in 1832. If this had been the only one out of very many acts of soupd and humane
policy, which characterized his Lordship’s second administration of the colonies, (for
the first was so short as to afford his Lordship no time for acquiring much acquaint¬
ance with their state and wants,) it was sufficient to immortalize his Lordship’s
memory : and whilst Ceylon and the Singhalese exist, the reign of King William IV.
will be held in veneration, the name of Goderich be considered synonymous with true
liberty, and that of Horton with humanity and justice.

I trust the time is now for ever passed, when a British magistrate, whilst driving
his buggy through a town, may presume to lay his whip violently over a black mer¬
chant’s umbrella, because he was not quite so quick in doffing it as “ his worship ”
considered due to his own consequence. — This I myself witnessed at Colombo, in the
streets of the Pettah ; but although my blood overboiled at the time, I knew that
he “ was in favor at court,” and that a representation of it would have had no better
effect than an exposition of the various abuses and impositions upon the public and
the secretary of state for the colonies, would have had, through a private channel ,
at home.

Singhalese theatrical performances invariably take place in the open air ; generally
in some spacious compound, or garden, where abundance of jack, bread-fruit, and
other trees can be made available to the purposes of illumination ; and where also,
from the quality of the ground, a natural amphitheatre is easily fitted for the pur¬
pose. The erection of booths, covered with white cloths and ornamented in a
very tasteful style, for which the natives are celebrated, with mosses, wild flowers,
of the Nelumbium speciosum, Coffea trifiora, Ixora coccinea, and Vinca rosea, white
and yellow jessamine, fruits of all sorts in clusters, interspersed with the white flowers
and olas or leaflets of the coco-nut palm, and bunches of areka nuts in the bright
yellow and orange of maturity ; all these add to the beauty of the scenery, and give
an air of richness and luxuriance to the whole.

Tragedy alone is worthy of native attention ; the everlasting subject of it being
kingly depravity or virtue ; the latter of which is still more rare in Asiatic than in
European record. After multiplied scenes of bloodshed, the usurper’s destruction and
the lawful sovereign’s restoration, form the chief characteristics of the native drama,
in which all is pantomime. Several splendid thrones in elevated positions, and extra¬
vagantly large but superb crowns, displaying a magnificence and taste for which one
would not give the Singhalese credit, are distinguishing features in their theatricals.

A tragedy occupies several consecutive nights in the performance. All the avenues,
trees, and booths are illuminated with coco-nut oil, in lamps made with the shells of

102 NATIVE ILLUMINATIONS— MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS OF PERCUSSION.

green or water coco-nuts stuck upon stakes, the green husk of the fruit being kept on
for the purpose of receiving their points ; and thus the shells are properly fixed
previous to being filled with oil and trimmed as lamps.

The plays are very well attended ; and the order, so necessary to the immense assem¬
blage of persons of all ranks and classes, is invariably maintained without the inter¬
vention of police or constables. The music is extremely barbarous, and monotonous
to an European ear. The instruments are Berrigoddeas , Doolahs, Tam-a-tams, Oodikeas,
Taleahs (a sort of brass cymbal beaten with a stick), and the country hautboy, called
Horanawa ; these together, make noise enough even for the halls of Pandemonium.

The dresses of the actors are very gaudy, being set off with every possible variety
of foil and tinsel. There are mo actresses. The admissions are gratuitous, the costs
being defrayed by collections from the native audience.

The Singhalese have but seven or eight musical instruments ; of which five are
instruments of percussion.

The first is the Oodikea ; this in shape somewhat resembles an hour glass ; but
instead of the three wooden supporters of the circular extremities, it has four braces,
which are compressed towards the middle by an elastic ring ; the body is of jackwood
(timber of the Artocarpus integrifolia, L.) and cylindrical, the middle just large enough
to be grasped in the hand ; the ends are covered with a coarse parchment, made of
deer skin, which is laid on wet, then tied with thongs, and dried in the sun.

The next, a sort of long drum with eight braces, is called Doolah. It has one end
larger than the other, which end is beaten with a drumstick, slightly convex on one
side and concave on the other ; the body, usually made of thin jackwood, is cylin¬
drical ; the ends are covered in the same manner as the Oodikeas.

The third, which is also a cylinder of thin jackwood, is the Berrigoddea. This
instrument has nine braces, and is beaten with the hands ; it is very convex in the
middle, where it’s circumference is double the size of the extremities, towards which
it gradually slopes ; these are covered with deer-skin parchment, in the same manner
as the instruments already described.

Tam-a-tam, vulgarly, Tom-tom, is the fourth : in shape it resembles kettle-drums.
This instrument is also covered with deer-skin parchment, and is beaten with two sticks,
having an elastic circle, of about an inch in diameter, at one end.

The fifth and last of the native instruments of percussion is a sort of brass plate,
of the size of a small cymbal, and called Taleah. It is suspended by a loop, which is
just large enough to admit the left thumb, and is beaten with a stick. This most noisy
instrument is used by auctioneers, to assemble people, and is a great annoyance to
the inhabitants of the neighbourhood where auctions are held.

VINAH— WIND INSTRUMENTS— MEDLEY OF NATIVE NAMES.

103

The only stringed instrument that I have seen among the Singhalese is the Vinak,
but it is altogether different from the Hindoo instrument of that name. The Singhalese
Vinak is formed of a neatly carved or polished coco-nut shell (of which about a third
part is cut off) and covered with guana skin ( Lacerta Iguana, L.) ; to this is fixed a
solid handle of about an inch in diameter, which is generally lackered with various
colors, and, on the opposite side of the shell, a sort of peg is fixed, to which two
strings, one of horse-hair, and the other of fine bow-string hemp ( Sensivierra Zeyla-
nica ), are attached ; these strings are passed over a wooden bridge, upon the centre
of the covering, one horizontally, and the other upon an inclined plane, the slope
commencing from within three inches of the extremity of the handle, where it is per¬
forated large enough to receive a strong peg of nearly half its circumference, and of
about a fourth part of its length, having at the point a notch for the reception of the
strings, which, by turning the peg, are kept in a state of tension, like the strings
of a violin. — This instrument is played upon with a bow, convexing largely from about
two-thirds of its length from the point, near which a couple of small brass bells,
something similar to horse bells, are attached.

The only itinerant Vinah player that I recollect, usually took his post at tire bridge
leading to the Bazaar at Point de Galle, where the poor lepers, who usually congre¬
gated there for charity, appeared the most delighted of his auditors.

Except the trumpet shell, (Fusus Zeylanicus,) to which is affixed a brass or ivory
mouth-piece, the only wind instrument of the Singhalese is the Horanawa. This
native pipe is cylindrical, and trumpet-shaped ; the middle is of wood, and the rest
of brass ; the mouth-piece is made of two pieces of a talipat or palmyra leaf, one
of which is of some length, and attached to a peg near the third hole from the
opposite end ; by which, when necessary, the orifice between the parts composing the
mouth-piece is extended. One side of the instrument is pierced with seven holes,
and in tone it resembles the Irish bag-pipe.

Ancient Portuguese names are so mixed with the Rice names and patronymics
of the Singhalese, that nothing is more common amongst the higher classes of the
maritime provinces, than for the Lusitanian names of Dons Christian de Abrew,
Salamon de Zouza, Theodoris Mendis, Migel Fernando, Johan de Zilva, Carolis
de Lewera, Paulus Pereira, Adrian de Alvis, Louis de Saram, Louis Pieris, Salomon
Dias, Cornelis de Fonseka, Louis de Sampayo, and Simon de Melho, to be prefixed
to the Singhalese surnames of Wajesondra, Rajepakse, Wijesinke, Wijesiriwardene,
Wijenaike, Jayetilleke, Illangakoon, &c. ; and it is not uncommon for a low caste
Singhalese to be ambitious of the name of European ; and as the Hindoo-

104

SINGHALESE AMBITION FOR EUROPEAN DISTINCTIONS.

Portuguese, who have all the privileges of Europeans in courts of justice, are as dark
in color as the Singhalese, and often much darker than the higher castes of the latter ;
the ambitious aspirant thinks it no greater difficulty to get upon the first bar of the
European ladder, than to prove that he possesses some portion of Lusitanian blood ;
and therefore the moment he can raise sufficient cash for a second-hand coat or jacket,
or if these are not to be obtained at his own price, a white cotton jacket, waistcoat,
trousers, shirt, a hat (Chape), and shoes (Zapatas), the candidate for European honors
is complete in point of dress ; he next wants a Portuguese name, and of course a
title. German Barons are scarcely less plentiful than Ceylon Doms and Dons, and
the latter appendage is just as easily assumed as the former title.

For the first six weeks, the poor “ European’s” shoes inflict as severe a pedal pen¬
ance as was endured by Peter Pindar’s pilgrim, “who forgot to boil the peas”; the
Chape is scarcely less troublesome ; but having, with his new dignity, acquired the
Portuguese complimentary style of doffing it, our European salutes every one who
wears a hat, from the governor to the nearest counterpart of the pseudo-European
himself, a tame ourang-outang. He is now Don Abram, Don Louis, Dom ChristofFel,
or Dom Adrian, “ et le jeu est fait"

Among other oppressions of the natives, the following may be classed as an abuse
of power that was very commonly practised by former collectors of districts. — When
native cattle feeders have objected to sell their young calves to Europeans, the collector
of the district, upon being applied to, has compelled them to do so, upon being paid
for them ; to this stretch of power the poor unprotected creatures have acceded, but
with a very bad grace, upon the ordering of the modeliar of the cutcherry.

These tyrannical times have also passed away, never to be recalled whilst Ceylon
belongs to the British crown ; for the government will no longer recognize such tyranny
and oppression as an official privilege of its provincial agents or collectors.

CHAP. XIII.

Specimens of Singhalese proverbs — Dutch, language but little known among the natives — C. A. Prins, Esq. —
Prevalence of the Hindo-Portuguese language — Singhalese generally acquainted with the properties of their indi¬
genous plants — Madung Appo, a native botanist and doctor — Instance of extraordinary cure of blindness — Native
doctor's objections to name the composition of the salts employed — Obligations to him — Major General Thomas
Hardwicke, Bengal artillery — Pariar dog nuisance — Government precautions against hydrophobia — John Tran-
chell, Esq. — Sudden entry of a rabid pariar dog during dinner — The host's coolness, and assurance of curing his
guests if bitten — Death of the dog from the effect of rain — Singhalese cattle — Swine — Improvements suggested —
Rabbits — Poultry — Seir fish — Shell fish — Turtle — Establishment of farms and agricultural prizes suggested —
Singhalese a litigious nation — Pointed knives illegal — Caste — A beautiful girl nearly murdered for covering her
bosom with a kerchief — Nothing to be dreaded in Ceylon by protecting all as British subjects should be protected.

The Singhalese have several books of proverbs ; and an acquaintance with these
“ wise sayings ” is considered to display great knowledge. A few are here given, as
specimens of the native phrases, and their meaning.

“ Do not wear a Wallah * in your native place, nor carry a large stick in another.” —
That is. Be not too proud at home, nor display more power than belongs to you
elsewhere.

“Although a man with large teeth dies, no one will believe it.” — No one will
believe a man, who is known to be rich, when he talks of his poverty.

“ Scraps of chunan are found in every one’s betel box.” — The best of men
have faults.

“ Buying a house for five hundred dollars, and selling it at half-price.” — A person
reduced from riches to comparative poverty.

“Although the Ambalamaf be unroofed, will it shorten the journey?” — A good
reputation survives poverty.

Another proverb of synonymous interpretation is, “ Although an elephant may
become lean, he cannot wash in a barrel.”

“ The horn, which came last, has more power than the ear which preceded it.” —
The lowest in his own village has become head in another.

* Wallah, — A cloth worn by the Singhalese, of which one end hangs lower than the other — a mark of ostentation.

f Ambalama, — A rest-house for natives upon high roads.

O

106

SINGHALESE PROVERBS— MEDICAL BOTANY.

“ Even in Gilimala * there are people with white teeth.” — Amongst the best people,
some are bad.

“ Even in the salt Leeways f people live without salt.” — There are affluent persons
who derive no enjoyment from their fortunes.

“ A foreigner and a parasite plant are synonymous.”—- One is as ruinous to the place
he inhabits, as the other to the tree it embraces.

“ Tanks do not fill with the night dew, but with rain.” — Men become rich by honescv,
and not by roguery.

“ Where is the honor of being born ,at Tataganawa, if you cannot read and under¬
stand Bana ?” — Totaganawa is famous for literature and learned men, and BanaJ
signifies the history of the god Buddha.

“ First look at the lime,§ and then open the mouth.” — Bribe the judge well, and
success is certain, whether the cause be right or wrong.

It is a subject of general remark, that but few of the Singhalese, and those of the
higher castes only, understand the Dutch language. A very intelligent Dutch gentle¬
man, the late Carolus Arnoldus Prins, Esq., informed me, that his countrymen would
not employ any domestics that were acquainted with that language, that they might
not know the subjects of conversation at their masters’ tables. The very different
policy of their predecessors, whilst in the possession of the maritime provinces, may
be inferred, from the prevalence of the Hindo-Portuguese language, and the exten¬
sion of the Roman Catholic religion throughout the whole track of their original
conquests ; than which, no greater proof need be adduced of the original power of
the Lusitanians of the sixteenth century, or of the spirit of adventure by which they
distinguished themselves.

The generality of Singhalese have a considerable knowledge of their indigenous
plants, and some of their doctors are very clever in medical botany. As oculists, they
may be said to excel ; and this is the more extraordinary, because they know nothing
of the anatomical structure of the eye or head.

Madung Appo, a native doctor of Galpiadde, near Galle, from whose skill in botany
I derived much useful information, gave it as his opinion, that “ Ceylon produces such

* Gilimala, a place famous for the cultivation of the betel plant, or Bulack, which blackens the teeth,
f Leeway or Leawawa, natural salt pans. f The place where Bana is read, is called Bana Madewa.

§ It was the custom formerly for bribes to be inclosed in limes, (the small variety of the Citrus tried icus or
lemon,) which generally consisted of as many gold star pagodas, value about eight shillings each, as it could be
made to contain. To this day, limes are offered, upon all occasions of ceremony, by the Singhalese.

NATIVE OCULIST— EXTRAORDINARY RESTORATION OF VISION.

107

an infinite variety of medicinal plants, that if a botanist were to devote a long life to
their investigation, he would still leave an ample field for the labours of very many equally
zealous successors .”

This culler of simples was extremely well acquainted with the nature and properties
of all plants included in the native Materia Medica. As an oculist, he was justly
celebrated ; and one of his cures wras regarded with admiration by many who had
heard four English medical gentlemen, including two physicians, previously declare
the case altogether incurable and hopeless. In the case alluded to, his proposition to
cure a little Portuguese girl, about seven years of age, after she had been declared
incurable by four of the European faculty, appeared so preposterous, and indeed
ridiculous, that it was only upon his positive and repeated assurances that “ he could
and would cure her, if permitted to try his own remedies, even were a hundred
European doctors of the same opinion as those who had already declared the case
hopeless ; ” and this too after the child had been for several weeks under the care
of an English surgeon, that the mother consented to allow him a trial of his skill.

The proposition, on Madung Appo’s part, was, that if the girl recovered her sight,
he was to be paid thirty rix dollars, or 21. 5s. sterling ; but if otherwise, that he was
to have nothing for his attendance and medicines. This preliminary having been
assented to, he began by ordering the child a milk diet ; and during the six weeks
that she was his patient, he employed no other medicine than a fine white powder,
having all the appearance of quinine ; this he gave in doses at stated periods, and
occasionally blew a similar powder, by means of a quill having a piece of clear muslin
at the end, into the child’s eye. At the expiration of six weeks, to the surprise of
every one, and to the delight of many, who were interested for this amiable little
creature, her vision was perfectly restored. A continuation of the same diet was pre¬
scribed for some time, and then gradually changed ; and the only particular care this
native doctor recommended, was, that light should be excluded as much as possible
from the room until the child’s sight could bear it without inconvenience.

I could not obtain from him the name of either medicine ; but to my questions,
why he would not inform me, and whether the same was employed externally and
internally, his answer to the first, was, “ I dare not give you the name, (as if he was
under some superstitious fear or obligation,) but I will say thus far, it is a salt obtained
from the bark of various trees ; ” and, as to the second, “ The medicines were alto¬
gether different, but both were vegetable salts.”

I acknowledge great obligations to Madung Appo, for the native names of a variety
of plants, and for a copious description of their medicinal properties, notwithstanding

o 2

108 DOGS— HYDROPHOBIA AND MR. TRANCHELL’S SUPPOSED REMEDY.

his great and insuperable objection to make his eye remedy known. By his aid I
obtained a great variety of medicinal plants, which I dried and sent to my respected
friend, the late Major General Thomas Hardwicke, of the Bengal artillery.

The Pettahs, or, vulgarly speaking, black towns and native villages, swarm with
pariar dogs ; and it is only in such places as are occupied by Mahomedans, who detest
the whole canine genus, that these mangy curs are not to be met with \ for the
Singhalese will not destroy any of the progeny of these mongrels, and the government:
is necessitated to adopt measures for the general safety, during the hottest season of
the year; viz. the months of January, February, and March, when a body of Malays
is employed, under the superintendence of police Peons,* to destroy all dogs found
in the streets that have not collars by way of passport.

When the immense and daily increasing numbers of these animals are considered,
one may well wonder at the comparative paucity of cases of hydrophobia that occur.
Many native doctors pretend to have certain cures in indigenous roots and vegetables ;
but if ever there was a known remedy in the possession of an European, it may be
believed, from the following extraordinary occurrence, to have belonged to the late
Mr. John Tranchell of Belligam.

On the 12th of June, 1827, whilst we were at dinner with Mr. Tranchell and his
family, a rabid pariar dog, which had been chased from a neighbouring village, through
the sacred grounds of the Moorish mosque adjoining Mr. Tranchell’s estate, ran into
the room. My first impulse was to seize a loaded gun that stood in a corner, and
present it at the animal ; but my host intreated me not to fire, “ because (said he very
coolly, and without rising from his chair or altering a muscle of his countenance) if
the poor devil bites you, I can cure you.”

But no one present wished to be made the subject of such an experiment ; and I
drove the dog from under the sofa, where he had taken refuge, into the compound,
when a sudden shower of rain saved me from the expenditure of powder and shot ;
for the moment the animal felt its deadly influence', it was seized with convulsions,
and expired upon the spot.

The stoical indifference of Mr. Tranchell was not assumed, and arose from a
thorough confidence in his means of cure ; but whether he relied upon the same
nostrum in hydrophobia, with which I had seen him perform most extraordinary cures
of snake bites, (as I have related elsewhere in these pages,) or not, it is to be hoped
that the papers he left behind him will explain. For the latter, he employed, in addition

* Literally, running footmen or messengers.

REMEDY FOR SNAKE BITES— NATIVE CATTLE— CAPE SHEEP.

109

to Eau de Luce, given internally, a mixture of nitric and muriatic acid, which was
labelled upon a bottle always at hand in his dressing room ; but I am ignorant of
their relative proportions.

The breed of Singhalese cattle is very inferior ; the small black bullock of the
country being rather more than a third, and occasionally about half the size of an
English bullock ; the native Jaffna sheep are long legged, and may well be called
goat-sheep, the best name I have for the breed ; the swine are also long legged, and
allowed to feed where food of any kind can be picked up, it matters not what, nor
where, to the native owners. Notwithstanding that the Singhalese are as much
attached to hogs’ flesh as ever Otaheitans were in the time of the celebrated Captain
Cook, (for they never have a feast or festival without a hog being served at it,) yet
I never saw swine penned for feeding at any native cottage or farm.

The doubtful reputation of Bazaar pork and ducks is the same at Ceylon as it is
throughout India ; and whenever the one or the other appears on the dinner table,
it is absolutely necessary for the host to vouch for its “ education,” for otherwise,
notwithstanding that silver dishes contained the suspicious food, neither would be
tasted.

The Ceylon buffalo ( Bos bubulus of Shaw) is a large and valuable animal for agri¬
cultural purposes, and the flesh is by no means despisable, although rarely, if ever,
seen at the tables of Europeans. The milk of the cow buffalo is much richer than
that of the common island cow, (a species of Zebu,) and the butter made from it,
and clarified, is known by the general name of Ghee throughout India.

Ceylon bullocks may be purchased for about thirty or forty shillings a head ; cows
for less ; Jaffna sheep at three, four, and five shillings ; a sow and litter of pigs from
twelve to fifteen shillings, and occasionally for less ; but Bengal sheep (which, after
being well fed, afford delicious mutton) and kids vary in price, according to the
demand for them — the latter, depends upon the caprice of the Moormen and Hindoos,
who are the principal feeders. That these animals are in the greatest abundance,
one may be fully convinced, by merely riding through the quarters of the towns and
villages occupied by these people, for their verandahs teem with goats and their kids :
these, when about to be fattened for sale, are previously castrated.

Cape sheep ( Ovis Steatopyga of Shaw) thrive remarkably well ; but Bengal sheep
require 3 great deal more care, when first landed in the island, owing to their sudden
transition from cn^ to green fodder ; the reason there is occasionally such great mor¬
tality among Ceylon sheep on board ship, arises from their being shipped without
previous preparation for the dry food usually provided for sea stock ; for their general

110

FODDER— NO CAMELS— MULES— ASSES— RABBITS— POULTRY.

fodder is green jack leaves ( Artocarpus integrifolia, L.), grass, and other vegetables ;
and they are often fattened for the table entirely upon the former, which possess very
mucilaginous and nutritious properties. Bengal sheep are usually fed on dholl {Cytisus
Cqjan, L.) and paddee, and are consequently better for sea stock.

An importation of domestic animals of each kind from England and the Cape of
Good Hope would soon improve the native breed. The camel is never to be seen
at Ceylon, and but very few mules and asses.

The wild rabbit is not indigenous, and tame rabbits are scarce.

Every sort of poultry is extremely cheap, except turkies ; for even at Matura, in
the southern province, which is a noted place for breeding them, these birds are seldom
purchased for less than 72 s. to SO s. per dozen ; and a sovereign is not an uncommon
price for a fat cock turkey at Colombo.

There is occasionally a very great mortality amongst turkies during the rains, which
makes that species of poultry so much dearer than any other. The owner considers
himself fortunate, if fifty out of a hundred arrive at maturity for sale. But all this
loss is to be obviated by care ; for turkies require an elevated and dry roosting place
to retire from wet, and black pepper is indispensable with their food.

Geese are smaller than those of Europe, and remarkable for their brownish color
and black bills, having the upper part surmounted with a black bony protuberance
or knob ; their usual prices are from 2s. to 3,?.

Ducks are considered dear at 6d. or 8 d. each.

Chickens may be purchased in some places for Is., at others for Is. 6d. and 2s. per
dozen ; and 1 00 eggs at the same price.

Reddish brown widgeon, erroneously called teal, are abundant, and easily domes¬
ticated. The guinea fowl, pea fowl, Malay fowi ( Gallus giganteus ), common fowi,
European, Persian, and Indian pigeons, and Brahminy and Muscovy ducks, complete
the list of domestic poultry.

Ceylon poultry, when fed by natives, invariably tastes of Pootiac, or coco-nut oil cake,
which imparts an oily flavor to whatever is fed on it ; this, they give, as being cheaper
than paddee, which is a favorite food of poultry, and of most domestic animals. But
even the Poonac wmuld be very different, if pressed whilst the nut is fresh, which
should be the case when intended for feeding cattle or poultry.

Too much cannot be said in favor of the fishes of Ceylon, particularly of the Seir
fish, called by the Singhalese Tora-malu, for the female has the same flavor as the
salmon (Salmo Salar) of Europe ; many varieties are elsewhere noticed in these
pages ; and the Crustacea include a small but delicious crab, prawns from six

SUGGESTIONS FOR GRAZING FARMS AND AGRICULTURAL PRIZES. 1 1 1

to eight inches in length, cray-fish, oysters, and shrimps ; all which are excellent
of their kinds.

As to the Ceylon Turtle, great caution is requisite, because it is not generally known
that the Testudo Imbricata , called by the Singhalese Lili-kas-bewa, which produces the
transparent shell, is not only unwholesome, but, at certain seasons, absolutely poisonous.
Several natives died from eating its flesh at Ahamadewe, or Turtle Cove, in the
Mahagampatto district, in 1826. Their illness exhibited every symptom of Asiatic
cholera.

The edible turtle is the Testudo Mydas, the Gal-kas-bewa of the Singhalese ; and the
small fresh water turtle is also wdiolesome and nutritious. The Singhalese call it
Kiri-ba, from Kiri, milk ; because, when boiled, the flesh is milk white. This last
is given by the native doctors to cure the abdominal obesity to which children are
subject from the effects of rice diet.

Notwithstanding the island has been in our possession for a period of forty five
years, no general and but very little partial improvement has taken place in the breed
of the more useful animals, horses alone excepted ! !

To obviate all the apparent difficulties to the improvement of the breed of the
domestic animals, no plan appears to me more feasible, or more likely to insure a pro¬
ductive result, than the establishment of five large farms ; viz. one in the best situa¬
tion for grazing lands in the central province ; and a farm at each of the towns of
Colombo, Galle, Jaffna, and Trincomale ; or in the best locality near them that can
be fixed upon for the purpose.

The object being the general benefit of the island, and of great importance in
whichever light it may be viewed, will no doubt receive the support of the govern¬
ment, in so far as the grant of lands belonging to the crown may be required for the
purpose, at a low rate, to such joint-stock company or individual capitalists as may be
most forward in this national as well as private object of improvement and profit.

Prizes for the best specimens of the several animals might be held out by the
government, as well as by an agricultural society, — of medals for Europeans, but in
cash to the natives, as the surest ad captandum modus that can be held out to the
Singhalese, and the only one that never fails.

The Singhalese are naturally a litigious nation ; and it is not uncommon for a
plaintiff and defendant, each accompanied by a number of suborned witnesses, to walk
together from their village to the district court, perhaps a distance of fifteen or twenty
miles, the former to prosecute a claim, and very probably an unjust one, to the eighth
share of a jack or coco-nut tree. Then is the time for hard swearing! but the

112

POINTED KNIVES ILLEGAL— CRUELTY TO A NATIVE GIRL.

witnesses are generally so perfect in their lessons,, as to baffle the cleverest of the
native proctors in their cross examinations.

Some cases of murder have displayed a ferocity that one would scarcely have sup¬
posed such an effeminate race to be capable of ; and their proneness, upon sudden
quarrels, to resort to the knife, rendered it necessary for the government to pass an
ordinance, in the year 1816, by which it was made unlawful to carry any pointed knife,
except that called Ulkatoo-peheye, or knife fixed to the same handle as the iron-pointed
style with which the natives vrrite upon strips of the leaves of the talipat and palmyra.

As regards the observance of caste, the abolition of all degrading distinctions as to
dress, during Lord Viscount Goderich’s last administration of the colonies, in conjunc¬
tion with the extension of Christianity, will hasten its abandonment. A woman of low-
caste may now cover her shoulders with a cloth or kerchief, or wear a waistcloth
below the knees, which she dared not have done some twenty years ago.

I was once passing through the Bazaar at Barberyn, in the western province, wrhen
an unusual mob had collected in the street ; and I learned that a woman of the Padua
caste* had been nearly killed by some indignant Wellales and Chandoos, for “having
presumed so far to forget her degraded lot in life as to throw a kerchief over her neck
and shoulders !! ” She was a girl of about sixteen years of age, and the prettiest native
that I ever beheld ; her beauty, however, seemed to excite, instead of allay, the brutality
of these sticklers for the strict observance of the rights (?) of caste.

The European eye cannot well be accused of fastidiousness in such matters ; custom
soon reconciles even our modest countrywomen to the all but naked coolies, whose
“ fine sleek backs,” were particularly noticed in the travels of a fair authoress.f

It is said that nothing can be more conducive to British interests, than to consult
the feelings and humour the prejudices of our unenlightened sable fellow subjects, until
education (to which, if an estimate may be formed by the rapid strides it is now making
in the island, under the auspices of the government and the zealous missionaries of the
various establishments, every one, in the course of a few years, will have free access)
shall have paved the way for a voluntary relinquishment of them. — This may be all
very fine, and near the truth ; but there is nothing to be dreaded, in Ceylon, from
protecting all, by the strong arm of the law, and preventing individuals from taking
the law into their own hands, whether they be called Europeans, or high caste natives.

* One of the subdivisions of the Shudra Wanse caste.

t Maria Graham.

CHAP. XIV.

Exaggerated stories about Snakes — Singhalese catalogs of venomous and harmless Snakes — Reported extra¬
ordinary transformation of the Coluber Naja, L. — Corroborated by a Singhalese in this country — -Dia Naya —
Ahedoella — Pimbera or Python — Buddhists will not kill the sacred snake, but have no objection to send it to
sea, without a chance of escape — Cobra di Capello easily kept alive — Charles Peter Layard, Esq. — Snake de¬
prived of its eyes by mice — Caution to be observed in purchasing snakes — Samp Wa Uahs — Snake exhibition —
Providential escape — Successful application of Eau de Luce, and of nitric and muriatic acid in the cure of snake
bites — John Tranchell, Esq. — A coroner's reason for not holding an inquest — Supposed cause of the paucity of
snakes in the Mahagampattoo — Viverra Ichneumon attacks the Cobra di Capello — Various plants named as an¬
tidotes — More caution requisite against leeches than against snakes — Cobra di Capello in houses — Superstitious
notions respecting snake charming.

If a tenth part of the stories related about the superabundance of snakes in the
island were true, one might expect to find them in every house, in every compound,
or on every lawn, as well as upon the branches of every tree. Where jungle is being
cleared, numerous snakes are found, as they are in similar places in almost every
intertropical, and even temperate clime. Now and then, they are met with upon
the ramparts and esplanades of forts, and occasionally in houses built upon ground
that may have been recently cleared or near to uncultivated land ; but where one
snake, so found, is venomous, ten are harmless ; and sportsmen often meet them in
jungles, but that is never an obstacle to “ following up the game.”

To assist the ophiologist to procure snakes, I subjoin the native names of a few of
the principal ones, with which the most intelligent in the natural history of their
country are acquainted ; of these, there are several varieties that are not enumerated,
and it will be for him to class them agreeably to the authorities to which he may have
the means of referring.

1

Naya

* 6

Dia Naya

2

Berawah Naya

* 7

Polonga

3

Koboe Naya

* 8

Lee-Polonga

4

Soeloe Naya

* 9

Nidi-Polonga

5

Deput Naya

*10

Pala-Polonga

p

114

EXTRAORDINARY TRANSFORMATION OF THE NAYA.

*

11

Tic-Polonga

* 21

Doenoo Kareweila

12

Pimbera and Anaconda

22

Mai Kareweila

*

13

Ahedoella

* 23

Tib-Karewella

%

14

Mapilla

24

Kan-Koenda

*

15

Kareweila

25

Galgoloowah

16

Pala Panoowa

26

Hotambeyah

17

Dia Berya

27

Etetullah

18

Garrendiya

28

Mal-Karabeta

19

Ahare Kocka

29

Mal-Polon

20

W al-Garwendiya

30

Matribilla

31 Duberriya is a harmless water snake.

Of the above list, the Singhalese aver that all are venomous that I have marked
with an asterisk ; but the position of the teeth will soon convince the naturalist how
far their statement may be depended on.

The Singhalese positively assume that the Koboe Naya is the Naya ( Cobra di Capello-
Coluber Naja, L.) in its last stage ; that every time it has expended its poison, the
reptile loses a joint of its tail ; and so on every year, until its appearance and nature
become totally changed, by the addition of wings, similar to the pectoral fins of the
flying fish (Exoccetus volitans, L.), at which time the head and mouth resemble the
toad’s ! But nature is altogether so extraordinary in her various transformations, and _
so many productions, formerly considered as the mere fictions of the traveller, are
now known to exist, that, at the present day, one might be premature in doubting
even this extraordinary Singhalese report on the subject of the natural history of
their country.

In October, 1839, I made particular inquiries of an intelligent Singhalese respecting
the Koboe Naya, when he not only confirmed the foregoing statement, but assured me
that a very fine specimen of that snake, in its last transformation, and preserved in
spirits, is in the possession of Mr. W. H. Kellaart, assistant apothecary to the forces
at Colombo.

The Dia Naya, according to the Singhalese, is amphibious in a peculiar sense,
independently of the Linnaean classification, living six months in water, during which
period it is venomous, and for a similar length of time on land, when it is altogether
innocuous.

The Ahedoella, from its rapid movement and power of springing, is called a “ flying
snake and mortiferous sleep is said to follow the bite of the Nidi Polonga.

PYTHON— SNAKES UPON RIVERS— COBRA DI CAPELLO.

115

The Pimbera, or rock snake, (Genus Python, C.), is said to be the Anaconda or
Anacondia of ancient writers.

It is by no means uncommon, in crossing or in excursions upon Ceylon rivers, to
fall in with bags (made of matting and tied at the mouth) floating with the stream ; and
great caution is necessary in opening them, for they generally contain one or more
snakes of the sacred kind, ( Naya ,) that some devout Buddhist had dispatched upon
a cruize, with a stock of provisions, consisting of boiled rice, an egg or two, and per¬
haps a “ Bellerophon’s letter” upon a talipat or palmyra leaf. From these facts it may
be collected, that if Buddhists object to kill the Naya, from religious motives or super¬
stitious veneration, they nevertheless think it no sin to send it upon an aquatic excur¬
sion, without a possibility of escape from its place of confinement, and with the
certainty, if met by Europeans, that the reptiles will change their temporary immer¬
sion in water for a more permanent one in spirits.

The Cobra di Capello may be kept alive for years upon eggs and frogs. A remark¬
able instance of instinct in mice, as connected with this snake, fell under rpy own
observation on the voyage homewards from Ceylon. One of the passengers (Charles
Peter Layard, Esq.) had a very fine living specimen in a case adapted for the purpose,
of which a portion was glazed. At the usual time for giving it food, which was about
once a week, two small mice were put into the case ; and upon looking at the snake
the next day, we found both the mice alive and uninjured, but the reptile deprived
of both its eyes, and in a few days it died. Instinct therefore must have pointed out
that the only means of preserving their own lives from the destroyer, was by depriving
it of sight, which no doubt the little animals effected by eating its eyes.

Europeans cannot be too cautious in purchasing Cobras di Capello from itinerant
snake charmers, for no reliance can be put upon their assurances that the reptiles are
harmless. I can vouch from experience, that nothing but the fullest proof, upon
inspection, that the fangs and poison ducts have been extracted, ought to satisfy the
intending purchaser ; and, for want of such precaution on my part, in buying a Cobra
di Capello, it might, but for a most providential circumstance, have been attended
with fatal consequences.

A Dutch gentleman who very obligingly assisted me in collecting natural specimens,
sent a Bengal samp wallah or snake charmer to me. This man brought with him
several Cobras for sale, and proceeded to exhibit them. A cooley, who accompanied
him carried two circular baskets at the ends of a pingo, which he placed upon the
ground, and commenced playing the Horanaum, or country pipe, whilst the charmer
beat with his right hand upon a small Oodikea that he held in his left. In about a

p 2

116

SAMP WALLAH OR SNAKE CHARMER— EXTRAORDINARY ESCAPE.

minute or two the covers of the baskets were gradually raised, and as the snakes left
the baskets, the music (if such a most anti-melodious din may be called} increased in
quickness ; the snakes moved about the circular space allotted to them with part of
their bodies erect, and the rest of their lengths coiled, but their hoods, upon which
the “ painted spectacles ” showed to great advantage, were expanded, and their forked
tongues in the continual motion of projecting and retracting.

The snakes were irritated to strike at the charmer’s arms and knees, and blood
flowed ; after which he took the reptiles by the neck and held their mouths close to
his forehead, which however was mere display, because in that position they were
perfectly harmless ; he then declared them to be perfectly innocuous, or what he
called kutcha.

Under this impression, I bought one of the snakes, and in the full belief that it
had been deprived of all power to do mischief, I occasionally placed it upon the
table, and as the animal moved about, displaying its hood, my wife would pass and
repass her hand under its mouth, without the slightest dread or idea of danger.

Some months had elapsed, after the purchase of the snake, when some French
officers paid me a visit, and upon their evincing great dread of the animal, I, in order
to convince them it was groundless, grasped the animal by the back of the head,
as it lay upon the table, without any other precaution than that of covering my hand
with a handkerchief; and having employed a pair of nail scissors to open the mouth,
I discovered to my horror, which may be imagined, but cannot be described, the fangs
perfect, and the animal in full possession of its deadly power. The snake had coiled
itself so tightly round my left arm and neck, that, feeling a numbness coming on,
and being certain that I could not much longer retain my hold, I, upon the spur of
the moment, again forced open the animal’s mouth, and extracted the fangs and
poison ducts from its jaw, which having done, I flung the snake into the air with all
my force, and afterwards replaced it in the basket where it had been kept : there it
lived for several months, and appeared to suffer no ill effects from the forcible removal
of its fangs. Feeling certain that the charmer had shown one snake and sold another,
I caused every search to be made for the impostor, but he had long previously left
the island.

Eau de Luce has been successfully employed in the cure of the bite of the Cobra
di Capello, in various stages of the patients’ sufferings, which place the efficacy of that
remedy beyond all doubt, when properly administered at an early period after the
bite.* — The late Mr. John Tranchell of Belligam cured two Singhalese, natives of that

* Asiatic Researches, vol. iv.

RI MEDY FOR THE BITE OF THE COBRA DI CAPELLO.

1 17

Hamlet, after having been some time in strong convulsions, (one of them a woman,
whose speech had entirely left her, and who foamed at the mouth in a dreadful
manner,) by dropping and rubbing into the punctures made by the snakes’ fangs a
mixture of nitric and muriatic acid, and giving them each fifty drops of Eau de Luce
in a little water. They recovered in a few hours ; but as the snakes were not caught
or killed, and were only seen by the parties, who declared the animals to be Nayas,
Mr. Tranchell did not feel that he could so positively vouch for the truth of their
report, as to make the circumstances the subject of a communication to the Literary
Society of Colombo, as he had at first intended ; but that he did not do so, arose from
no doubt in his own mind, or that the preparation he had employed, conjointly with
Eau de Luce, would ever be an inefficacious remedy.

Upon another occasion I accompanied Mr. Tranchell to a village about two miles
from Belligam, upon receiving a report that a woman had been bitten by a Polonga.
That gentleman, arming himself with his nostrum, lost no time in going the nearest
way to the poor woman’s residence ; but we arrived too late, for she had died in less
than half an hour from the time she was bitten, and her corpse was then lying upon
a couch under a lactera tree in the compound, and the snake, which her husband
had killed, lying by its side. The face was so very much disfigured as to have lost
the appearance of any thing human ; the mouth was covered with saliva, and the
right hand and arm, which had been bitten, were swollen to a monstrous size.

The answer of Mr. Porlier, the Belligam magistrate, and coroner ex-officio, to a
question put to him on the following day, as to the verdict of the coroner’s jury,
shows the apathy with which such a death was regarded. “ It was unnecessary,
(said he,) to hold an inquest, because it was evident enough the snake had killed
the woman ! ! ”

I attribute the paucity of snakes in the Mahagampattoo, for I had more difficulty
in procuring them in that district than in any other part of Ceylon, to the immense
number of peafowl with which the plains and trees abound, whose partiality to snakes
as food renders them the chief destroyers of these noxious reptiles.

The Viverra Ichneumon is the deadly foe of all venomous snakes. To this little
animal, called by us Mongoose, and by the Singhalese Goodoowa, is attributed the
power of distinguishing venomous from harmless snakes by the pupil of the eye.
It resembles the common ferret in shape and size, and when young its fur is of a
pencil grey, which changes by age to an iron grey, tinged at the extremities with
brown. By way of experiment I placed a tame Mongoose, which was accustomed
to run about the house, in a room where I kept a very fine specimen of the Cobra

ns

ICHNEUMON'S ATTACK UPON THE COBRA DI CAPELLO.

di Capello. Having closed the doors, I removed the cover from the basket in which
the snake was kept, which, upon seeing the Mongoose, expanded its hood, and rapidly
darting forth and as rapidly retracting its forked tongue, displayed the greatest excite¬
ment ; but the Mongoose, so far from showing a disposition to attack the snake,
exhibited a great sense of fear, for it ran about the room, poking its nose under the
doors, as if eager to escape.

Having closed the basket, I removed the snake to the compound, where many
visitors and lookers-on were soon assembled ; and having formed a circle at a reason¬
able distance, so as to prevent the escape of the snake, (for which purpose some had
cloths to drop over it, and others kettule* fishing rods with snares at the ends,) the
Mongoose was introduced, but escaped through the circle and retreated to the hedge
that divided the compound from the cinnamon gardens, which was covered with wild
plants. As every one expected, from an acquaintance with its habits, it returned
in about five minutes and re-entered the arena. It showed no fear then, but made
several detours, each time reducing the circle and nearing the snake, which also was
upon the qui vive, watching every motion of the enemy. The Mongoose suddenly
crouched with its nose close to the ground, and having waited its opportunity, sprung
forward within the twinkling of an eye, and fastened its teeth in the back of the
Cobra’s neck. The snake twisted itself in every direction, vainly endeavouring to
envelope the Mongoose in its folds, and lashing its tail against the ground, but all to
no purpose ; the little animal maintained its hold until the snake became completely
exhausted, when giving it a farewell shake, it relinquished the Cobra, but only as life
departed. This occupied nearly an hour ; the Mongoose was neither bitten nor in any
way injured ; but, upon quitting the snake, it again repaired to the hedge, whither it
was followed by the most inquisitive of the party, who were anxious to discover the plant
that it resorted to, but it is even now difficult to name the correct one. Some aver
that it is the JMendi of the Singhalese, (■ Ophiorhiza Mungos, L.), because almost every
part of the tree is employed by the native doctors in curing snake bites ; others that
it is a variety of Mimosa sensitiva ; others, that the plant is the Ophioxylon serpeu-
tinum, L., which is everywhere abundant. Both these plants, which are of the same
Linnaean classification, namely, Class V. Pentandria, Order I. Monogynia, are of the
Eka-wariya family of the Singhalese botanists, but the stem of the former is herbace¬
ous, and of the latter ligneous. One of the most positive upon this point, Madung
Appo, a native doctor at Galpiadde, assured me that he had watched the Mongoose

* Smaller branches of the Caryota urens, L.

EUPATORIUM AYAPANA— SAMP WALLAHS — LEECHES.

119

after having been bitten by a Cobra di Capello, and that the animal ran immediately
into a hedge, where there was no other plant but the ayapana, ( Eupatorium Aya¬
pana), of which it ate both root and leaf ; and moreover that he had cured a native,
when bitten by a Cobra di Capello, by giving him tea made of the aromatic leaves,
then suspending the wounded leg over a pan of boiling hot water, in which a quantity
of ayapana leaves was infused, and keeping it in the steam until every bad symptom
had disappeared, when he perfected the cure by giving his patient half a coco-nut-shell
full of old Madeira wine. The leaves are lanceolate, of a very dark green in the
centre, gradually becoming lighter towards the edges, and have a very conspicuous
gloss upon the upper surface.

The snake charmers or Samp Wallahs are Hindoos ; and it is well known that they
irritate the Cobra to bite at red rags, by which means it expends it’s venom ; but
the reptile can only be temporarily innocuous, for so long as the cylindrical fangs and
poison ducts remain perfect, its power to inflict mischief will be restored by a re¬
accumulation of the venom.

The botanist, or the collector of natural specimens, not only in the interior, but in
every uncultivated place where there is long grass, has more occasion to guard against
the small but most troublesome leech of Ceylon ( Hirudo Zeylanica) than against
snakes ; and if he can bring his mind to think no more about the latter there than
he would at home, he would probably meet with as few snakes, except it be in the jungles
of the island, as in the country in England in the hot months of summer.

During many years’ residence in Ceylon, and in all the variety of my rambles both
in the interior and maritime provinces, although I have repeatedly seen Cobras di
Capello in hedges, I never but once fell in with any venomous snake directly in my
pathway, so as to endanger myself; but I have upon two occasions fallen in with
Cobras di Capello in houses ; the first of which was on the night I landed at Trinco-
male, in my bed-room at Mr. James’s (the hotel keeper) Bungalow, which had been
for some time previously unoccupied ; and the last, at the rest-house at Mahagam,
which is seated in the midst of jungle ; where, finding the mosquitos extremely trouble¬
some, my palankin was brought into the room for the purpose of sleeping in it, but
upon opening the door, in order to put in my pillows, I found I had been anticipated
by a very fine high-caste Nay a, which was coiled upon the mat, and showed no dispo¬
sition to relinquish his berth ; but with the ramrod of my gun, and a packthread
noose at the end of it, I was soon enabled to secure the animal without injuring it,
and to present it to a friend who considered it an acquisition to his ophiological
collection.

120

SUPERSTITIOUS NOTIONS ABOUT CHARMING SNAKES

It is no less extraordinary than true, that many, whom, one would suppose, from their
education and position in society, to be free from superstitious notions, will positively
suppprt the vulgar opinion of snake charming, and cite scripture and the ancients
as their authority ; but why this power should have survived the age of miracles, or
why, because Virgil wrote, “ Frigidus in pratis cantando rumpitur anguis,” and Ovid,
“ Vipereas rumpo verbis et carmine fauces,” it should be believed in the nineteenth
century, I have yet to learn. It is probable that the samp wallahs, as a precaution,
saturate their hands and faces with a vegetable juice to which the snakes have a
known repugnance, (for even the rattle-snake dreads the wild pennyroyal, and dies
from its application) perhaps of the very plant resorted to by the Mongoose.

CHAP. XV.

Indigenous vegetable productions— Valuable in themselves, but their culture altogether neglected, although capa¬
ble of great improvement, and of increasing the public revenue — The French manage these things better in their
colonies — Forest timber trees — Singhalese list of ninety varieties — Bombyx pentandrum — Asclepias gigantea —
Annatto — Plants producing substitutes for flax — Mom. Plassiard — Specimens of cord from the Musa sylvestris —
Ilts Grace the Duke of Portland — Crotularia juncea — Bowstring hemp — Naval contractors prefer Laccadive to
Ceylon Koir — Suggestions for its improvement — White, and Digitated mulberry trees — Their cultivation — Silk
worm — Cassada or Manioc — Carina glauca — Arrow root — Turmeric — Ginger — Sun-flower , its valuable proper¬
ties — Elastic gum trees — True gum Arabic tree indigenous — Euphorbium antiquoi um — Gum Euphorbium unnoticed
in the Ceylon tariff of exports.

Having taken leave of the snakes of Ceylon, but with some regret on my part that
I had not the good fortune to fall in with any of the flying ones that others have seen,
and that those I fell in with, lay under the original curse,* I will beg leave to continue
my account of some of the more useful and beautiful of the indigenous productions ;
namely, those of the vegetable kingdom, in succession to the palms, already described.

These, I lament to say, however valuable in themselves, and, as articles of com¬
merce, capable of increasing the revenue, either of the colony, by duties levied upon
their exportation, or, if exported duty free, that of the mother country, by duties
upon their importation here, and of rendering us independent of foreign colonies, or
countries, have been too long neglected, by those who are, one would reasonably
suppose, the most interested in becoming acquainted with the indigenous resources
of the island, and expect to be foremost in developing and turning to the advantage
of their country.

That “ the French manage these matters much better,” is a truism as indisputable
as it is discreditable to English colonists.

The island abounds with teak, nadoon, satin-wood, black and variegated ebony
timber, commonly called calamander,f red-wood, satin-wood, and innumerable other
trees, for which I have no other than a Singhalese list of Kandyan Wal-Gahas
amongst which number will be found a variety of all sizes and qualities, adapted to every

* Genesis, chap. iii. ver. 13. f Kalu-mindrie, from Kalu, black, and mindrie, flaming.

1 Wal-Gahas, — Forest trees.

Q

122 KOMBOOK— JACK, AND BREAD-FRUIT-TREE, TIMBER— FOREST TREES.

purpose to which the ship and house builder, the cabinet and musical instrument
maker, the wheelwright, and the gunmaker, could possibly apply them.

There is abundance of a sort of zebra-wood, called Kombook ; but I never heard
of rose-wood or mahogany growing in Ceylon, although I inquired particularly about
both trees, for the information of one of (the principal importers of foreign timber in
the city of London, who had been informed to the contrary.

Some specimens of jack and bread-fruit-tree wood, when very old, equal the finest
Honduras mahogany, but these are of a very different class and order to the latter ;
the former being of the class Moncecia and order Monandria, and the latter of the
class Decandria and order Monogynia.

Native List of Kandyan Forest Trees, or Wal-Gahas.

1 . Kotala gaha

2. Wal-kiri gaha

3. Wal-duru gaha

4. Ketiya gaha

5. Gokara gaha

6. Bol-pana gaha

7. Maralhan gaha

8. Rilla gaha

9. Heen-weli-damba gaha

10. Goda-ran-mala gaha

11. Diya-kolla gaha

12. Ran dawoola gaha

13. Diya-mee gaha

14. Ran damba gaha

15. Rikilla gaha

16. Kikivi-messa gaha

17. Diya-mee-gaha

18. Sulu-galu-kalu gaha

19. Maha-mora gaha

20. Rat kihiriya gaha

21. Kalu kihiriya gaha

22. Ela-kihiriya gaha

23. Tela-kihiriya gaha

24. Tel-kekune gaha

25. Diye-rat-mal gaha

26. Kayapu gaha

27. Maha gaha

28. Lunu-bee gaha

29. Mas-bedde gaha

30. Onital gaha

31. Runu-mella gaha

32. Bo-me gaha

33. Riri-rong gaha

34. Ralu-rela gaha

35. Maha-dia-dal gaha

36. Wal gaha

37. Okuru gaha

38. Kara gaha

39. Gona-pana gaha

40. Bu-terana gaha

41. Wal-leeta gaha

42. Rattan-beriya gaha

43. Katu-reene gaha

44. Wan gaha

45. Damunu-andara gaha

46. Wal-kaju gaha

47. Yon-tumbe gaha

48. At-pila gaha

49. Gorandia gaha

50. Ratane gaha

51. Mas-badda gaha

52. Ek mee gaha

53. Kurutiaya gaha

54. Pat-beriya gaha

55. Bara gaha

56. Geta-kula gaha

57. Gojaru-ruritiya gaha

58. Pada rurutiya gaha

59. Wal-kiri-kon gaha

60. Kalu-mella gaha

61. Malu gaha

62. Wal-wareka gaha

63. Reliya gaha

64. Bol-wila gaha

65. Ura tana gaha

66. Liniya gaha

67. Goda kirilla gaha

68. Dada kirila gaha

69. Meti bembrya gaha

VARIETIES OF FOREST TIMBER— SILKY COTTON TREE.

123

70. Geta wilamba gaha

71. Weli-ana gaha

72. Gal-kune gaha

73. Uruta gaha

74. Geta-rulu gaha

75. Armatilla gaha

76. Hela gaha

77. Ros-ata-pala gaha

78. Sulu kiri messa gaha

79. Tun-hiriya-messa gaha

80. Dambu gaha

81. Ma-tambala gaha

82. Rat-timbiri gaha

83. Hoe-kolon gaha

84. Kalu timbiliya gaha

85. Un-sulu gaha

86. Geta-pota gaha

87. Rok-kandi gaha

88. Ralu ronda gaha

89. Wane sapoo gaha

90. Rarelu gaha

It is by no means improbable, from what is generally known of the foreign
timber imported into Great Britain, that scarcely one of the ninety Kandyan forest
trees, here enumerated, has ever been seen in the London market ; and as it is
but natural to suppose, that these various woods partake of the colors that many of
their local names imply, such as red, black, yellow, stone, and white ; and also of
the intermediate shades, for the Singhalese have no definition except of the primitive
colors, the variety is very great.

After the forest timber trees, it may be as well to describe those, whose produce,
if properly applied, would prove a new source of revenue, and show that the vegetable
capabilities of this incomparable island are deserving of the earnest attention of the
capitalist, the merchant, and the manufacturer, instead of that extraordinary neglect
to which the rage for coffee and sugar planting has hitherto consigned them.

Some authors have described trees as producing fit materials for manufacturing
purposes ; which, upon fair trial, have been pronounced the reverse : but still they
have their uses.

The silky cotton tree ( Bombyx pentandrum, L.) is quite common throughout the
maritime provinces, and in the lower parts of the central province ; but its produce,
which is something similar to that of the gigantic swallow-wort ( Asclepias gigantea, L.),
is only fit for the stuffing of pillows and mattresses, notwithstanding the very different
notions that have obtained with many individuals, who have superficially observed the
silky cotton as it appears upon the tree, that it might be turned to good account by
our manufacturers ; but if they had given the slightest consideration to the neglected
state of culture of the true cotton in Ceylon, they would have thought otherwise of
the value of an article, whose shortness of staple, and want of elasticity of fibre, render
it unfit to be employed even as a substitute for beaver. For this purpose it was tried
by the Dutch ; who also sent a quantity of the raw material to China, in the very
reasonable expectation that if “ the most ingenious nation in the world could not
convert it into cloth of some kind or other,, it was not to be effected but it proved

Q 2

124

ANNATTO— PLANTS PRODUCING SUBSTITUTES FOR FLAX.

a fruitless speculation. The best use that can be made of the timber, is for insect
boxes ; the tenacity of the wood preventing the pins from dropping out, and thereby
preserving insects from injury through loco-motion.

The much neglected annatto (BLva orellana, L.), class Polyandria, order Monogvnia,
is another valuable dye, which is unknown in the tariff of Ceylon exports, notwith¬
standing the great facility with which its cultivation there would supersede the necessity
of our dependence upon South America for an article that could be produced in any
quantity, and of the best color and quality, in our own colony. This valuable shrub
thrives best in a sandy soil, and stands the sea-breeze well ; and it has often surprized
me, that this luxuriant and ornamental production should be so generally neglected as
it is ; for it is of rapid growth, requires but little care, and, from the density of its
cordiform foliage, which must not be judged by the specimens of the plant in our
hot-houses and conservatories, is impervious to the rays of a vertical sun.

The seeds contain the coloring matter, and are enclosed in a capillary almond-
shaped capsule, which, in an unripe state, is pink, but changes to brown as it ripens ;
and, at maturity, divides and exposes to view its bright Vermillion seeds.

The present duty on foreign annatto is sufficient encouragement to cultivate an indi¬
genous production, whose various uses, in medicine, varnishes, for dying silks and
wools, and coloring cheese, entitles it to more attention, on the part of our colonists,
than it has hitherto had. The elastic bark of the BLva orellana is used by the natives
for making strong ropes and elephant nooses.

As a substitute for flax, and for all the purposes of grass-cloth manufacture, in which
the Chinese almost equal the cambric of the best French looms, the fibre of the wild
pine or silk grass ( Bromelia Karatas, L.), of every variety of Musa, including the
seed-bearing or wild plantain ( M ’. sylvestris ), and of the leaves of the aloe ( Aloe perfo-
liata, L.), and Mellori ( Pandanus odoratissimus, L.), is well adapted.

My attention was first drawn to the Musa genus, for the manufacture of cordage
and cloth, by seeing some excellent specimens of both in the possession of Vice Admiral
Stirling, the commander-in-chief, whilst I was upon the Jamaica station, in the year
1813 ; and, in 1822, I sent a specimen of plantain fibre to France, by Mons. Plassiard,
the commander of the French ship Le Henri ; together with about half a pound weight
of the dried fibre of the Bromelia Karatas, and Pandanus odoratissimus, in order to
see if French ingenuity could not effect something equal to Chinese manufacture ; and
with the hope of surprising those of my countrymen and contemporaries, who treated
with levity any novel suggestion for adding to the common catalogue of colonial pro¬
duce. The result remains writh Mons. Plassiard, who did not return to Ceylon, as he

A Kandyan Defsave in his Muncheel,

. Engraven? by IV. C. Edwards.

from a Singhalese drawing.

GQRD FROM THE WILD PLANTAIN TREE— HANE— HEMP.

125

had intended, and of whose address I am, at this moment, ignorant. I have since
submitted to His Grace the Duke of Portland, some specimens of the fibre of the
Musa sylvestris , and also of white and strong cord manufactured from it.

The Singhalese fishermen make their finest nets of the Hane plant (Crotalaria
juncea , L.), which grows upwards of five feet in height, and is more cultivated in the
western province than in any other. They also make nets of Koir cord, and of the
Sensiviera Zeylanica of Thunberg.

If it be considered, that in one year, during the last war. Great Britain imported
37,000 tons of hemp, it will occasion much surprise, that the apathy of the govern¬
ment, and the supineness of individuals, in regard to its cultivation in Ceylon, or of
the valuable substitutes for it which everywhere present themselves, should keep pace
with each other ; for surely where so many thousands of square miles of rich land,
belonging to the crown, are now lying waste, the profit of an extensive cultivation of
hemp and flax would not only abundantly repay the expense of fencing and clearing
the land, but leave a considerable surplus profit, and justify the government in mono¬
polizing their culture, if private individuals will not undertake it.

Rope making is here a most profitable business ; and there is ample field for many
additional manufacturers of that article, from the largest cable to sail-makers’ twine :
for which latter the Hane plant is a very superior material.

At one time, the culture of hemp was thought of so much importance, that it was
introduced into Delft Island, and Lieut. Edward Nolan, of the 3rd Ceylon regiment,
appointed to superintend it, with a salary of <£500 a year, and the privilege of sub¬
scribing to the Civil Fund, for an annuity of £400 for life, after twelve years’ service
in that situation ; but, although in addition thereto that gentleman had the trouble¬
some office of superintending the government breeding stud, he was most illiberally
restricted from civil promotion or increase of salary.

In all naval contracts, rope made from l^accadive Kotr was always preferred to that
of Ceylon ; but that the latter might l>e improved there can scarcely exist a doubt
or that the process of Kyan, m the prevention of dry-rot, might not be beneficially
applied to the rope itself.

In introducing the white and digitated mu I hern plants into Cevlon, where the original
plantations of the black mulbem Morn* nigra. L. had dwindled into a few stunted
trees, here and there, of which the fruit was smaller than the common hedge strawbern .

1 had fully anticipated that 1 was laving the foundation of a permanent good to the
island. My first distribution ot cuttings was. to the late Honorable Sir Hardingt
(iifl'ard, D. C. L., the then duel justice, m l's2l./ through whom it was introduced

126 MULBERRY TREES— CHINESE METHOD OF BREEDING SILK WORMS.

into the botanic -gardens at Colombo and Kandy ; to Henry Augustus Marshall, Esq.,
auditor and accountant general ; Captain Schneider, surveyor general ; Lieut. Colonel
Alexander Watson, of the royal artillery ; George Tumour, Esq., collector of Kaltura ;
Captain Crisp, master attendant ; the Wesleyan mission gardens at Colombo and
Calpetty ; and subsequently to Charles Edward Layard, Esq., provincial judge of Galle
and Matura, and James Agnew Farrell, Esq., collector of revenue at Chilaw.

The culture of the mulberry plant was an indispensable preliminary to my projected
introduction of the several varieties of the silk worm, from Malta, Bengal, China,
St. Helena, and the south of France. Had this plan been carried into effect, it would
soon have determined which species of silk worm would best agree with the humid
atmosphere of Ceylon ; and as both species of the mulberry tree succeeded beyond
my most sanguine hopes, the speculation might have been proceeded with, safely and
successfully ; and silk have become, long ere this, one of the most valuable exports
of the island.

This is one of its capabilities that deserves the attention of capitalists ; for there
can be very little, if any, difficulty in inducing experienced persons to proceed to
Ceylon. A preference might be given to those who had been some time employed in
the service of the British, Irish, and Colonial Silk Company ; and they would soon
be qualified to decide as to the species of silk worm best adapted to the climate, and
to select localities for silk factories.

The growth of the mulberry is so extremely rapid, that in less than six months the
plantations would be in full bearing ; and it might easily be propagated to any extent,
by cuttings from the produce of my original introductions from the Mauritius.

The Chinese, who are the greatest silk growers in the world, consider the mulberry
tree that bears the least fruit, the best ; and adopt a curious method to increase the
quantity of foliage, and decrease that of the fruit ; namely, by feeding hens upon the
ripe fruit of the mulberry tree, after it had been partly dried in the sun ; the ordure
of the fowls is subsequently collected and steeped in water, and the undigested seeds,
having been again soaked in water, are sown, and produce trees of the desired pre¬
ponderance of foliage. These ingenious people select rising grounds, near rivulets,
for the habitations of their silk worms ; for the eggs require frequent washings, and
the purest running water is considered the best. The place must be kept free from
fetid or bad smells, and noise ; for when the silk worms are fully hatched, even the
barking of a dog, or the crowing of a cock, throws them into confusion.

If I were to plant the mulberry extensively, I would sow indigo by way of under¬
crop ; and, in order to secure shade for the mulberry plants, which would not injure

CULTURE OF 'THE MULBERRY— INDIGO AS AN UNDER CROP— CASSADA. 127

indigo, plant plantain trees at fifteen feet distant from each other, in rows, until the
mulberry trees had attained a sufficient height to withstand the sun ; and, as the
plantain affords a succession of suckers, the ground can always be kept clear enough
by their early removal ; and the parent trees, after having borne their respective bunch
of fruit, (for that is all the plantain or banana tree produces,) can be cut down, for the
sake of their fibre, and for their leaves to be employed for fodder ; or be allowed to
die away gradually, as the necessity for shade or otherwise may obtain.

I also introduced the cassada or manioc ( Jatropha Manihot) from Mauritius in 1821,
but notwithstanding the great and gratuitous distribution of cuttings from the produce
of the original stock, this invaluable plant has been so lightly valued, (from, it is to
be presumed, ignorance of its inestimable qualities,) that, with the exception of some
Malays in the Mahagampattoo, only one individual, Charles Edward Layard, Esq.,
has paid any sort of attention to its culture. There is no root which is so well
adapted, from its nature, to become a substitute for rice ; and one or two failures in
the rice crop would not only point out the value of the Jatropha Manihot , but its
cultivation would be considered an object of paramount necessity, as the only certain
and easily obtained substitute for that chief article of native consumption. But I
have seen so much of the apathy of my countrymen in regard to this invaluable escu¬
lent, that until they shall have been convinced by necessity that “ prevention is better
than cure,” I can scarcely hope that its importance will be sufficiently estimated and
acted upon.

Another extremely common plant, the Canna Indica, or Indian shot, of which there
are both the glauca and coccinea, is equally neglected. The roots of the Canna glauca
yield a more nutritious farina than the arrow root ( Maranta Arundinacea, L.), and the
process of manufacturing it is equally simple, viz. the roots having been well washed, are
rasped upon a large tin or copper grater, and if not quite fine enough, are pounded in
a wooden mortar ; the pulp is then put into a large tub, and a quantity of water
having been poured over it, is stirred well ; every particle of fibre is then removed,
and the residue allowed to settle for the night ; in the morning the water is strained
off, and the sediment spread upon clean cloths (under which mats have been previously
spread) and dried in the sun.

The light soils of Ceylon are admirably adapted to the cultivation of ginger, carda¬
moms, Caruia glauca , Maranta arundinacea, and turmeric ( Curcuma longa, L.), the
Saffron des Indies of the French. The latter is not so extensively cultivated as might
be expected ; for although, as a dye, it is in occasional demand, its use is general and
indispensable in the native diet. Like the Amomum Zingiber, or ginger, its roots
spread to a considerable distance under ground, and it resembles that root in shape.

128

ELASTIC GUM TREES— GUM ARABIC TREE— EUPHORBIUM TREE.

The plant attains the height of from twelve to fourteen inches ; the external color
of the root is ashy, but internally a bright yellow ; the robes of the Buddhist priest¬
hood are dyed with it, yellow being the sacred color.

The common sun-flower’s ( Helianthus annum ) seed is a most valuable article of food
for cattle and poultry ; and as it attains the greatest perfection in Ceylon, one is almost
lost in astonishment at the entire neglect of its cultivation, except as an ornament to
the parterre or flower garden. Every part of it is useful. The most delicious oil is
expressed from the seed ; the oil-cake is a fattening diet for cattle and poultry, and
does not impart the rancid flavor to either that the Poonac or coco-nut oil-cake does ;
the stalks produce a great deal of alkali ; the dried leaves afford an excellent substi¬
tute for straw for cattle ; and. subsequently form a rich manure for sandy soils.

Various indigenous trees yield elastic gum, nearly equal to the South American
caoutchouc ; but it has not hitherto been thought worthy of speculative competition.
Amongst these may be named the Ignatia elastica, L. ; Ficus religiosa, L. ; Ficus
Indica, L. ; Cecropia peltata ; Carica papya, L. , Jatropha elastica, L. ; Artocarpus
incisa, L. ; and Artocarpus integrifolia, L.

Ceylon produces the true gum arabic ( Mimosa Nilotica, L.), class Polygamia, order
Moncecia, in abundance ; nevertheless not a pound of it has been collected for ex¬
portation since our first occupation of the island in 1796. Madung Appo, observing
that I employed the white of an egg to give a gloss to my drawings of the fishes of
Ceylon, (published under the auspices of the Ceylon government in 1830,) brought
me a very fine gum, equal to the best gum arabic, which he had obtained from a tree
called in Singhalese Kattoon-daru Gaha ; and he subsequently brought me a branch
of the tree with flowers and seeds ; the siliquose of the latter emitted a fine aromatic
odour. Of the flowers and gum I brought specimens to England, by which it was
proved that Ceylon produces the true gum arabic tree.

During my superintendence of the Mahagampattoo district, in 1826 and 1827, 1 made
a few successful experiments with a common augur, in tapping the Euphorbium antiqu¬
orum, in the presence of several natives, from the orifices of which a thick caustic milky
juice abundantly exuded, that soon acquired the consistency of bird-lime, and after¬
wards hardened to a gum. I recommended it to their notice, as an article of com¬
merce that would amply reward their exertions, as well as afford constant employment
in collecting the gum that had formed upon the trees in considerable quantities,
through the casual wounds inflicted by animals or insects. They shook their heads,
as in distrust of any benefit likely to be derived from it ; and as I was then upon the
eve of leaving the district, I could do no more than reiterate my advice ; but the gum
Euphorbium is not yet included in the tariff of Ceylon exports.

CHAP. XVI.

Continuation of the vegetable productions of Ceylon — Cachew gum, a substitute for gum Senegal, and for
many of the purposes to which gum Arabic is adapted — Sir Joseph Banks's endeavours to find a substitute for foreign
gums, during the last war with France — Ceylon could have supplied the British market, but no one knew of it —
Gum lac tree, not the Lacsha of Bengal — Singhalese lackerers — Lac insect not indigenous — Kauffman’s description
of the varieties of gum lac — Suggestions for making the vegetable lac of Ceylon equally profitable with the Coccus
lacca — Gum Taeahama — Sap of the bread-fruit tree a substitute for pitch, and also for caoutchouc — Gumboge —
Introduction of the coffee tree from Java — Governor Zwaardenkroom — Louis XIV. — Value of coffee exported from
Colombo in one year — High duties on cinnamon injurious to that trade, for it encourages the sale of Java cinnamon ,
under the name of Cassia lignea, which bears a less import duty — Java cinnamon the produce of the Laurus
cxnnamomum — Clandestinely introduced into that island from Ceylon — Suggestions for assorting the cinnamon
imported as Cassia lignea, and protecting the revenue — Cotton neglected in Ceylon, notwithstanding the example
set by the East India Company to extend its culture in India — Culture of opium introduced — Its use increased
by teetotalism.

The next valuable gum, but altogether neglected, is that of the cachew tree {Ana-
car dium occidentale, L.* and Acajou of Tournefort), which is only to be seen in a wild
state. It yields a beautifully transparent gum in large masses, from its trunk and
branches ; and its thick and astringent bark contains a great proportion of tannin,
equal, if not superior, in quality to that of the oak {Quercus Robur, L.)

In the year 1826, I sent about fifty pounds weight of cachew gum to Messrs. Mus-
kett and Young, merchants at Colombo, for the purpose of being submitted to manu¬
facturers in England for trial ; and the report made of it, was to the effect, “ that

* Linnaeus first placed the Anacardium in class IX., and then transferred it to class X. M. Rottroell, Fellow
of the Medical College of Copenhagen, after a full examination of several specimens of the inflorescence, fixed the
character of the genus in the following manner, which placed it in class XXIII. Polygamia, order I. Moncecia.

The Hermaphrodite Flower. Calyx — Perianth five-leaved ; Leaflets egged, concave, erect, colored, subvillous.
Corol — Petals five-lanced, acute, &c., as in the character of Linnaeus. Stamens — Filaments eight to ten, con¬
nected at the base ; one of them thicker than the rest and one third part longer, answering to the greater lobe of
the germ, which has an Anther three-sided, large, fertile, deciduous ; the rest have Anthers less, fruitless, perma¬
nent, the figure of the former. Pistil — Germ oblong, kidney-form, with one lobe layer placed higher ; Style
single from the bottom of the germ, awled, equal to the corol ; Stigma small, roundish, depressed, concave ;
receptacle and fruit as in Linnaeus.

The Male Flower on a different plant. Calyx, Corol, Stamens — as in the Hermaphrodite flower. Pistil —
Germ 0 or abortive.

R

130

CACHEW GUM— GUM LAC OF CEYLON— NATIVE LACKERERS.

a superabundance of Gum Senegal was then in the market ; but that in time of
war, cachew gum might be employed to great advantage as a substitute for the
former, in dying silk ; and also for almost all the purposes to which gum arabic is
adapted.”

At an early period of the last war with France, the late Sir Joseph Banks, G. C. B.,
held out great encouragement for the discovery of a substitute for gum in our manu¬
factures ; for an opinion at that time obtained, that the supply of foreign gum would
soon prove inadequate to the demand. This simple fact is sufficient to show how
little was then known of the indigenous productions of our own possessions in Ceylon,
which might, at that very time, have supplied all the demands of the British market.

The cachew tree grows to the height of eighteen or twenty feet, and spreads much
at the top ; but its timber is of little value : the leaves are glossy and thickly set.
The gum exudes in such large drops, that insects are occasionally caught in its pro¬
gress, and are soon covered with a transparent mass, which, upon becoming hard, may
be polished. Very beautiful specimens of gum necklaces and bracelets are too often
imposed upon purchasers in this country for amber ornaments of Chinese manufacture.

A resinous gum is produced in Ceylon, with which the natives form a lacker of the
consistency of sealing-wax, and color it ; but I do not recollect seeing it of a greater
variety of colors than red, yellow, black, and a sort of bluish or Vhhnu green. It is
not the production of an insect, like that of the Lacsha of Bengal ( Coccus lacca, L.),
but exudes from the trunk and branches of the Croton lacciferum, L., the Kapitya
gaha of the Singhalese, wherever punctured by insects, or from incisions made for the
purpose of collecting the gum. When quite fresh, it is of a transparent straw color ;
but, with age, it becomes of a muddy brown hue.

This substance might be turned to good account in this country, as an auxiliary
to the fine arts. The Singhalese, and particularly those of the interior, lacker their
ceremonial bows and arrows, walking sticks, wooden bowls, and all sorts of boxes,
which they make, by a very simple turning lathe, in great perfection, and finish in
beautiful style, with the Kapitya lac, leaving the surface as smooth and brilliant as the
best French polish could effect, but of a more durable nature.

Animals have so great a dread of the tree itself, that they cautiously avoid coming
in contact with it ; this may be owing to the very nauseous odour that it emits, which
is almost as bad as that of the green or winged bug.

I have particularly sought after the lac insect in Ceylon, but without success, and
yet the tree that it makes its usual habitat in Bengal, the Mimosa cinerea, L., is
indigenous and abundant.

COCCUS LACCA— GUM TACAMAHA— GUMBOGE.

131

According to Kauffman, the substance called gum lac in the British market, is the
cell of the Coccus lacca, colored red by the dead body of the insect contained in it ;
stick lac, the white membraneous substance found in the empty cells, which, when
separated from the adhering sticks, and grossly powdered, is called seed lac ; which
last, being freed from impurities by melting over a gentle fire, is called lump lac ; and
lastly, that called shell lac, is the cells liquefied.

Now as the Bengal Coccus lacca, and the Ceylon vegetable lac, are known to possess
the same resinous properties ; and as the former is made the basis of many varnishes,
and of the finest kinds of sealing wax, and is also used in painting, it seems to me
to require little more than the spirit of speculation, and the funds of a very moderate
capitalist, to render the latter equally valuable as an article of commerce. At present
it belongs to the catalogue of the already too long neglected capabilities of this incom¬
parable island.

Gum Tacamaha may be procured in any quantity from the roots of the Domba
tree ( Calophyllum Inophyllum, L.), the Domba gaha of the Singhalese, which is indi¬
genous and most abundant. This resinous gum is called by the Malabars Tacamaha.
Its smell is fragrant, approaching to that of ambergris : but the Tacamahaca of com¬
merce exudes from the bark of the balsam tree ( Populus balsamifera, L.) The native
doctors employ the gum externally, in cataplasms, &c.

Although other indigenous trees yield resinous gums, their number is too limited,
in comparison with the abundance of those already described, to render their produce
worth the trouble of collecting.

The sap of the bread-fruit tree ( Artocarpus incisa, L.), when hardened in the sun,
and subsequently boiled, forms a tolerable substitute for pitch ; but, even if that tree
were not otherwise so useful as it is, the sap would be more profitably employed in
a raw state, by being converted into India-rubber.

Gumboge may be obtained in any quantity from the Cambogia gutta, L. ( Ghorkah
of the Singhalese) ; Stalagmites Cambogioides, and Xanthochymus ovatifolius. It is sold
in the Bazaars, but has not hitherto been an export from the colony. The home
market is chiefly supplied from the Indian continent.

Coffee ( Coffea Arabica, L.) was first introduced into Ceylon from the island of Java,
where it was originally planted by the governor general of Batavia, Zwaardenkroom,
who procured the seeds and plants from Mocha, in the Arabian Gulf, in the year 1723.
This public benefactor did not limit his views to the mere benefit of the islands under
his control, but sent the coffee plant from Batavia to Amsterdam ; for with him no¬
thing was thought of too little importance for grave consideration, when the national

r 2

132

COFFEE INTRODUCED FROM JAVA— COFFEE MANIA— CINNAMON.

advantage lay even in the most distant prospective ; and so ought all to think who
have the management of colonies, and love for their country.

The coffee plants sent from Batavia to Amsterdam, soon attracted public attention ;
and, amongst others, the French consul seemed to take a particular interest in the
novelty that had been introduced ; and he subsequently succeeded in obtaining one of
the plants, which he sent to his sovereign, the then Grande Monarque, Louis XIV.

This plant having been placed in a hothouse, throve admirably well and seeded ;
and the French government attached so much importance to its naturalization in the
West Indies, that three plants of the first produce were transmitted to the island of
Martinique ; and never were crown diamonds or regalia guarded with more care : but,
notwithstanding every precaution and attention, only one plant survived the voyage.
That plant was the original parent of all the present coffee plantations in the British,
French, and Spanish West Indies ; and I much question if all the glories of Louis the
fourteenth’s reign together, entitle him to more honor than his introduction of the
coffee plant into culture at Martinique. It rendered his country and humanity a
benefit that will survive a million of victories : — laid the foundation for an extension
of commerce; from which various nations derive immense revenues, merchants in¬
crease of riches, and mankind one of the most exhilarating and wholesome beverages,
of which, nature has, hitherto, produced the means.

In the year ending the 5th of January, 1841, the value of coffee exported to Great
Britain, from the port of Colombo alone, amounted to 197,387/. KB. id. ; but there
was not a single bale of cotton or silk, or a pound of cocoa, indigo, gum, opium,
annatto, or cochineal, of the produce of the island, exported ; and not even pepper
enough of Ceylon growth to pack the cinnamon ; and yet all these articles are either
indigenous, or may be easily naturalized.

The present mania for coffee planting daily increases ; and will continue to do so
until the government either reduces the cinnamon duty, upon the export of cinnamon
from Ceylon, and upon its importation here, or places the cinnamon grower upon a
more equal footing with the cultivators of coffee and other produce. It is the great
difference in the duty which causes the present high price of coffee grounds, and the
low price of cinnamon plantations, and consequently increases the value of the former
article, whilst it depreciates that of the latter.

The injury done to the Ceylon cinnamon grower, by the importation of the same
spice, the produce of Java, under the pseudo denomination of Cassia lignea, at an
inferior duty of, I believe, one shilling per pound avoirdupois, may easily be ima¬
gined ; for although there may be, and, no doubt, is, a large proportion of Cassia

CASSIA LIGNEA OF JAVA— SUGGESTIONS FOR ASSORTING IT.

133

lignea, probably of the produce of Malabar and China, mixed with the true spice, for
sinister purposes, as regards the import duty ; a similar process to that of assorting
cinnamon in Ceylon, would, if adopted in our import warehouses, soon establish the
fact, that of the quantity imported as Cassia lignea, the proportion of true cinnamon
will be found to predominate.

In corroboration of my statement, I may venture to state one or two facts, of equal
importance, at the present moment, to the Ceylon cinnamon grower and exporter, and
to the revenue derived from its importation here.

When Lord Glenelg avowed to certain merchants, by letter dated 6th March, 1S3S,
that “ he is unable to say whether coffee is grown in West Africa,” the most satirical
reflections were cast upon the colonial department by the commercial community :
and that same body, so far as it includes those who are profiting at the expense of the
Ceylon cinnamon grower, would also, there can be little doubt, be better pleased than
otherwise, if the noble president of the board of trade and foreign plantations were to
avow himself equally unable to decide the point to which his Lordship’s attention has
been recently drawn, by merchants connected with the Ceylon trade, in regard to the
cinnamon of that island.

It is not, however, unknown to his Lordship, that the island of Java, whilst Ceylon
formed one of its dependencies, was not considered by the Dutch government to pro¬
duce cinnamon or Cassia lignea, although the latter might have been wild in certain
districts of the interior of that immense island ; the former, the Lauras Cinnamomum, L.,
the latter, the Lauras Cassia, L. ; for the Dutch, pursuing the same policy by which
they destroyed every nutmeg and clove tree in Ceylon, and restricted the culture
of the former to the Banda islands, and of the latter to the Moluccas, prohibited the
growth of cinnamon, except in Ceylon, throughout their Eastern colonies.

Consequently all the spice denominated Cassia lignea, or base cinnamon,, now imported
from Java, must be the produce of trees planted subsequently to the cession of Ceylon
to our flag, on the 14th of February, 1796 ; for it is well known, that many of the
Dutch families, who quitted Ceylon for Java with the former Dutch garrisons of the
forts that had been ceded, did not go empty-handed, either in regard to cinnamon
plants or seeds.

But it is not from that original introduction only, of the cinnamon plant into Java,
that all the spice now imported as Cassia lignea, to the prejudice of the Ceylon cin¬
namon trade, is obtained ; for, in the year 1825, upwards of three thousand cinnamon
plants, were, through the connivance of interested persons, smuggled off the island by
a brig bound to Batavia.

134

SMUGGLING CINNAMON PLANTS— COTTON— OPIUM.

The brig, when she first arrived at Galle, was commanded by an Englishman ; but
the Dutch owner, fully aware that the commander was too honourable a man to listen
to a proposition of so illicit a nature as the contemplated removal of cinnamon plants,
managed to quarrel with him first, and then to discharge him ; and subsequently
engaged a ready coadjutor in his nefarious scheme among his own countrymen.

The best protection that can be afforded to the Ceylon cinnamon trade, would be,
to subject all Cassia lignea, imported from Java, or other Dutch settlements, or else¬
where, to the same process of assortment as is adopted in Ceylon ; and by charging
an increased rate of duty upon all cinnamon found mixed with, and imported
as. Cassia lignea , and continuing the duty on the rest, as at present ; viz. 2s. 6d.
per pound.

The external appearance of these two varieties of the aromatic laurel, cannot be
distinguished while growing, except by the leaf ; and that only by those who are
accustomed to both trees.

As to cotton, the great exertions made by the Honorable the East India Company
to extend and improve its culture in India, by engaging planters from America, is a
convincing proof of the importance attached to it by that preeminent body in the
commercial affairs of this great country, “ whose merchants are princes ; ” and a suffi¬
cient excitement, one would think, for the employment of capital for the same purpose
in Her Majesty’s island of Ceylon.

Hitherto the chief objects of European culture in the interior, exclusively of escu¬
lent vegetables and fruits, have been the coffee tree and sugar cane ; both of which
flourish in the greatest perfection ; and Ceylon coffee, by the rapid improvements in
its cultivation, may soon be expected to equal the produce of Mocha.

The Kandyans select the best coffee by its bluish color, and by its weight ; but they
are perfectly au fait at giving it an artificial weight, by the soaking process, in order
to profit by the difference. Coffee sells at Colombo at about 6d. per pound, or L?. per
measure, which will contain about two pounds avoirdupois weight, more or less. The
lighter and whiter coffee is called second quality. Raw sugar is considered dear at
4 d. per pound.

Opium, the inspissated juice of the white poppy ( Papaver somniferum, L.), was first
cultivated in the Mahagampattoo, in the year 1826. I obtained the original seeds
from Malwah, where the finest opium is produced, through the kind offices of Captain
John Moms, who was at that time editor of the Bombay Gazette. Having ascertained,
by trial, that the soil and climate of the banks of the Wallewe river were well adapted
to the culture of the opium poppy, I sent for a further supply of seed ; the produce

SIR EDWARD BARNES’S OPINION OF NATIVE INDUSTRY.

135

of my own plantation, which, after the first successful experiments, had been reserved
for that purpose, having been swept away, by the sudden rise of the Wallewe river, in
October of that year, just as the capsules had attained maturity. The second importa¬
tion of opium poppy seed, which was sufficient for general distribution, I placed at the
disposal of the governor, in February, 1827 ; His Excellency having previously taken an
opportunity of acknowledging me, as the first introducer of the culture of opium into
the island, at a general meeting of the Literary and Agricultural Society of Colombo,
in December, 1826.

I had subsequently the great satisfaction of seeing that my public objects in the
introduction of the culture of the white and digitated mulberry, and of the opium
poppy, were likely to be realized, under the fostering care of the local government ;
for, on the 21st of September, 1829, a regulation of government was passed by the
governor in council, “ for promoting the growth of certain articles of agricultural pro¬
duce, in the island of Ceylon, and for the encouragement of agricultural speculation,” in
which the articles silk and opium were included, for the first time, in a regulation of
the Ceylon government.*

But the great difficulty to be overcome, in all matters connected with native indus¬
try, was very obvious to Sir Edward Barnes ; who, in a letter to me, dated the 14th
of February, 1827, thus pointedly alludes to it, — “ I have to return you my thanks
for the packet of Malwah poppy-seed which you forwarded, and likewise for the paper
of instructions relative to the cultivation of the plant, and preparation of opium from
its capsules ; and I have no doubt that it, in common with many other articles of
commerce, might be brought to perfection in the island, could the natives be convinced
of the importance of attention to agricultural industry” — “ Hie labor, hoc opus ! ! ”

The poppy plants appeared above ground in six days after the seed was sown, and in
less than six weeks were in full bloom : abundance of capsules soon formed ; from the
juice of which, about a pound of opium, of good quality, was procured by my Malay
gardener, (who withheld it from my knowledge till I was upon the eve of quitting
the district,) and sufficient seed was reserved for twelve large beds, exclusively of the
quantity distributed to some Malays in the district. The second crop was totally
destroyed, as I have before stated.

The juice of the opium poppy is of a very thick nature, and of a milky white ; the
incision is made in the green capsule in the shape of a T, and the juice that flows
during the night, congeals before morning, when it is scraped off with a blunt knife ;

* Vide Appendix.

136

PREPARATION OF OPIUM— ITS USE INCREASED BY TEETOTALISM.

this is subsequently formed into small cakes, and is the opium of commerce. East
Indian opium is now rendered, by a peculiar process, as pure as that of Turkey.
An acre will produce about forty pounds ; but the growth of the opium poppy soon
exhausts the best soil, and renders the application of a powerful manure, of which
the fcecula of the indigo leaf is one of the best, indispensable.

The natives of India are quite au fait at the adulteration of opium with resinous
gums and an extract from the leaves and flower stalks of the poppy.

Many objections have been started to the culture of the opium poppy ; and China is
cited for an example of its injurious effects upon the population ; but notwithstanding
that it has been prohibited from immemorial time, by a succession of Vermilion edicts,
the vicious appetite of the people has been found much too strong for legal
restraint.

In this country, as teetotalism extends, so will the use of opium increase ; and
already has its use taken deep root amongst that class of the people which has deter¬
mined to abstain from the use of wines, spirits, cider, and the less wholesome melange
of hops, malt, and narcoctics. As well may the use of spirits b$ prohibited in England,
as that of opium in China ; or let the duty upon either be what it may, those who
are slaves to either habit, will indulge it at all costs and risks, when and where
they can.

CHAP. XVII.

Extreme opinions as regards the Fruits of the island — Natives have no method of engrafting or improving fruit
trees — Naturalized exotic fruits — Native Materia Medica and medical books — Classification of fruits — Mangos-
teen — Ramboutan — Nam-nam — Rose Apple — Sour-sop — Brazil Cherry — Chape — Lo-quat — Star Apple — Canary
Almond — Lemon — Bladder Cherry — Fig — Lovi-lovi — Stripe-leaved Pine Apple — Mandarin Orange — Wampi —

Pomegranate — Melon — Strawberry — Midberry - Indigenous fruits : Pine Apple — Orange — Shaddock — Guava —

Papaw — Mango — Custard Apple — Casur de Boeuf — Bilimbing — Cherimelle — Carambole — Jack Fruit — Bread
Fruit — St. Helena Almond — Cajfrarian Lime — Jambo — Trefoil Limonia — Plantain and Banana — Cachew Apple.

As regards the fruits of Ceylon, the superficial observer may be led into extreme
opinions, by esteeming them too much, or too little. It should be recollected, that
the natives know nothing of engrafting, and are equally ignorant of any other method
for improving fruits or vegetables ; everything is therefore left to nature, except where
Europeans have adopted the horticultural systems of their own country, for improving
the several indigenous varieties, and perfecting the exotics, that, from time to time,
have been introduced from various parts of the world.

Of the number of edible fruits, the best are from naturalized exotics, originally intro¬
duced by the Dutch, from Guiana, and the islands of Java and Amboyna ; but these
are only to be found in the gardens of the principal European and native inhabitants ;
and as the native Materia Medica is chiefly, if not altogether, composed, of simples,
which include the roots, leaves, and bark, as well as the gums, of fruit-bearing and
other trees, I have included a description of the medicinal uses to which they are
applied by the Singhalese.

The native doctors possess many ancient medical books ; of these, the best are said
to be in Sanscrit and Pali ; between which languages, the learned in Eastern literature
trace a near affinity ; but, as to the productions of Singhalese writers, they are stated
to consist chiefly of incantations, and magical jargon about the influence of the moon
and the stars upon the several plants, and the proper, or most fortunate time, for
the simpler to collect them.

The fruits may be described in three classes ; the first, to consist of such as are only
to be found in private gardens ; the second, of those that are procurable in almost every
bazaar ; and the third, of the wild fruits that are eaten by the lowest class of the natives.

s

138

NATURALIZED EXOTIC FRUITS.

The Mangosteen ( Garcinia Mangostana, L.), was originally introduced by the Dutch,
from the island of Great Banda, whilst Geylon was a dependency of the government
of Batavia. This fruit has a smooth epidermis, is round, and of a purple color, and
rather larger than a St. Michael’s orange ; it rests in a permanent green calyx, and
the top is surmounted by an eight-rayed corona. It is usual to cut it transversely
in the middle, but not deeper than the rind, which is about a third of an inch thick ;
the top part is then taken off, and exposes the pulp ; this is of a pure white, and
divided into eight lobes, each containing a seed, convex on one side and angular on
the other. The Mangosteen is considered the ne plus ultra of all tropical fruits. The
astringent juice of the rind stains linen of an iron-rust color; and, when combined with
oxide of iron, makes a beautiful purple ink, which, when dry, has a brilliant gloss.

The Ramboutan ( Euphoria nephelium , the Nephelium lappaceum, L.), originally
introduced from Java, is much smaller in size, and more oblong, than the European
horse-chesnut, which it resembles externally ; but its bristles, instead of being green,
as in the latter, are beautifully tinged with crimson and yellow. The truit grows in
large clusters ; and the edible part of it is a pure white mucilaginous pulp, very cooling
and wholesome, and of a peculiarly pleasant sub-acid flavor.

The Nam-nam ( Cynometra cauliflora, L.), originally introduced from Malacca, grows
from the trunk and branches of the tree. It is flat and kidney-shaped, has the color
of a rip© russet apple and the flavor of a green one.

The Rose Apple ( Eugenia fragrans, L.), originally introduced from Java, partakes
both of the smell and flavor of the moss-rose, and has the color of an apricot. It is
sweeter, but as insipid to the taste, as the petals of the flower from which it derives
its English name.

The Sour-sop ( Annona muricata , L.), originally introduced from the Dutch settle¬
ment of Surinam, in Guiana, is extremely scarce. The pome grows to a large
size, and has a green murexed rind, which, at maturity, bursts and exposes its
woolly pulp, in appearance like wetted cotton. This has a pleasant sub-acid taste.
The creoles of the West Indies make a very choice liqueur from it, called, from the
French name of the tree, Corossol.

The Brazil Cherry ( Eugenia uniflora, L.) was introduced into Ceylon by myself,
from the governor’s garden at Reduit, Mauritius, in 1821. The French call it
Roussail. When ripe, it is about the size of a small green-gage plum, of a bright orange
color, ribbed like a melon, and has a peculiar but pleasant flavor.

The Grape ( Vitis vinifera, L.) was originally introduced from Goa, on the coast of
Malabar, by the Portuguese ; whose envoys, amongst other presents, carried grape

NATURALIZED EXOTIC FRUITS.

139

vines to the Rajah of Ceylon, which throve very well in Kandy. Knox mentions
both black and white grapes, in his account of Ceylon, published in 1681. The vine
flourishes better at JafFnapatam, than in any other part of the maritime provinces.

The Lo-quat ( Eriobotrya Japonica), originally introduced by the Dutch, from China
or Japan, is a small oblong fruit, of an apricot color. It grows in bunches, and
has a very agreeable sub-acid flavor. The flower has the exquisite perfume of the
hawthorn ( Crataegus odoratissima, L.) blossom.

The Star Apple (Chry sophy llum Cainito, L.) is an extremely scarce fruit, of a purple
color ; and when divided transversely, the pulp, which is very luscious, displays the
figure of a. star. The juice is white, and of the consistence of cream. It was
originally introduced by the Dutch from Surinam. I never saw but two or three speci¬
mens of this fruit, and these were sent me by the Count Van Ranzow, in 1820.

The Canary Almond ( Canarium communis, L.), originally introduced from Batavia by
the Dutch, is a very sweet nut, of superior flavor to the filbert, and yields a valuable oil.

The Lemon ( Citrus Limonum ) was originally introduced by the Portuguese ; but
the people take no trouble to cultivate it ; the more juicy lime ( Citrus limetta vulgaris )
being both indigenous and abundant.

The Bladder Cherry ( Physalis Alkahengi, L.) was introduced from the Cape of
Good Hope. When the flower drops, the calyx swells to the size of a small walnut,
and forms a pentagonal covering, blown out like a bladder, for the fruit, which is
about the size of a large white currant, and generally used for tarts. There is a wild
plant in Ceylon that greatly resembles this Physalis in appearance, but is most
nauseous to the taste.

The Fig ( Ficus Carica, L.), introduced by the Portpguese, grows freely, but
requires artificial caprification to ripen it. This is easily effected by the French
(Provence) plan of dipping an orange spine into olive oil, and gently puncturing the
fruit. The admission of atmospheric air soon causes the flower, which is within the
receptacle, to expand, and the fruit to ripen.

The Lovi-lovi, (as the Malays call it,) introduced from Amboyna by the Dutch, is like
the large red cherry in appearance. This fruit is very acid ; its pulp makes an excel¬
lent jelly, quite equal in flavor to red currant jelly ; and the tree altogether resembles
the cherry tree of Europe.

The Stripe-leaved ’Pine Apple ( Bromelia Ananas, variegata, L.) was originally
introduced by myself, from Mauritius, in 1821 ; the leaf is striped longitudinally
with light yellow or straw color, but the fruit is not better than that of the indi¬
genous species.

s 2

140

NATURALIZED EXOTIC FRUITS.

The Mandarin Orange ( Citrus nobilis, L.) was originally introduced from Java. Of
this delicious fruit there are three varieties ; one, about the size of a common orange,
having so very fine and loose a rind, that, if taken by the crown, the pulp is easily
shaken out of it ; the second sort is smaller, with a thicker rind ; and the third is
about the size of a golden pippin, and very luscious.

The Wampi (Cookia punctata, L.) was originally introduced from China, via Java,
and is rare. In shape, it resembles the Li-tchi of China ( Dimocarpus Litchi), but differs
in taste, the pulp of the former having a sub-acid, the latter a sweet flavor.

The Pomegranate ( Punica granatum, L.) was introduced by the Portuguese, from
Goa, and is abundant. The rind of the fruit is much employed by the native doctors,
and is in great esteem for its astringent properties.

The best Melons are produced from English and Persian seeds ; of the latter, the
sorts called Dampstia or Zamsksy, and the Geree or ostrich-egg, are the best. The
plants require no transplanting, but much shade.

The Strawberry ( Fragaria vesca, L.) ; and the Mulberry, of the white (Morus alba, L.),
black ( M . Indica, L.), and digitated ( M . digitata, L.) species, complete the list of
naturalized exotic fruits.

The Pine Apple ( Bromelia Ananas, L.), Anasi of the Singhalese, in greater abun¬
dance than variety. The White, and the Black (or Stpne) Pines, are the best ; but
the most common is .the Red or Orange Pine.

The Orange ( Citrus Aurantium, L.) is either of a deep green or of a russet color,
when perfectly ripe. This most cooling and delicious fruit is not excelled in flavor by
the best Barbary orange ; and, together with the lime ( Citrus limetta vulgaris), and
citron ( Citrus medica), is in the greatest abundance.

The Shadock or Pumplenose ( Citrus decumana, L.), both of the white and red
varieties, and of a very large size ; and there is a smaller species, which is very juicy,
but scarce.

The Guava ( Psidium pyriferum, L.) is found wild, walk where one may, near a
village ; but it is seldom cultivated. The fruit is cooling, and has the flavor of a
strawberry ; but, owing to the superabundance of its seeds, is best when stewed, or
made into a jelly. Its size and flavor are both easily improved by grafting.

The Papaw ( Carica Papya, L.) is a valuable fruit. There is a male, female, and
hermaphrodite Papaw tree. The female produces such a quantity of fruit, in clusters
round the stalk, for the depth of two or three feet between and beneath the fronds,
that nature forces off a great many, to afford room for the rest to ripen. The fruit
of the hermaphrodite tree is smaller, and more melon-shaped than that of the female

INDIGENOUS FRUITS

J 41

tree, and grows at the extremities of the dependent flower stalks. The white flowers
hang in long clusters, are very fragrant, and have a beautiful appearance. The Papaw
is somewhat pear-shaped, and ribbed longitudinally ; the rind is of a bluish-green
color, from which, upon the least puncture, drops of a milk-white liquid exude ; the
inside is of a bright orange color. The seeds lie closely united by a sort of gluten
in the cavity of the fruit, and are enveloped in a brownish-green pellicle ; these have
all the pungency of seeding cress (. Lepidium , L. and T.), and are a specific remedy
for the ill effects of too great indulgence in the fruit itself. The pulp is of a similar
nature to the flesh of a very ripe melon, and possesses the peculiar flavor of the
Tonquin bean. In a green state, the Papaw makes an excellent pickle, and sweetmeat ;
and, when boiled and mashed, is a substitute for the turnip, in places where the latter
is not to be procured ; this answers the purpose so very well, that it is in general
use at the tables of Europeans ; where, a leg of veal, doing duty for a leg of mutton,
is not very uncommon. The acrid juice of the green fruit is medicinally applied to
remove worts, and specks on the eyes ; and it is also considered efficacious in destroy¬
ing the ringworm. The odoriferous blossoms are so very wholesome, that no dread
need be entertained of having any number of these herbaceous trees near one’s resi¬
dence. Their growth is so rapid, that seedlings produce fruit in about six months.
The red-flowered, or dwarf variety (C. Posoposa ), common to the West Indies, is not
known in Ceylon.

The Mango ( Mangifera Indica, L.) comprises several varieties; but the large Jaffna
cordiform mango, the almond-shaped Matura mango, which is not more than one inch
and a half in length, and the kidney mango, about six or seven inches in length, are
the best ; the last grows in large pendent clusters. The common mango is stringy,
and has more of the turpentine flavor, peculiar to the genus, than the other sorts :
when green, it makes an excellent pickle ; the only purpose for which it is adapted.
There is also a species of the mango tree that produces no fruit ; this is called Coin-
ambo, or mango leaf, from which the town of Colombo is said to havb derived its, name :
and not, as some have averred, in honor of the celebrated Columbus.

The Custard Apple (Annona squamosa, L.) has a white pulp, so like custard, that
were it not for its black seeds, and a drop or two of noyeau were mixed with it, one
might be deceived to eat the natural for an artificial custard.

The Bullock’s Heart ( Annona reticulata, L.) is more luscious than the custard apple,
but not so delicate. From its resemblance to a heart, it was originally called Cicur de
Bceuf, by the French. A branch of the leaves, laid where there are bugs, will attract
them all, as I have proved by experience ; — this should be generally known, for these

142

INDIGENOUS FRUITS.

disgusting insects infest the chairs and sofas of many rest-houses, much to the
annoyance of the traveller.

The Bilimbing ( Averrhoa Bilimbi, L.), the Cherimelle. (A. acida, L.), and the Caram-
i)ole ( A . Carambola, L.), are three species of a very acid genus ; but they are excellent
tart fruits, and are also used in the native curries.

The Jack Fruit ( Artoccirpus integrifolia, L'.) is the largest the island produces. The
fruit grows from the body of the tree, and is sack-shaped, large, and heavy, occasionally
exceeding thirty pounds avoirdupois in weight. Its juice is an elastic substance, of a
milky white, and so tenacious, that it is used for the purposes of bird-lime. The pulp
is eaten in curries ; the luscious bright yellow and fleshy coverings of the seeds are
generally served at table in salt and water ; and the roasted seeds are used as substitutes
for chesnuts. The odour of this fruit is very fetid and diffusive.

The Bread Fruit ( Artocarpus incisa, L.) might more properly be classed among the
esculent vegetables ; for it can only be eaten after having undergone a culinary process.
It is by no means so palatable in the usual native way of currying every thing, as when
parboiled and baked, or boiled and served as a substitute for the artichoke, or fried in
thin slices : in this last way, it certainly resembles crisp pie-crust ; but, according to
my experience of its use for several years, and, I believe, in almost every way known
to the native cooks, I never could carry my imagination so far, as to agree in opinion
with those who describe the bread fruit as very like new bread, or (when baked whole)
hot rolls ; “ sed, de gustibus, nil disputandum ! ”

The St. Helena Almond ( Terminalia Catappa, L.), the Kattamba of the Singhalese,
is served at desserts ; it is extremely sweet and pleasant to the taste.

The Caffrarian Lime* ( Citrus tuberdides ) is occasionally preserved as a sweetmeat ;
but the principal use made of it by the Singhalese, is for cleaning their long black hair.
The entire fruit having been first boiled, is then mashed to the consistency of a thick
paste, which they rub well into the hair ; this, they aver, makes it hard, and the head
clean ; and, for the purpose of cleansing the hair of the pulp, the white and yolk of eggs,
beaten together, is employed as a succedaneum. Europeans call the fruit Caffrarian
Lime, and the Singhalese, Koodalodeye. The natives praise it for its various medicinal
properties ; but the most useful purpose to which I have seen it applied, is for curing
the bite of the diminutive but most troublesome Ceylon leech ( Hirudo Zeylanica).

The Jambo* (Eugenia Malaccensis, L.) is a beautiful and very juicy fruit ; of this
there are two varieties. The epidermis of the largest sort looks like white wax,

* For a fall account of these fruits, vide Bennett’s “ Fruits of Ceylon,” 4to. Wood, 1842.

INDIGENOUS FRUITS.

143

delicately tinged with red ; the other is nearly of the color of a half-ripe Orleans
Plum, with an occasional tinge of deep red, where the fruit has been most exposed to
the sun. The pome is juicy, cooling, and of an agreeable vinous flavor and smell ;
the latter partaking, but in a very slight degree, of the perfume of the Eugenia fra-
grans, L., or rose apple. It forms part of the usual dessert at European tables ; and
is also stewed or baked, after the manner of pears in Europe, and occasionally pre¬
served as a sweetmeat. In order to give it a pink or deeper red color, to resemble
baked pears, the native cooks employ the petals of the shoe-flower* ( Hybiscus rosa
Sinensis, var. duplex). The large bats, called flying foxes ( Vespertilio Vampyrus, L.),
are extremely partial to this fruit ; and, if the natives did not, in some measure, provide
against their night attacks, by stretching lines, attached to a bell, from branch to branch,
these destructive animals would devour the produce of a large tree in a few hours.

The Trefoil Limonia ( Triphosia Aurantiola ), the Macunje of the Singhalese, is a
little aromatic fruit, having the flavor of citron. When ripe, it is of a crimson color,
and is chiefly used for sweetmeats. There are two other indigenous species, T. mono -
pylla and T. acidissima.

The Plantain (Musa sapientum, L.) and Banana (M. Paradisiaca, L.). Of the former
there are sixteen varieties ; but the gigantic red ( Tanjore ), the green sugar (Madras),
and the speckled ( Tellicherry ) plantains are the best. The Hindo-Portuguese call the
plantain tree, the fig-tree ( Figuera ) of Paradise ; and very properly so, for one leaf of
it, wrapped round the loins, is sufficient for all the purposes of the strictest modesty ;
and if the plantain leaf split, it still hangs pendent in a double row from its mid-rib ;
and, when dry, is much tougher than in a green state. There is also a peculiarity
and virtue in the plantain leaf but little known ; and when we connect it with the
scriptural records, that our original parents “ sewed fig leaves together, and made
themselves aprons ; ” and observe the brittle substance of the common jig leaf, and then
examine the great size and substance of the plantain leaf, we shall be disposed to think
that instead of “ sewed fig leaves together,” the text should have been, “ they formed
aprons of fig leaves.” There is also a most wonderful provision of nature in the leaf
of the Musa ; the upper surface is of a glossy green, the under surface covered with
a sort of bloom ; the former is generally employed for healing blisters, the latter for
exciting them. The Divine intention might have been, for the upper or healing surface
to have been worn next the skin, and the under surface externally ; for if water be
thrown upon that surface, it runs off like globules of quicksilver.

* So called because its bruised petals are occasionally used as a substitute for blacking.

144

INDIGENOUS FRUITS.

In its green state, and roasted, the plantain is eaten in lieu of bread, and forms
a better substitute for it than the bread-fruit itself. It is also a general ingredient in
native curries ; and if it be dried in the sun and pulverized, and kept in closely-corked
bottles, it will retain its flavor for many years. This flour might also be made a valuable
article of domestic economy and of commerce. I first learnt to prepare it in the
West Indies, where it is called Congontay. The root of the plantain tree is also
edible ; but it is only the very poorest class of natives that makes use of it. The juice
of the herbaceous stalk, combined with oxide of iron, makes a fine blue-black dye.

The Cachew Apple* ( Anacardium occidentale, L.), th^ Cajhu of the Singhalese, is juicy
and of rather a spongy nature ; but has an unpleasant smell, which some people assimilate
to garlic. The apples that are most exposed to the sun, are largest and best, and are of
a bright yellow, variegated with red ; their juice is of a restringent acid flavor, but custom
soon reconciles one to its use, notwithstanding the temporary contraction of the skin
of the mouth, consequent upon eating the fruit. Dutch families occasionally manufacture
a superior spirit from the cachew apple, which some prefer, as a liqueur, (but not for
diluting with water,) to the best brandy. The cachew apple, stuck with cloves and
roasted, gives a peculiarly delicious flavor to arrack punch ; and its juice may be used for
marking linen ; for by the application of lime water upon the writing, after it is dry,
the color becomes black. The kernel of the nut, which grows from the crown of the
apple, is eaten both in a green and dry state ; but the natives roast the ripe nut, in order
to get rid of the hard acrid pellicle that envelopes it. The nut-shell contains a
powerful oil, which might be usefully employed for a variety of purposes, and particu¬
larly as a varnish to wood, for the white ant ( Termes ) will never attack any thing be¬
smeared with it. In some instances, I have seen the leaf of this tree so much like
that of the jack tree, that I could scarcely tell the one from the other ; and in two
specimens, brought to me at the same time, by a native doctor, the fruits were unusu¬
ally large and alike in shape and color, but the distinction of the leaf was so remarkable
that I made drawings of both. I have heard, that as much gas may be obtained from
an ounce of the nut-shells, as from three pounds of the best coal ; but as no known
authority was given for the assertion, it must be considered altogether hypothetical for
the present.

* The gum of this tree has been already described in page 129.

CHAP. XVIII.

Indigenous fruits continued : Ghorka — Champaka — Kirila — Marsan Apple — Jar Plum — Wood Apple — Khon —
Tamarind— Pharaoh' s Fig — Rattan Fruit — Ceylon Olive — Melon — Slime Apple — Myrobolams — Red and yellow
fleshed Water Melons - Esculent vegetables : Horseradish tree — Kallaloo — Purslane — Spinach — Jerusalem Arti¬

choke — White Radish — Asparagus — Indian Corn — Gourds — Sorrel — Bamboo sprouts — Beans — Carpintchee leaf —
Brinjals — Suggestions to the English market-gardener — Cress — Lettuce — Celery — Endive — Beet — Carrots — Cucum¬
bers — Cabbage — Bandika — Parsley — Mint — Borage — Roots — Sweet Potato — Yam — Iris — Moon-flower — White
and red Water Lilies— Eschelot — Garlic — Capsicum — Tomato — Snake Gourd — Sour Gourd — Mushroom — Nol-col —
Red Soirel — Green Pea — Arrow Root ; Difference between that of Ceplon and Bombay — Sweet Fennel — Ginger —
Illepei — Bird’s-nest Cucumber — Tala — Carraway Seed — Fenugreek — Sweet Sorrel — Cardamoms — Mustard —
Guinea or 1 Igeon Pea, supplied to the royal navy in the Indian seas, under the name of Dhol, as a substitute
for pease — Rice, and other grain ; Native Agriculturists deficient in the selection of the best species.

The Ghorka ( Cambogia gutta, L.). This fruit is round and ribbed like a rock melon,
and of the size of the Mangosteen ; but, although somewhat resembling it in flavor, the
Ghorka has a great degree of acidity, which the former has not. There are two sorts of
this fruit, the red and the yellow ; but the latter is the most pleasant to the taste ; and,
when cut transversely, the pulp resembles in shape, and is divided into lobes, like that
of the Mangosteen ; but instead of being white, as in the latter, it partakes of the
color of its own epidermis. That the Ghorka is not sufficiently esteemed by Euro¬
peans, may arise from its cooling and wholesome properties not being so generally
known as they deserve to be. The natives dry the rind in the sun, and employ it in
their curries ; and their doctors prescribe the yellow concrete juice of the tree, which
is the gumboge of our dispensaries, in dropsical, cutaneous, and leprous cases.

The Champaka ( Michelia Champaca, L.). This elegant fruit grows in clusters, like
grapes. The saffron-colored flowers are much esteemed by the Buddhists, it being
their sacred color, and the robes of their priesthood are of. that hue. Devotees make
offerings of these flowers to Buddha.

The Kirila of the Singhalese ( Sonneratia acida, L.) is, as its Linnaean name implies,
a very acid fruit, but is eaten by the natives. Linnaeus describes it as “ sitting on the
expanded permanent calyx, globular, smooth, succulent, and many-celled.” The most
useful parts of the tree are the straight and conical roots : these strike upwards in the
water, the habitat of the tree being marshy places. At one time, during the war,

T

146

INDIGENOUS FRUITS.

the Dutch being driven to great straits for corks, brought the elastic roots into general
use as a substitute ; and I have occasionally employed them for the same purpose.

The Marsan Apple ( Zisyphus spinosus, L.), Wal-Hambilla of the Singhalese, resem¬
bles the Siberian crab in shape, but is larger, and yellow instead of red. The tree
grows rapidly, and its branches and leaves are so beset with spines, that a more
admirable production for fences cannot well be imagined.

The Jar Plum ( Calyptrmthes Jambolana, L.), Maden of the Singhalese, is of an
oblong shape, about the size of a half-grown damson, and of a purple color, but reddish
within. It yields a milky juice, of insipid sweetness.

The Wood Apple ( Cratceva Marmelos, L.), Bell gaha of the Singhalese. The
pulp is yellow, and covered with a hard rind, which has the smell of a ripe apricot.
It is not liked at first, but one soon becomes partial to it. The Dutch and Portuguese
distil an exquisite cosmetic from the rind and blossom, called Marmelle water, and
the Singhalese doctors employ the leaves for curing inflammations and pains in the
head and ears.

The Khon or Koang (a species of Dimocarpus ) grows in clusters. It is like the
Wampi ( Cookia punctata, L.) in shape, and has a slightly acid pulp. The tree, at a
short distance, resembles the oak.

The Tamarind ( Tamarindus Indica, L.) is common and abundant. The method of
preserving this acid fruit is very simple ; the pods having been shelled, the pulp (inclos¬
ing the seeds) is laid in jars, over which boiling sugar is poured, and the jars are then
closely covered. The native doctors prescribe tamarind water in fevers, and a decoction
of the leaves, as a vermifuge.

Pharaoh’s Fig ( Ficus Sycamorus, L.). This is smaller than the common fig ( Ficus
Carica, L.), and grows in masses from the branches and body of the tree, but is only fit
for preserving. The wood is of the most durable nature, and is supposed to have been
that which was employed by the ancient Egyptians for the coffins of their mummies.

The Rattan fruit ( Calamus rotang, L.) grows in clusters, and has a very pretty
appearance. It is covered with small gold-colored scales ; the pulp is gelatinous, and
of a pleasant acid flavor ; but the cane itself is of very inferior quality to the rattan
of Batavia.

The Ceylon Olive ( Eleocarpus serratus of Loureiro), Wierelu of the Singhalese,
resembles the Spanish olive in size, shape, and color. It is edible, but has a mealy
and acid pulp.

The native Melon ( Kekirya of the Singhalese) is a tasteless fruit ; probably degene¬
rated by an alliance with the cucumber, which it resembles in shape.

INDIGENOUS FRUITS.

147

The Slime Apple ( Embryoptoris glutinifera), Maha Timbiri of the Singhalese, is one
of the wild fruits that are eaten by the natives. The tree yields a medicinal gum,
which is esteemed by their doctors. Carpenters use it as a substitute for glue.

Myrobolams ( Myrobolanus Zeylanicus), Kaekuna of the Singhalese, who are almost
as partial to it as the monkies ; but these animals generally contrive to get the best
share. A soft, resinous, concrete juice, of a whitish yellow, inclining to a greenish
hue, and somewhat transparent, exudes from the tree ; this has a strong but not
unpleasant odour, and is the gum Elemi of commerce.

The Water Melon ( Cucurbita Citrullus, L.), both of the red-fleshed and yellow-
fleshed sorts, is not so abundant as might be expected, which arises from an indifference
to its culture by the natives. It grows very rapidly in sandy soil, and might be culti¬
vated to advantage for feeding cattle ; for it attains an enormous size. I have seen
water melons thirty two inches in length, and twenty eight in girth ; these are
naturally insipid, but very cooling in their nature. The Persians and Arabians cut
the fruit, transversely, at one end ; and then bruize the pulp, with a long piece of
bamboo cane, shaped like a paper knife : they then add to the juice, lemon acid and
sugar, and thus prepare a very grateful and wholesome sherbet.

Of the esculent vegetables there is an abundance, exclusively of the number already
noticed in the preceding pages ; and, among the best, may be classed the following.

The green capsule of the Horseradish tree ( Guiland'ma Moringa, L.), Merikulumulu
of the Singhalese, (a long triangular siliquose, containing, in its cavities, several angular,
alated seeds,) is so delicate and wholesome, that parents who object to their children
partaking of other vegetables, allow a free use of it, because it is entirely devoid
of flatulent properties. The leaves and flowers, which are also edible, are much
esteemed by the natives ; and the root, as a substitute for horseradish, by Europeans ;
for, with a sweeter taste, it has equal pungency, and the same flavor. A very powerful
oil, considered efficacious in rheumatism, and in the Barheers, or, as it is locally called
“ a stroke of the land wind,” is extracted from the seeds ; and the native doctors pre¬
scribe decoctions of the root in fevers and paralysis. The gum is of a reddish hue,
and is used as a substitute for gum Tragacanth.

The country Kale, or Kallaloo {Amar ant hits sanguineus, and A. viridis, L.). The
young stalks are dressed and served as asparagus, and the leaves have much of the
flavor of the English spinach ( Spinacia oleracea, L.). This esculent might be improved
in England by the hot-bed ; and if once introduced into use, it would doubtless
become a favourite table vegetable, instead of merely occupying a place in the flower
garden, as it now does.

t 2

148

ESCULENT VEGETABLES.

The Purslane ( Portulaca oleracea, L.) in the greatest abundance and variety.

Two varieties of a mucilaginous vegetable, called Brettale by the Portuguese, and
Spinach by the English. One is a dwarf, the other of rapid growth, and propagated
so easily by cuttings, that within four months it will cover a cottage.

The Jerusalem Artichoke ( Helianthus tuberosus, L.). This thrives well in sandy
soil, and produces roots equal in size and flavor to the best specimens of European
horticulture.

The White Radish ( Raphanus sativus, L.) attains a large size, without getting coarse
or fibrous ; and is served, a la Hollandaise, as a substitute for asparagus ( Asparagus
officinalis, L.), which latter is much neglected, although it attains maturity in about
six months.

The Indian Corn ( Zea Mays, L.) grows everywhere, and is increased in size by
topping the plant, soon after the beard appears, at the joint immediately above the
glume. In its green state, it is parboiled whole, and then fried or devilled for the
table ; and, when ripe, it is ground into farina for various domestic purposes.

Of the Gourd genus there is a great variety, but the indigenous sorts are smaller
than the European. The most common are — the pumpkin ( Cucurbita pepo, L.), cala¬
bash (C. lagenaria), egg-gourd ( C . ovifera ), and squash (C. Melopepo).

A species of Sorrel, called Suree by the Singhalese, with no perceptible difference
in taste from the English sorrel ( Rumex acetosa, L.) ; but the classes and orders differ,
the former being of class Hexandria, and order Monogynia ; the latter of class Hex-
andria, and order Trigynia.

The young sprouts of the Bamboo ( Arundo Bambos, L.) are excellent, either as
a table vegetable, or pickled in the Singhalese manner.

Beans are in great variety, including the Sabre Bean ( Dolichos ensiformis, L.), Three-
lobed Bean (Z). trilobus, L.), called Binne by the Singhalese ; Lablab Bean (Z). Lab-
lab, L.), China Bean ( D . Sinensis, L.), Four-lobed Bean ( D . tetragonolobus, L.), Awned
Bean (Z). aristatus, L.), Kidney Bean ( Phaseolus vulgaris, L.) ; and also of the genus
Phaseolus they have the following varieties, according to the native list of them, —
Adsaryapala, Actokola, Avorapolu , Bumum, Bunkde, Hindamini, Joywya, Kiripuswal,
Maemung, Maha-wampala, Meekaree, Mam, Meang, Alundumala, Wal-undoo, Wal-undoo-
wal, Wal-unae, Wandoroome.

The leaf of the Carpintchee of the Singhalese ( Cookia Anisetta, L.) is greatly esteemed
for the peculiar flavor it imparts to the native curries ; and, when properly dried,
retains its aromatic properties.

The Brinjal ( Solatium Alelongena, L.) includes the Egg-shaped, Green, and Purple

ESCULENT VEGETABLES.

149

varieties, and is so generally esteemed, throughout India, among the very best of table
esculents, that no description of mine can add to its praise. Where is the “ East
Indian ” to whom a prawn and brinjal curry would not be a truly welcome dish in any
part of the world ; or the brinjal itself, whether sliced transversely and fried plain, or
divided longitudinally and cooked a /’ ecrivisse ? Nevertheless, this nutritious esculent,
although everywhere plentiful in Spain and Portugal, is never to be procured, ex¬
cept of the egg variety, in Covent Garden or other English markets, and then only in
flower-pots ; — this is the more strange, because the numerous families from the East and
West Indies, would ensure a profitable sale of it, by the speculative gardener. The
best sorts of it are the Green and Purple Brinjal, called by the Spaniards Beringena
(pronounced Berinkena). The wild Prickly-stem Brinjal is edible, but so full of seeds,
that it is used only by the poorest natives.

The Water and Garden Cress, Lettuce, Celery, Endive, (which latter grows remark¬
ably large, and is usually bleached by covering it with pan-tiles). Beet, Carrots, and
Cucumbers from English seed, are only procurable from private gardens. The country
Cucumber has a smooth epidermis, is very common, and attains maturity within six
weeks from sowing the seed. The natives never transplant cucumber or melon plants.

The Cabbage ( Brassica ) genus does not attain perfection in the maritime provinces,
but in the interior it equals the best specimens of English horticulture.

The Bandika of the Singhalese (Hybiscus esculentus, L.) is mucilaginous and whole¬
some ; and, if dried in the sun and pulverized, it may be taken to any part of the
world, and made a valuable article of commerce. If once admitted into our English
cookery, it would soon establish a character for itself. I never saw the flour prepared in
Ceylon, except by myself, and I first learnt its valuable properties in the West Indies.

The Parsley ( Apium Petroselium, L.) is common enough, and procurable in the prin¬
cipal bazaars, as well as Mint ( Mentha sativa, L.), and Borage ( Borago Zelanica, L.).

The Singhalese cultivate a variety of esculent roots, chiefly of the genus Arum ;
but, with the exception of the Purple-stalked Dragon (Dracontium polyphullum, L.), Kana
Kidahran of the Singhalese, and the Habarelle of the Singhalese ( Arum Macrorhizum,
A. esculentum, and A. Peregrinum , L.), I have only been able to obtain a few of the
native names for them, namely, Kandclle, Kocconalle, Kaccotooralle, Dekehalle, Gahalle,
Engurale, Jambowalle, Javakalle, Junalle, Kidakaran, Ratalle, and Welhalle : all these
are planted in May, and become ripe in June.

The leaf of the Arum esculentum is a wholesome vegetable, when dressed as spinach.

The Sweet Potato ( Convolvulus Batatas, L.) is much cultivated. The leaf affords a
fattening fodder for domestic animals, and deer are also partial to it.

150

ESCULENT VEGETABLES.

The Purple Yarr ir(Dioscorea bulbifera, L.) is very farinaceous, and generally grows
from eight to twelve pounds in weight ; the stalks, when entwined round some neigh¬
bouring tree, have a pretty appearance, and produce small yams of the size of a mode¬
rate potato ; these are white, but not so farinaceous as the root. Owing to the great
length of time it takes to ripen, this root is but little cultivated.

The edible Iris (Iris edulis, L.). The first plant I ever saw in Ceylon, was from a
root that had been accidently sent me with some almonds from the Cape of Good
Hope ; and from its offsets I raised sufficient for use. It is a very wholesome esculent,
delights in a sandy soil, and is well worthy of extensive culture.

The green capsules of the Moon-flower (Ipomea bona nox, L.) make excellent
pickles and curries.

The root and corol of the White and Red Water Lilies ( Nymphcea alba and N.
Nelumbo, L.) are both edible ; the latter has a strong almond flavor. Both are whole¬
some ; particularly the large white sort, or Egyptian bean. The petals, root, and
pulpy pericarp, are equally esteemed, and very nutritious.

The Eschelot ( Allium ascalonicum, L.), and Garlic (Allium Sativum, L.), are exten¬
sively cultivated, being indispensable ingredients in the native cookery.

Of Capsicums, there is a great variety, including the Capsicum frutescens, of which
Cayenne pepper is made ; and the C. annuum, C. grossum, C. baccatum, C. purpureum,
C. minimum , and C. Caffrariensis, L.

The Common and Cape Tomato ( Solanum Ly coper sicum, L.) are cultivated pretty
generally in the gardens of Europeans.

The Snake Gourd ( Cucumis anguinus, L.). The native cooks take out the pulp, and
stuff the gourd with minced meat.

The Sour Gourd, Angelica of the Singhalese, is common, and is said to be a variety
of the Monkey-bread (Adansonia digitata, L.). The tree attains a very large size ;
but it appeared to me more like a variety of the Artocarpus incisa, L. The fruit is
oblong and cucumber-shaped, with a woolly epidermis. It has an acid taste, and
produces a quantity of small round seeds.

The Mushroom (Agaricus, L.) is in variety and plentiful, on plains where buffalos
graze ; these fungi are generally of the esculent species, and of a large size. The
best are the Agaricus deliciosus, A. campestris, and A. Georgii. The natives prefer the
latter, with its white foldlets, to the red sort, or Campestris. I have seen the last
species, upon the plains between Wanderope and Hambantotte, in the southern pro¬
vince, fourteen inches in diameter ; but it is only during, or soon after, the rainy
season, that they are to be procured.

ESCULENT VEGETABLES.

151

The Turnip Cabbage, or Nol-col ( Khol-rabi ) is an excellent vegetable, and grows
well throughout the island, from Cape seeds.

The calyx of the Indian Red Sorrel ( Hibiscus sabdariffa, L.) is made into a jelly,
which is scarcely to be distinguished, either in color or flavor, from that made from
the red currant of Europe.

The Green Pea ( Pisum sativum, L.) grows freely, with proper attention to its cul¬
ture, but it requires to be transplanted ; and the plant, when about, four feet high,
should be topped.

The Arrow Root (Mar ant a arundinacea, L.) is extensively cultivated at the Church
Missionary station at Baddegamme, in the southern province, and prepared in a similar
manner to potato starch in this country. Ceylon was formerly supplied with it from
Bombay, where it is made of the Koray Kalung of Malabar (Curcuma angustifolia, L.),
which is very inferior to the true Arrow Root (Maranta arundinacea, L.) ; this has
been so extensively cultivated for the last twenty years, that the island now produces
abundance for home consumption, and for exportation.

The Sweet Fennel (Nigella sativa), Kaluduru of the Singhalese, abounds.

The Common Ginger (Amomum Zingiber), Ingoroo of the Singhalese. Green ginger
is a general ingredient in curries, and distinguished from dry ginger by the name of
Ammu-ingoroo. The native doctors prescribe an embrocation made of the juice of
the former, conjointly with new coco-nut oil, for rheumatism, and it is a most
efficacious remedy.

The Illepei (Bassia longifolia, L.). Every part of the Illepei tree is useful : the flowers
are edible, after having been first dried, and then roasted ; the ripe fruit is eaten by the
poorer classes ; a decoction of the bark, and also of the leaves, is used medicinally ;
a valuable oil is made from the ripe and unripe fruit ; from the former, when required
as a substitute for clarified (buffalo’s) butter, or Ghee ; and from the latter, for medi¬
cinal purposes. After it becomes rancid, it is thicker than coco-nut oil, and emits a
most disagreeable smell, when used in lamps ; but it is chiefly employed in the manu¬
facture of country soap.

The Bird’s-nest Cucumber (Alomordica cylindrica, L.), Vetta Koloo of the Singhalese,
grows like the cucumber, and is deserving of particular notice. In a green state,
it is used in curries ; and when dry, if cut transversely, its inside, which has the
smell of honey, consists of longitudinal and transverse fibres, beautifully interwoven,
and forming three cells the whole length of the fruit. These are full of round
black seeds ; and the native doctors form a decoction of the fibre, which they use
as an emetic.

152

ESCULENT VEGETABLES.

The Tala plant ( Sesamum orientate , L.), a species of Digitalis. The seeds yield a
wholesome and aromatic oil, called Gingili oil by the Singhalese, who use it both for
culinary and medicinal purposes.

The Indian Carraway Seed ( A net hum graveolens), Sattacupa of the Singhalese.

The Fenugreek ( Trigonella f cerium Grecurri), Oloowa of the Singhalese, is generally
used in their condiments.

The Sweet Sorrel ( Anethum fceniculurn), Dewaduru of the Singhalese, abounds.

The Greater Cardamom ( Amomurn grana Paradisi, L.), and the Lesser Cardamom
( Eletaria cardamomum, L.), Ensal of the Singhalese, are used in the native condiments,
and by the ladies, for sweetening the breath, after meals ; a very necessary succeda-
neum to the free use of garlic.

The Mustard ( Sinapis orientalis, L.), Raumanissa of the Singhalese, is extensively
cultivated. It is very insipid, being destitute of the pungency of the European white
mustard ( Sinapis alba, L.), which is largely imported. The most luxuriant crops are
produced on the banks of rivers.

The Guinea Pea ( Citysus Cajan, L.), Tovaray of the Malabars, thrives best in a
sandy soil. It is a triennial ; rapid in growth, prolific in produce, and a succession
of plants is easily obtained ; for, from the force with which, upon the bursting of the
legume, the seeds (little oblong yellow peas) are scattered, they rapidly vegetate, under
the shade of the parent shrub. Cattle, poultry, and pigeons, are extremely partial
to it ; and, in some countries, it is called the Pigeon Pea. It is an excellent substi¬
tute for pease on shipboard, and is supplied to the navy in the East Indies under
the name of Dhol.

The native agriculturists are deficient in the selection of the best species of Rice
( Oryza Sativa, L.) and other grain. As the culture of these has been extended,
numerous varieties have formed ; indeed, the several seasons of cultivation, and differ¬
ence of soil, have multiplied them into an almost endless variety.

J. W. Bennett del.

Citrus tuberoides

or

Caffrarian Lime

>

Koodalodeye of the
Singhalese

CHAP. XIX.

Western Province — Maritime capital — Master attendant's directions for the guidance of ships to the an
chorage in Colombo roads — Sand bank — Drunken sailor rock — Adam's Peak — Pilotage — Fort of Colombo —
Queens house — Library — Officers of the garrison without quarters — Parsees — Pettah — Schools — Hindo-Portugvese
and Dutch families — Black-eyed belles — Government clerks — Garrison of Colombo — Face of the country — Soil —
Slave Island — Lake of Colombo — The Tamarind tree — Panorama of Colombo — Bazaars well supplied — News¬
papers — Etiquette upon arrival — A British merchant — Horticultural society — Mail coach establishment — Widows'
and orphans' fund — Savings bank — Charitable institutions — General wish for a Ceylon bank.

The Western Province is bounded on the north by the Pomparipo river and North¬
ern Province, on the south by the river Gindurah and part of the Southern Province,
on the east by the Central Province, extending to within a short distance of Kandy,*
and on the wrest by the sea. Its principal towns and villages are, — Colombo, Negombo,
Chilaw, Putlam, Calpentyn, Galkisse, Pantura, Kaltura, and Barberyn, on the sea,
and Kornegalle and Ruamvelle in the interior.

Colombo, the maritime capital and seat of government, is situate in latitude 6° 57
north, and longitude 79° 56' east, distant about six leagues S. S. W. from Negortibo.
The bottom between these places is chiefly mud, with regular soundings ; but the coast
should not be approached close, on account of some rocks stretching out about two
miles from the north point of the Kalane river, here called the Mutwal ; and in passing
along shore, a ship should keep in ten or twelve fathoms, and may anchor in Colombo
road in six-and-a-half or seven fathoms, with the flag-staff or light-house in the fort
bearing from S. to S. by E., off the towrn one-and-a-half or twro miles.

Mr. Steuart, master attendant of Colombo, gives the following useful information
for the guidance of ships to the anchorage.

“ A brilliant light now exhibited from a light-house in the fort every night, which
is ninety seven feet above the level of the sea, will direct ships approaching the road.
Ships requiring pilots, should make the usual signal, to be conducted to the anchorage,
which is free from foul ground, and now frequented at all seasons of the year, as a
severe gale of wind is seldom experienced here.

“ The best berth during the S. W. monsoon, from April to October, is in from seven
to eight fathoms, with the light-house bearing S. by E. half E., and the Dutch church
E. by S. In the N. E. monsoon, from November to April, it is more convenient to
anchor in six-and-a-half fathoms, with the light-house bearing S. or S. half E., and

u

154

SAILING DIRECTIONS TO THE ANCHORAGE OF COLOMBO.

the Dutch church E. S. E. In the night, when proceeding into the r<*ad, bring the
light of the fort light-house to bear S. by E. or S. half E., and anchor in eight or
nine fathoms, about half a mile off shore.

“ The bar is a bank of sand, with seven feet of water on its shoalest part, the
northern extremity being about four hundred yards N. W. of the custom-house point.
Small vessels, drawing less than ten feet of water, ride within the bar, protected from
the sea and S. W. wind. The sea breaks heavy on the bar in bad weather, rendering
the crossing it, from the shipping in the outer road, dangerous for small boats. The
native boats usually pass out and in to the southward of the bar, close to the breakers
on the rocky point of the custom-house ; which, being a narrow pass, should not be
attempted by strangers, when the sea breaks on the bar. It is best to proceed round
to the northward of the bar, which is easily distinguished by the breakers. Some
rocks, projecting from the custom-house point, ought to be avoided in passing.

“ The Drunken Sailor Rock, bearing by compass about S. W. by W. half W. from
the light-house, distant one thousand yards, is very dangerous, being situated in the
track of ships coming from the southward, when bound into Colombo road in the
N. E. monsoon, for the sea does not break upon it in fine weather ; and even in the
S. W. monsoon it is not always visible, for at times only a small white roller can be
perceived to rise over it once in six or eight minutes. According to the statement
of Lieut. Colonel Wright, of the royal engineers, who examined this rock, it is of an
oval shape, twenty or thirty feet in circumference, having only three-and-a-half feet
of water on its summit at low tide, and about six at high water, with nine fathoms
very near it, and eight or nine fathoms between it and the shore. This must refer to
the shoalest patch only at its southern part, because Mr. Steuari found not less than
seven feet on it at low water, and he estimated the ledge to be one hundred yards in
length, and 20 yards in breadth. Several ships have passed very close to the Drunken
Sailor, ignorant of its existence ; and others have even passed between it and the
shore, without knowledge of the danger, which is avoided in coming from the south¬
ward, by keeping in eleven or twelve fathoms water, until the flag-staff bears E. or
E. by S.”

Ships, late in the season, ought to anchor well out, to be enabled to proceed to sea
in case of necessity. The barque Ceylon, Captain Francis Davison, did not arrive at
Colombo till the beginning of June, 1827, and continued taking in cargo until the
26th, when she sailed for England. During the month there had been much rain,
thunder, and lightning, the weather latterly threatening, with a heavy swell from the
south-westward, which was followed by a gale of wind soon after the Ceylon had left
the anchorage.

FACE OF THE COUNTRY NEAR COLOMBO— FORT— QUEEN’S HOUSE.

155

The land about Colombo is low near the sea, with some hills to the south-eastward,
a little way in the country. The high mountain, having on it a sharp cone, called
Adam’s Peak, is nearest to this part of the coast, being about two-thirds of the dis¬
tance that it is from the east side of the island. Captain Ross, the Honorable East
India Company’s marine surveyor, in January, 1824, made Adam’s Peak eighteen-
and-a-quarter mile^ east of Point de Galle flag-staff, by angles taken with the theodo¬
lite. Adam’s Peak is in latitude 6° 52|' north, and bears E. seven degrees S. from
Colombo, distant twelve-and-a-half leagues. When the atmosphere is very clear, it
may be seen about thirty leagues ; but this seldom happens, excepting in the N. E.
monsoon, dense vapours generally prevailing over the island during the S. W. monsoon.

A steep bank of coral, about half a mile broad, having fifteen fathoms water on it,
lies seven miles west of Colombo, stretching a few miles to the southward, and in a
northerly direction towards Negombo, where its surface is sand. The water deepens
at once to twenty three fathoms outside the bank, and to twenty eight fathoms greenish
sand at two miles distance, which is not far from the edge of soundings. Within the
bank are twenty five fathoms, gradually shoaling towards the shore.

Pilotage is not now charged at Colombo, as it formerly was, unless a pilot be employed ;
and in that case the charge, according to the most recent regulation of the governor
and councils, is 15s.

The fort of Colombo is an irregular octagon, built upon a rocky peninsula, which
projects considerably into the sea, and may be easily insulated. As it is not com¬
manded in any direction, and is strong by nature and art, this fortress, adequately
provisioned and garrisoned, may be considered tenable for a long time against a large
force by sea and land. The main or King’s street is wide and well planted with umbra¬
geous tulip ( Hibiscus Zeilanicus, L.) and bread-fruit trees, and several of the best houses
have gardens for shrubs and flowers in their front, and coach-houses and stables in theii
rear. The streets are well watered during the day, and the fallen foliage is regularly
removed every .morning and evening. One may walk from either extremity of the fort
to the other, in the heat of the day, without being incommoded by the sun’s rays.

The governor’s residence is styled the Queen’s house ; nearly opposite to which is
the Colombo library and reading room, well supplied with books upon every scientific
and amusing subject ; periodical publications from Europe and the Indian continent,
army and navy lists, and newspapers. The situation of the library, which is consider¬
ably elevated above the street, and with its spacious verandah delightfully shaded by
umbrageous trees, and exposed to the sea breeze, presents an agreeable lounge during
the heat of the day.

It is?certainly an anomaly for officers of regiments forming the garrison of a fortress

u 2

156

GARRISON OFFICERS WITHOUT QUARTERS— PARSEES— PETTAH.

in India, to be necessitated to hire houses, (for there are no lodgings,) where by right,
if not by custom, they are entitled to free quarters ; but, notwithstanding the great
reductions that have taken place, in the course of the last twenty years, in their colo¬
nial, or, as it is locally called, “ island allowance,” its present very limited amount
is expected to cover all the expenses of lodging, fuel, and candlelight. The prospect
of free quarters at Colombo is extremely distant : but if ever the day arrive for the
town to be in a state of siege, officers will be sure of having choice of all the best
houses in the fort, for those chiefly in request at the present time, would then be the
most exposed to all the varieties of shot, shell, and rockets.

Several respectable Parsee tradesmen are settled in the fort and pettah of Colombo ;
they are all connected with the Bombay trade, from which island they receive supplies
during the south-west monsoon, and make their returns, chiefly in produce, during the
north-east monsoon ; and, as their custom is elsewhere, they occupy houses as near
as possible to each other.

Notwithstanding the hopelessness of discovering who the so called Par sees are, or
from what nation descended, it must be admitted that they are a most inoffensive and
industrious race, and strict in the observance of their religious rites, as prescribed by
Zoroaster or Zerdhusht, the founder of the religion of the Magi, which admitted the
existence of two principles — the cause of all good, and the cause of all evil. These
Parsees worship one Supreme Being, under the most glorious symbol, the sun ; and
venerate fire, as the type of that grand source of light and heat.

The Pettah, or black town, as it is called in Indian parlance, lies on the north side
of the fort of Colombo, upon the margin of the sea, and consists of two principal
streets, intersected at right angles by cross streets, in all which the houses are sub¬
stantially built with Kabooc or iron-stone. Several of these streets have a row of trees
on each side, chiefly of the Guilandina Moringa , Hibiscus Zeilanicus ( Soorya gaha of the
Singhalese), Hibiscus albemoschus ( Kapu Kinaisa gaha), or JHelia sempervirens ( Kas -
sambu gaha). The town has a large and airy hospital, leper hospital, public library, and
several boys’ and girls’ schools ; namely, the Colombo academy, St. Paul’s schools,
Dutch consistorial school, Hulfsdorp school, and St. Thomas’s schools ; all which are
under the patronage of the government, and contain about one thousand scholars,
of both sexes.

The Hindo-Portuguese and Dutch families, the descendants of European connexions
with native ladies, are an intelligent and respectable community ; but altogether dis¬
tinct from British society, except upon certain public or pell-7iiell occasions. The
ladies, when young, are generally pretty, and marriageable at an early age ; but it is
only in the evening, at which time the streets are watered, the air cool after the

HINDO-PORTUGUESE .AND DUTCH FAMILIES— GOVERNMENT CLERKS. 157

burning heat of the day, and scarcely a bullock bandy, out of the hundreds that pass
and repass between sunrise and sunset, to be seen, that these black-eyed belles display
their pretty little figures in the verandahs or stoups of their paternal residences. Habited
in the newest London or Paris fashions, but in the chaste and becoming native style
as regards the hair, these brunettes display the latter ornament, with which nature has
blessed them with a profusion, to the greatest advantage, aided by the natural beauty
of the fragrant flowers of the yellow and white Ceylon jessamine, Arabian jessamine,
Moosrie ( Nerium coroncifiim ), tuberose ( Polyanthes tuberosa ), Champaka ( Michelia
Champaka ), and occasionally the starry corols of the Mimusops Elengi, L., which they
intersperse with, and by way of contrast to, their jet black ringlets.

These families are all styled, and have the privilege of, “ Europeans,” in the supreme
and minor courts of justice. English officers have occasionally intermarried with the
offspring of such Dutch and Portuguese connexions, but it is a rare occurrence.

The government clerks are selected from these families, and manage all the clerical
duties of the public offices in an admirable manner ; and fortunate it is that their
economical habits of life enable them to support their families upon their scanty and
altogether inadequate pay. Their great claims upon the consideration of Her Majesty’s
secretary of state for the colonies are just and strong, for there is not a public depart¬
ment in the United Kingdom in which the details of office and punctuality \in attend¬
ance are more regularly performed than in Ceylon ; and whatever may be the difference
expected from gentlemen doing duty as clerks in the former, in point of dress, appear¬
ance, and society, even then the difference is in the greatest degree invidious, and the
balance too great against the latter. The pay of Ceylon clerks bear no fair proportion
to that of English civil servants ; for there is no such an existing anomaly in this
country, where, in the treasury for instance, the secretaries may have 2000/. a year,
for the junior clerk to have only 22/. 10s. a year; but in Ceylon, where the vice¬
treasurer has 1750/. a year, the chief clerk has but 250/. a year, the first clerk 63/..
and the junior 22/. 10s. — In the colonial department, where an under secretary of state
has but 1500/. a year, which is 500/. a year less than that of the colonial secretary at
Ceylon, what would the junior clerk think of 30/. a year, which is the salary of his
contemporary in the colonial secretary’s office at Ceylon : and in the auditor and
accountant-general’s office, where the head of the department has 1750/. a year, the
junior clerk receives but 31/. 10s. — By these data, a fair judgment may be formed
of the inadequacy of the salary of the clerks, and their relative disproportion to the
emoluments of the heads of departments.

The general and disgusting habit of masticating betel, obtains among the elder
ladies, and the young folks will clandestinely enjoy it. At their parties, the formei

158

GARRISON OF COLOMBO— ADAM’S PEAK— SLAVE ISLAND.

range themselves in chairs against the walls of the rooms, in a straight line, as if
drilled into it to the command of “ eyes right ” or “ eyes left,” and by the side of each
chair stands a well-polished brass spittoon, for the reception of the blood-colored saliva
which the Pawn produces ; whilst the middle is occupied by the latter, for quadrilling
and contre-dancing.

The garrison of Colombo consists of two regiments of the line, the head quarters
of the Ceylon rifle corps, a company of artillery, with a proportion of engineers,
and the requisite medical and military staff, together with a small troop of mounted
orderlies, and a body of gun Lascars.

The country about Colombo is flat, except a small part to the northward ; soil
alluvial and sandy in some parts, and iron-stone clay and gravel in others — extremely
fertile, the shores covered to the verge of the sea with coco-nut palms ; and, inland,
beautifully diversified with umbrageous fruit and other trees, cinnamon plantations,
gardens, and pasture lands, intersected by canals, and a fresh-water lake ; and, to the
northward, by the Mutwal river or Kalane-Ganga, and the grand canal.

Soon after day-break, when the lofty mountain of the Sri Pada * or Adam’s Peak,
is seen in the distance from the south esplanade or Galle face, the view of Slave island
rising out of the placid bosom of the water, called the lake of Colombo, with its pretty
houses, bungalows, and other buildings, interspersed amongst stately areka trees,
bread-fruit trees, and coco-nut palms, the bugles of the Ceylon rifle corps alone break¬
ing the tranquility of the scene, affords indescribable pleasure to the recently-arrived
European. It is at this hour, that, upon review days, the troops are seen marching
to their ground upon the race course ; and that the early risers of Colombo are setting
out upon their morning drives, rides, or walks, very many of whom look forward with
unalloyed pleasure, except when the rainy season prevents it, to the general rendezvous
of the European civil and military officers and merchants — the well-known Tamarimd
Tree, (near the three-miles’ stone on the Galle road,) to quaff the wholesome and reno¬
vating nectar fresh from the toddy palm, before fermentation, which is very rapid,
commences. It is then that the natural sieve which nature presents, in the envelope
of the petioles of the coco-nut fronds, is employed in one of its most useful offices ;
namely, for straining the liquid, and clearing it from the various insects that may have
fallen victims to their love of sweets during the night, and are generally of the genus
Scarabaus, of which, the blue and green are the largest and most beautiful.

The whole way from the esplanade to the tamarind tree is a wide carriage road,
shaded with tulip, coco-nut, teak, bamboo, banyan, silky cotton, areka, Adam’s apple
(' Cerbera Manghas, L.), and various other useful and ornamental trees : but the road

* Venerated foot.

PANORAMA— BAZAARS— NEWSPAPERS— ETIQUETTE ON ARRIVAL.

159

generally preferred for returning to the fort, leads along the margin of the sea, through
a dense coco-nut tope, to the verge of the esplanade.

Emerging from the line of native huts, upon the sea-side of the high road, the
splendid fortifications of Colombo, which form a prominent part of the grand panorama
that presents itself, are viewed with admiration.

The various Bazaars are situated in the Pettah of Colombo, and are well and
regularly supplied ; every day, except Sunday, being alike in point of supplies ; but no
traffic is now allowed, as formerly obtained, during stated hours, on the Lord’s-day.
Grain, beef, mutton, veal, kid, pork, poultry, fish, fruit, and vegetables, including
potatos, for which, some few years ago, the island was altogether dependant upon
Bombay and Madras, but are now abundant and cheap, are exposed for sale soon
after daylight, and fish is also supplied every evening in great variety.

There are three weekly newspapers, namely, the Colombo Herald, the Observer,
and the Government Gazette ; these, it is to be hoped, are too liberally conducted to
descend to personal attacks upon individuals ; and that the editors, in availing them¬
selves of their now indisputable right to question the official conduct of public servants,
will be satisfied with having that power ; for it is within my recollection, that to have
so done, would have ensured their deportation, if not the seizure of their presses.

Europeans arriving at Colombo, are expected to report themselves without delay at
the colonial secretary’s office ; and at the other ports of the island, to the agents of
government. Gentlemen for the civil establishment will, of course, feel it their duty,
after having paid their respects to His Excellency the Governor, and commander-in-chief,
to whom they will be introduced by the private secretary, to wait upon the heads of
departments ; and they cannot do wrong by paying similar respect to the commandant.

Naval and military officers require no information upon the observance of local
etiquette, for it is everywhere the same to them ; but Griffins may derive great assist¬
ance from Mr. Dionysius de Neys, librarian of the Colombo library, in procuring
a residence, servants, &c., if, through want of introductory letters, they find them¬
selves “ alone in their loneliness.”

The surviving partner of the oldest commercial firm in the island, (that of Messrs.
W. C. Gibson & Co.) Joseph Read, Esq., who resides at Colombo, than whom, few
if any, are better acquainted with the internal and external commerce of the colony,
is an admirable specimen of the old British merchant ; combining with every quality
that can fix confidence, and ensure esteem, the most genuine Caledonian hospitality ;
for which, distinguished as his countrymen are everywhere, (and where they are not
it is next to an impossibility to discover,) Mr. Read may perhaps be equalled, but
cannot be excelled.

160

MAIL COACH— SAVINGS' BANK— CHARITABLE INSTITUTIONS.

The Horticultural Society of Colombo is under the patronage of the governor, and
it is to be hoped that it will prove more stable in its nature than its predecessor, the
Literary and Agricultural Society.

The Mail Coach Establishment, commenced in 1832 by a joint stock company,
conveys passengers from Colombo to Kandy (which formerly took several days to
accomplish by palankin travelling) in less than twelve hours. The coach starts from
Colombo every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday morning, at gun-fire, and reaches
Kandy, a distance of seventy eight miles, between five and six o’clock of the same
day ; and leaves Kandy every Tuesday, Thursday, and Saturday morning, at gun-fire,
and reaches Colombo about five p. m. ; the former journey having more up-hill work
than the latter. The fare to and from Kandy is 21. 10.?.

The Ceylon Widows’ and Orphans’ Fund is under official management and security ;
and cannot fail to prove a blessing to those widows and orphans whose provident hus¬
bands and fathers may, by their contributions, have preserved them from destitution.

The Colombo Savings’ Bank is another excellent establishment, and worthy of
general support. It has branch committees at Trincomale, Galle, Kandy, and Jaffna)
by which loans are advanced upon good security, and deposits received and business
transacted, between twelve and three o’clock on the first and third Monday in every
month ; and, in case of extraordinary business, on the second and fourth Monday,
from one to three o’clock.

Of charitable institutions, there are — the Leper Hospital ; Pettah Hospital ; District
Committee of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge ; Bible Association for
the Dutch and Portuguese inhabitants ; Colombo Friend-in-need Society, (for the pur¬
pose of relieving the really necessitous, and for suppressing mendicity,) under the able
management of a highly respectable and numerous committee ; over which, the senior
colonial chaplain is president, and the governor, for the time being, the patron ; —
A Commission for the General Superintendence of Education in the Colony, of which
the members are selected from the ecclesiastical, judicial, and civil establishments ; —
and the Colombo Ladies’ Branch Society, to the immortal honor of those amiable,
accomplished, and benevolent ladies, who compose tire committee.

Both Europeans and natives appear equally anxious for the establishment of a Colo¬
nial Bank. The mercantile interests, as well as those of individuals, must be sensibly
alive to the disadvantages of being altogether dependant upon the limited sale of
government and missionary bills, for remittances to England ; and it is to be antici¬
pated that public-spirited individuals will yet be found in this country, to carry the
general wish of the colonial community into effect, by the establishment of a Ceylon
Bank, which cannot fail to conduce to the welfare of that important island.

CHAP. XX.

i .'eylon f slung boats — Then e.rtraordiniu y shape and swiftness — The fishery one </ the most important of t/o.
capabilities of the island — Regulation of government fur encouraging the salting of fish within the island — InsvJ
ficient protection — Fish rents — Restrictions u/nn fishermen — Suggestions to His Majesty s secretary for the colonies,
in 1»32, for increasing the sale of salt, de< reusing the expense of gathering it, reducing the price to the consumer,
■nid encouraging settlers in the Muhagamputtoo for curing fish — Abolition of the monopoly recommended — Lew ays
or natural salt pans — Salt stealing — Military guards — Sentinels pay liable to stoppage for stolen salt — Two salt
dealers killed — Bullocks confiscated — Doubf o ojes to labourers m the Mahagampattoo — Impressed salt gatherer s

Adulteration of salt — Expense of gathering salt and transmitting it to Colombo — Salt naturally formed at tin
distant Leways placed under military guard until dissolved by the rain — Trice of salt — Importation of salt fish —
i oup de grace lu salt-water invoices — Sat ice process of salting fsh objectionable — Its results — Suggestions for
improving the mode of stilting fsh — I'mposid plan for curing fsh by smoke — Country salt fsh very Utile in rei/ues *
among Europeans — Salt fsh from Europe and America — Fish common to the coasts of Ceylon.

The innumerable sailing canoes that are daily engaged in fishing, in the offing of
Colombo, during the S. W. monsoon, attract the attention of every new-comer. These
extraordinary boats are formed of a single tree, which is either hollowed by means of
tire, or scooped out by the simplest tools, and generally from fifteen to eighteen feet
in length. The body has a considerable bilge, and gunwales are raised upon it, con¬
sisting of two planks of light wood, from 20 to 24 inches in breadth ; these run the
whole length of the boat, and are united at the head and stern by a transverse plank
of the same breadth as the longitudinal ones, by means of regularly drilled holes,
fh rough which strong Kotr cord is passed, and neatly interlaced crosswise : this is
afterwards payed over with a coat, of dammer as a preservative.

The breadth of beam of the Ceylon canoes is from 20 to 24 inches ; and their great
height and extreme lightness would render it impossible to keep them upright, without
being balanced by an outrigger from one side. This is formed of a solid log, shaped
like a canoe, but with pointed ends, and is extended for about six or seven feet from
the side, by two arched stretchers, convexing towards the false canoe, to which the)
are lashed by strong Ko'tr cord, passed through neatly drilled holes, in order to pre¬
vent friction as much as possible. These canoes have one mast, upon which a very
large square sail, of country cotton canvas, is hoisted ; and the head and stern being
alike, the sail is carried either way, and the course altered in a moment to the oppo¬
site direction, without shifting or neutralizing the outrigger. The velocity with which

x

16*2 PROTECTION OF FISHERIES— FISH RENTS— VEXATIOUS RESTRICTIONS.

these boats skim over the surface of the water, (for so light is their draught, they can
scarcely be said to sail through it,) surprises every beholder.

The Colombo Fishery might be made one of the most important of the capabilities
of this island, whose coasts may literacy be said to teem with fish of the best kinds,
for all the purposes of home consumption, as well as for exportation ; and a more
ample field for lucrative speculation cannot possibly present itself.

The natives, whether Singhalese or Malabars, are so accustomed to a light diet ; and,
with the exception of swine, to which the former have all the partiality of the Otaheiteans,
eat so very little animal food, that a method of curing fish, upon an improved system to
the primitive one, that has obtained in the island from immemorial time> would both
ensure very ample profits to those concerned in it, and prove a blessing to the colony.

I do not find, among my various data, and notes collected in the island, that the
notice of any one British governor had been applied to this most important, but,
I am sorry to say, still neglected subject, until the late Lieutenant General Sir Edward
Barnes, G. C. B., at the time he was lieutenant governor of Ceylon, deemed it worthy
of attention, amongst the other objects of his patriotic zeal for the general welfare ;
and the Regulation of government, No. 6, of the year 1821, “ for encouraging the
preparation of salt fish within the island,” was accordingly promulgated.*

That ordinance expressly provided for its protection, by imposing a duty of fifteen
per cent, upon the invoice value, or prime cost of salt fish of every description, imported
from, and after the first of April of that year ; and, for the further encouragement of
the fishery, all salt fish cured within the island was permitted to be exported duty free.
But it escaped His Excellency’s attention, that the most likely mode of promoting the
object in view, was to excite the cupidity of the Singhalese, by granting a liberal
drawback to the exporter, even to the extent of the amount of the import duty.

The average annual value of the fish rents to government, may be estimated at
from <£7000 to ,£8000 sterling. These rents, or tenths of all fish caught upon the
sea-coasts of Ceylon, are annually sold by public auction, and the duty is collected by
the fanner of the revenue of each district. This is a most vexatious duty, both upon
the native fisherman, and the consumer desirous of having fish as fresh as possible
from the sea : — for instance, a person living between Galkisse and Colombo, which
places are seven miles distant from each other, sees abundance of the best fish carried
past his house every morning and evening, and yet he cannot buy any, because it
must first be taken to the Bazaar, for the fish-renter to have his share ; so that a
servant has to travel several miles to, and from the Bazaar, to get fish in a wholesome

* Vide Appendix.

REVENUE FROM SALT— ABOLITION OF THE MONOPOLY SUGGESTED. 163

state, merely because the fishermen dare not sell, what may have been caught, perhaps
within a mile or two of his (the servant’s) master’s residence.

Until the government removes such restrictions upon the fisherman, and reduces the
price of salt, little or nothing can be expected from any plans for establishing factories
for the curing of fish.

In the year 1832, I solicited the attention of Viscount Goderich, at that time His
Majesty’s principal secretary of state for the colonies, to my suggestions for the improve¬
ment of the revenue derived from salt, by diminishing the expenses of its realization,
and for extending its sale, by reducing the price to the consumer ; and for the better
encouragement of settlers in the Mahagampattoo, for the purpose of curing fish, by
reducing the price of salt used for that purpose to one half of the market rate of it
elsev'here in the island. Nevertheless, this oppressive monopoly still exists, and the
natives cannot obtain salt at a less price than 2s. 4 d. per bushel, of four pecks.

Surely the government might adopt some better system for the gathering and sale
of salt, (the expense of the present establishments may be estimated at from ,£6000
to £7000 per annum,) or be satisfied with a less amount of nett profit than £20,000
or £21,000 per annum, which is about the average value of this monopoly.

Some less objectionable tax might be substituted, so as to relieve the population of
so oppressive an impost upon this grand necessary of life, and put a stop to the long-
prevailing smuggling system to w’hich the natives are tempted, by the high price of
salt, and the heavy restrictions upon that article.

Abolish the monopoly, I would say, and levy a customs and excise duty, from 4 d. to
6d. a bushel, upon all salt conveyed by land carriage, or coastwise, by Dhonies, &c. ;
and if that be insufficient, make it up by a charge upon licenses to the renters of natural
Leways, and salt manufacturers at other places ; and thus remove the hardships that
are now roo justly complained of.

The natural salt pans, or Leways , are situate in the Mahagampattoo, a district of
the southern province, which, although formerly flourishing and well-inhabited, is now’,
in proportion to its extent, almost destitute of population. Its numerous ruined tanks,
and other agricultural vestiges, are proofs of its pristine importance ; but its chief
place, Hambantotte, contains no more than fifteen hundred inhabitants, including the
garrison. Nevertheless, by a better system of management of the salt department,
and adequate encouragement for the establishment of a factory for curing fish, this
place may again become a prolific source of public prosperity and of private wealth,
and one of the most populous of the maritime districts of Ceylon.

The stealing of salt from the temporary depots at the Leways , has for many years

x 2

164 SENTINELS ANSWERABLE FOR STOLEN SALT— SALT STEALERS KILLED.

prevailed to an almost incredible extent ; and neither the penal enactments of the
governor in council, nor the risk of life itself, which has often proved fatal, have had
the effect of deterring the natives from availing themselves of every opportunity to
obtain it. This determination to possess themselves of an absolute necessary of life,
by plundering the salt heaps at the Leways, arises from the exorbitant price set upon
a natural production, which poverty precludes them from obtaining honestly : this is
so general, as to hold out no expectation of its being overcome, whilst the present
system incites them both to steal for themselves and to supply the smuggler.

The revenue is exposed to much loss, owing to the great distance of the storehouses
from the Leways, or natural salt pans ; where the salt, instead of being lodged under
cover, is collected into large heaps, which are clayed over ; for as the salt does not
always form in one place in a Leway, the positions of the collected heaps vary accord¬
ing to circumstances ; and therefore such divisions as are not contiguous, require a
separate military guard, and temporary guard-house, for their protection ; which renders
it expedient to keep a garrison of one hundred and fifty invalids of the Ceylon rifle
corps, for the duties of the salt department.

The expense of so large a military force, is not the only objection to its employment.
At one time, the question “ Quis custodes custodiet ipsos ?” was justly applicable to the
military guardians of the government salt heaps ; for without their connivance, or with
common vigilance on their parts, no great excess of plunder could possibly have been
effected : therefore a security, that should be made available to the public, was indis¬
pensable ; and the pay of the sentinels having consequently been made liable for the
value of the salt, stolen during their respective tours of Leway duty, their self-interest
became inseparable from the preservation of the government property.

A different system was thenceforth adopted ; and subsequent attempts to steal salt
from the heaps, were regarded by the soldiers as personal injuries ; and whenever,
owing to the number of natives, who, at one and the same time assailed the salt heaps,
the guards could not seize individuals, they employed their firearms. In 1826, two
Singhalese were shot dead by the Malays, whilst in the act of stealing salt at the
Koholoncale Leway ; and between three and four hundred bullocks, belonging to salt
smugglers, were confiscated during my superintendence of that district.

The distance of the Leways from the storehouses, renders an establishment of one
hundred carts, some hundreds of bullocks, with a number of headmen, drivers, smiths,,
and carpenters, indispensable ; and as no native will serve there under double pay,
so great is their dread of the climate of the Mahagampattoo, the expense of it, inde¬
pendently of contingent expenses, of which, the loss of bullocks, killed by wild beasts,
is not the least, in the course of a year, is worth saving to the public.

IMPRESSMENT OF LABOURERS— ADULTERATION OF SALT.

165

One fourth of mud or sand may be considered the average quantity collected out of
every parah * of Lcway salt ; and it often happens, that no more than half the quantity
of good salt is produced by evaporation : but this entirely arises from the impressment of
natives to gather the salt, who, notwithstanding that they are paid the very fair wages
of four fanams (6<f. sterling) a day, hurry through the business, they care not how.

The headmen are so few, in proportion to the hundreds of salt gatherers, who are
scattered over an extensive Levoay, that the latter cannot be individually overlooked
by those who superintend the general business of the salt department.

It is only during the salt harvests, that these wretched inhabitants of the villages
near the Leways are able to obtain subsistence, except upon wild roots, (the majority of
which possess acrid properties,) and the bitter leaves of the wild tea tree : these they
boil and eat with sour curd, and use an infusion of the leaves for drink ; and yet so
great is their natural idleness, that they are compelled to be pressed as salt gatherers,
where their only alternative is starvation, or the vile diet already described ! !

Singhalese coolies from other parts of the island go to the Mauritius for employment,
notwithstanding that every thing is dearer there than at Ceylon. What then must be
the state of agriculture, where, with a population of only 1,500,000, at the maximum,
to an area of 24,448 square miles, agricultural labourers emigrate to other colonies ?

The high price of government salt encourages every species of roguery. The ports
of Colombo, Galle, and Trincomale, are chiefly supplied from Hambantotte, by large
native vessels, called Dhonies ; and scarcely a season passes without complaints against
the quality of the salt conveyed by them ; this the natives so ingeniously contrive to
adulterate, that, in appearance, their cargoes, on arrival at the ports of destination,
agree with the samples, which, sealed in bamboo canes, accompany them. The adulte¬
ration is effected at certain creeks on the coast, where, by pre-concerted arrangements,
smugglers are in waiting, with sacks, and bullocks, to carry away the stolen salt, which
they replace with an equal proportion of grey sand. This might certainly be pre¬
vented, by sending a trustworthy person with each cargo ; but where so many vessels
are employed, an establishment of such officers would be required.

The deteriorated quality of the salt, as it is now gathered, occasions an expense of
at least a fourth more freight than would be required under the plan I submitted to the
colonial department. The expense to the government of gathering salt, and trans¬
porting it to Colombo, may be estimated at sixpence the parah ; and the nett revenue
from this monopoly, at <£20,000 per annum, which includes the produce of all the
natural and artificial salt works in the island, which are about forty eight in number.

* A parah is about two-thirds of a Winchester bushel.

166 SALT FISH IMPORTED— NATIVE MODE OF SALTING IT OBJECTIONABLE.

It often happens, that when salt has formed at the more distant Leways, instead
of being gathered, guards are posted there, perhaps for months together, until the
rains shall have set in, and dissolved it. The guards may then connive at the clandes¬
tine removal of the salt with impunity, because their pay is only held liable for the
loss of salt, where it can be ascertained by admeasurement ; and serious loss to the
revenue is thus occasioned, which the erection of a storehouse on the margin of each
Leway, for the reception of the salt as soon as gathered, would effectually obviate.

The price of salt is fixed at two shillings the parah measure ; and I have seen a
parah of the grey mixture called government salt, submitted to what is called the
boiling process, just after it had been received from the salt stores at Galle, which
produced only twqlve-and-a-half pounds of pure salt ; but this occasionally varies in
the same place, a similar quantity sometimes yielding thirteen or fourteen, at others,
sixteen pounds.

Thus the high price of salt operates so much to the prejudice of the Ceylon fisheries,
that the island is dependent for supplies of salt fish, which is an article of general
consumption , and in constant demand, throughout the interior, on its importations from
the Maidive Islands, and places within the East India Company’s territories, (where,
notwithstanding the monopoly, salt is cheaper) ; and a ready sale is found for it,
malgre the protecting duty of ten per cent.

If the government was not originally aware of the salt water invoice system, the
ordinance No. 5 of 1837 gave the coup de grace to that disgraceful practice, by reduc¬
ing the import duty to ten per cent., but upon the value of the article m the Ceylon
market, instead of the original cost or invoice price : nevertheless this was little or no
relief to the public, for in very many instances it operated equally against the consumer
and the importer ; and consequently the government was the only party benefitted :
for, whilst the fish-rent system prevails, very many years must elapse, before the
island can be independent of foreign supplies of salt fish for home consumption ; and
a much longer time will be required, even if a considerable drawback were allowed,
for the local fisheries to have a surplus for exportation.

The native process of salting fish is altogether most objectionable. In the first
place, no care is taken to obviate the rapid progress of putrefaction ; for, instead of
salting the fish, as soon as it is taken out of the water, which is indispensable within
the tropics, it is carelessly done after having been some time landed, (and then, of
such part only of the cargo as could not be sold in its fresh state,) and exposed upon
a sandy beach to a vertical sun. The consequence may be easily imagined ; fish so
exposed, is soon impregnated with almost as much sand as salt ; and, if affected by

PROPOSED MODE OF CURING FISH BY SMOKE— ROMAN CATHOLICS.

167

casual moisture, or absorption, it becomes rotten before it can be conveyed to the
interior, where it is chiefly in demand.

As the Ceylon fishing boats are built exclusively for sailing ; they have no room
to stow more than a few fish, and consequently have no stowage for salt, for the pur¬
pose of curing the fish in the only way that can be effectual in so hot a climate.

This might be obviated, by a certain number of fishing boats being attended by a
D honey t as a rendezvous, and for the purpose of carrying salt ; and for the crew of
the latter to salt the fish as soon as caught and conveyed to them. This, however,
would require more capital than the native fishers can command, or would be disposed
to risk, if they could. But an additional and great advantage would attend the plan ;
for the crews of the fishing boats could keep much longer at sea, and cook their
victuals and sleep on board the Dhoney, until it was fully freighted.

Those who are accustomed to salt and cure fish in cold climates, would require
considerable experience to become equally perfect within the tropics, where the fish
requires air and shade, as well as occasional exposure to the sun.

Upon casually looking over the notes that I made during the time I was on garrison
duty at Fort Belgica, in the island of Banda Neira, in 1811, it occurred to me, and
I mention it with all deference to superior judgment, that the mode adopted by the
nutmeg curers there, would answer very well for fish ; namely, oy open platforms of
split bamboo canes raised in tiers at regular distances, with proportionate, and of course
larger spaces between each bamboo slip than would be required to support the nut¬
megs, and according to the size of the fish.

By this means, the objectionable mode of letting the fish come in contact with
the sand, would be obviated ; and any quantity might be entirely cured by smoke, by
lighted wet rice straw being laid under the lower tier, which would ascend through all
the intermediate spaces to the roof, and a more convenient or cheaper contrivance
could not, in my humble opinion, be adopted.

Country salt fish, owing to the improper manner in which it is cured, is very sel¬
dom in request for the tables of Europeans, compared with what it would be under
an improved system ; for, even if the sand can be got rid of, there still remains an
incipient degree of putrefaction, which renders it necessary for charcoal to be boiled
with it ; and even then, when served at table, the effect is too potent for either mustard
and egg-sauce, or acids, to overcome.

Independently of salt fish being an article of great and general consumption in the
interior, the fact that there are upwards of 150,000 Roman Catholics, who are rigid in
the observance of their religious fasts, will be considered a sufficient guarantee for the
success of a fish factory upon a very extensive scale.

168 ESTABLISHMENT OF A FISH FACTORY DESIRABLE— CEYLON FISHES.

It is well known, that salt fish from Europe and America is rotten, unless very
particular care be taken in packing it, before it reaches India ; and I have known the
late Egbert Bletterman, Esq., of Ceylon, pay thirty rix dollars, (at that time Is. 9d.
sterling each,) for a jar containing about four dozens of half putrid red herrings. I
therefore earnestly endeavour to impress upon the attention of individual capitalists,
that there is no speculation more certain of success, amongst the many other very
encouraging ones that present themselves at Ceylon, than that of establishing factories
for the curing of fish at such places upon the coasts as have the best fishing, and little
or no demand for fresh fish.

The principal of the more useful fishes are — the Albicore or Thunny ( Scomber Thyn-
nus, L.), Bonetta ( Scomber Pelamis, L.), Scad ( Scomber Trachurus ), Coal fish ( Gadus
carbonarius, L.), Pomfret, Bull’s eye ( Holocentrus ruber of Bennett’s fishes of Ceylon),
Snook or Cape Salmon, Parawah {Scomber Heben of Bennett’s fishes of Ceylon), Sea
Perch {Perea marina, L.), Bearded Ophidium {Ophidium barbatum, L.), Pampus ( Stro -
maticus Paru, L.), Sword fish {Xiphias Gladius, L.), Gemmenas Dragonet {Callionymus
Lyra, L.), Kurtus {Kurtus Indian, L.), Dorado {Coryphcena Equiselis, L.), Doree ( Zeus
Faber, L.), Sole {Pleuronoctes Solea, L.), Red or Sur Mullet {Mullus barbatus, L.),
Striped Sur Mullet {Mullus Surmutetus, L.), Great Garfish {Esox osseus, L.); a species
of Clupea, very like the Sprat, which, at certain seasons, is poisonous ; several species
of Rock Cod, of large size and excellent quality ; the Seir fish ( Tora-malu of the
Singhalese), already described in page 110; Skate {Raia Batis, L.), and a variety of
Rays of enormous size ; all which are detested by the natives, and returned to the
sea as soon as caught. The Singhalese have a great dread of the Sting Ray {Raia
pastinaca, L.)

The most valuable of all fishes for the China markets, are Sharks. (5* these vivipa¬
rous monsters, the largest, and most esteemed, for their fins, are the White Shark
{Squalus Carcharias, L.), Saw fish {S. Pristis, L.), some of which are from twelve to
eighteen feet in length ; Balance Shark, or Hammer Head {S. Zygcena, L.), the Tope
{S. Galeus, L.), Blue Shark {S. glaucus, L.), and the Shagreen, or Basking Shark
{S. Maximus, L.) ; the skin of this last is much in request by the Chinese, for the
purpose of making it into shagreen, of which a great quantity is annually sold to the
Russians, upon the frontiers ; so that shark catching might be made a separate and
most profitable speculation ; for the simple mode of drying the skins and fins in the
sun, without a particle of salt, is greatly ip favor of the undertaking ; and the saving
to be effected by that mode of curing them for the China market, would be, under
all the circumstances of the price of salt, a paramount consideration.

CHAP. XXI.

Fresh-water fishes — Original establishment of the Portuguese at Colombo — Portuguese surrender it to the Dutch
— Dutch capitulate to the British — Insulting conduct of the Dutch troops to their forbearing victors — Absurd claim
of Portugal — Clandestine attempt to inspect, or possess, the records of the colony by a Portuguese officer — Mr. Deputy
Secretary Sutherland’s inquiry, at the request of Governor Sir Robert Brownrigg — Route from Colombo to Kandy —
Roads of Ceylon — Governor Sir Edward Barnes — Just tribute to his memory — Great sacrifice of human life in
forming the roads — Families consequently destitute — Suggestions for relieving them — Preliminary hints to travel¬
lers — Best mode of travelling — Suggestions for canteens — Pistols and swords, except for officers, incumbrances —
Chatty bath — Batta to coolies — The three grand maxims for the tourist s observance — Umbrella indispensable —
Important addition to its usefulness — Mosquito — yorlhern route — Jayelle — Road to Negombo — Sailing directions
from Captain Horsburgh's Directory.

Having described, to the best of my power, the several sorts of sea fish that are
most common and abundant upon this coast, for the purposes of home consumption
and exportation, I regret that I have but little to say in favor of the fresh water
varieties. Of these, the best that the lake, fort ditch, and canals produce, are the
Cat-fish, Angoloowa of the Singhalese, the Eel, the Burbot ( Gadus Lota, L.), by many
mistaken, from the cirri on the jaws, for a variety of the Barbel (Cyprinus Barbus, L.),
and the Grey Mullet ( Mugil Cephalus, L.).

The Portuguese first established a factory at Colombo in the year 1515, and then
erected a small fort for its protection, which, from time to time, they enlarged ; and,
notwithstanding the hostilities in which they were subsequently involved with the na¬
tives, and, ultimately, with the combined Dutch and Kandyan forces, they maintained
their footing, and extended their conquests, for a period of one hundred and twenty
two years. The Portuguese governor and captain-general, Antonio de Zouza Continho,
surrendered Colombo to the Dutch in 1656, when the administration of the Batavian
governor, Van der Meyden, commenced.

The Dutch having, in turn, enjoyed their tyrannical sway for nearly one hundred
and forty years, were dispossessed of Colombo, by capitulation to the British force,
under the command of Major General Stewart, on the 16th of February, 1796; at
which time, the ordinary counsellor of Dutch India, Johan Gerard Van Angelbeck,
was governor.

Y

170

CAPITULATION OF COLOMBO— SUCCESSION OF GOVERNORS.

The British force-consisted of His Majesty’s 52nd, 73rd, and 77th regiments, three
battalions of the Honorable East India Company’s Madras Sepoys, and a detachment
of Bengal artillery. This small army had landed at Negombo without opposition, on
the 2nd of that month, and immediately proceeded to the attack of Colombo ; which
it could not have taken, if the Dutch had availed themselves of the natural obstacles
of the intermediate country to oppose its progress. But the Dutch troops, although
superior in numbers, were bordering upon a state of mutiny, and their officers,
however brave and disposed to defend the fort, had no control over them ; for even
after the British flag had been hoisted, upon the capitulation of Colombo, the Dutch
soldiers, as they filed past to lay down their arms, spat their saliva at their brave and
indignant but forbearing victors.

The first British administration was formed “ in the name of the Honorable the
Governor of Fort St. George (Madras) in Council;” and in the forty six years that
have since passed, we have not had less than thirteen governors and lieutenant-
governors of Ceylon. The following is a list of these functionaries, with the dates
of their accession to the government ; and of the lieutenant-governors, acting as
governors, in the intervals of succession of the latter.

The Honorable Frederick North assumed the government, October 12, 1798. —
Lieut. General Honorable Thomas Maitland, July 19, 1805. — Major General John
Wilson, lieutenant-governor, March 19, 1811. — Lieut. General Sir Robert Brownrigg,
G. C. B., March 11, 1812. — -Major General Sir Edward Barnes, K. C. B., lieutenant-
governor, February 1, 1820. — Lieut. General the Right Honorable Sir Edward Paget,
G. C. B., February 2, 1822. — Major General Sir James Campbell, K. C. B., lieutenant-
governor, November 6, 1822. — -Lieut. General Sir Edward Barnes, K. C. B., January
18, 1824. — Major General Sir John Wilson, K. C. B., lieutenant-governor, October 13,
1831. — The Right Honorable Sir Robert Wilmot Horton, Bart., G. C. H., October
23, 1831. — The Right Honorable James Alexander Stewart Mackenzie, November 7,
1837. — The Honorable Major General Sir Robert Arbuthnot, K. C. B., until the arrival
of the present governor, Lieut. General Sir Colin Campbell, G. C. B.

Notwithstanding the long interval of nearly a century and a half that the Dutch
retained possession of the former Portuguese settlements in Ceylon, Portugal has even
now a hankering after the original seat of its power in the island ; and public attention
has been recently drawn to the claim, preferred by the latter, to the fort and town
of Colombo.

How far this claim may be well founded, or otherwise, the following may tend
to elucidate.

ABSURD CLAIM OF PORTUGAL TO COLOMBO.

171

In the year 1816, a colonel in the Portuguese army, who wore the decoration of the
order of Christ, arrived at Colombo, by one of the annual China ships, from Macao,
bound to Goa. He soon became acquainted with one or two of the principal Portu¬
guese families, and clandestinely endeavoured to obtain a sight of the old records
of the Portuguese and Dutch governments. Mr. Sutherland, at that time deputy
secretary to the government, and secretary for the Kandyan provinces, having been
informed of the latter circumstance, took an opportunity of questioning the colonel
upon his object ; and, at the same time, intimated the impropriety of applying to those
who could not assist him, except at the risk of their own official situations.

• The colonel was very ready with an apology ; and having entered upon the subject
of our being in possession of the whole island of Ceylon, Mr. Sutherland jokingly
observed, that “ we had not yet turned out the wild V eddahs from the forests of
Bintenne.”

Mr. Sutherland subsequently asked the governor, (Lieut. General Sir Robert Brown-
rigg,) if he had ever heard of the treaty by which Colombo was to revert to the Portu¬
guese, in the event of the entire island becoming, as it was at that time, (1816,) subject
to the British crown ; and he also remarked to His Excellency, that from the sinister
manner, in which the colonel had endeavoured to obtain a sight of the records, or,
probably, to possess them, there could be no doubt of the real object of his visit to
Colombo ; although that officer was very desirous that it should be attributed to mere
accident, and as the casual one of a passenger, en route, from China to Goa.

His Excellency acknowledged that he had heard, or read, reports very similar to the
Portuguese colonel’s statement ; and requested Mr. Sutherland to search the records,
and make such extracts as he might consider expedient.

By these, it appeared, that in 1661, a treaty had been entered into between Great
Britain and Portugal ; by which, if Portugal recovered Ceylon from the Dutch, the
port and fortress of point de Galle were to be ceded to the former ; but that if
Great Britain should wrest the island from the Dutch, Colombo was to revert to the
Portuguese flag. It further appeared, that by two subsequent treaties, one in the year
1661, (the very year in which the preceding treaty had been entered into,) and the
other in 1669; between the Dutch and Portuguese, the former were to retain all their
conquests ih Ceylon, without any stipulation or reservation whatever ; and that in 1692,
Portugal had definitively recognized the right of the Dutch to all the territories they
had acquired there ; by which treaty, whatever claims upon Colombo Poitugal might
originally have had, w^ere for ever set at rest, whether preferred against the British,
or any other power that might subsequently be in possession of Ceylon.

y 2

172

ROAD FROM COLOMBO TO KANDY.

The whole island presents a scene of much interest to the emigrant and the
naturalist ; and it is not to be presumed that either will have a disposition to make
a flying journey through it. There are many, however, who prefer starting for the
interior, almost immediately after arriving at Colombo. Whether one travels by
mail coach or not, the following is the route from the maritime capital to that of
the interior.

From Colombo to the bridge of boats across the Mutwal river, which is one of the
numerous improvements introduced into the colony by the late Lieut. General Sir
Edward Barnes, G. C. B., soon after his succession to the government, as lieutenant-
governor, in 1820; in order to obviate the delay, to which, travellers, and particularly
troops, were subjected, when there was merely a ferry boat to convey them, the distance
is 3^ miles. To Mahara, where there is a rest-house on the right, 5 miles. To the
mail coach station of Kosrupe, 6^ miles. From thence to the rest-house of Henne-
ratgodde, where there is also a barrack, 2 miles. To Kellegeddehaine, (mail coach
station,) about 5 miles. To Viangodde rest-house, 3 miles. To Walweldenia, (mail
coach station,) about 4f miles. To Ambapasse rest-house, 6| miles. To the mail
coach station of Ambapittia, through Maha-Haine, 9| miles. To Ootooankande rest-
house and mail coach station, 8^ miles. To Kadooganava rest-house, about 7 miles.
To Paradenia, 6| miles ; and from thence to Kandy, 4 miles. In all, about 72 miles
from Colombo.

The formation of these military roads, which had been the first grand consideration
of the executive, after the conquest and annexation of the Kandyan kingdom to the
British empire, in 1815, as the surest means of retaining possession, but which the
rebellion of 1817 and 1818 had, in a great degree, suspended, was resumed, with
the return of tranquillity, in the year 1820, and upon an extended scale. Assistant
engineers, selected from officers of different regiments, were appointed, with additional
pay ; every necessary arrangement for the work was put in train. Additional stimulus
was given to the energies of those employed in these important undertakings, by the
opportune arrival of Major General Sir Edward Barnes, K. C. B., from England, early
in the year 1819, as second in command of the forces in Ceylon.

The formation of a carriage road from the port of Colombo on the west, to Trinco-
male on the east side of the island, was of paramount importance to the commerce
of the colony, in order to establish the means of transport between those places, when
interrupted by sea, during the periods that the north-east and south-west monsoons
respectively prevailed. These, however, although still incomplete, afford comparative
facility to commerce.

GREAT SACRIFICE OF LIFE IN FORMING THE ROADS.

173

Besides rest-houses on the roads for Europeans, and Ambelamas for native travellers,
at regular distances, useful trees were planted on each side of the road, from the
knotty bamboo to the umbrageous Sea-Pomegranate tree ( Barringtonia speciosa, L.).

As regards the splendid roads already formed, there is scarcely a spot throughout the
line, whether bridge, or tunnel, or rest-house, that does not justify the application to
the memory of the late Lieut. General Sit Edward Barnes, G. C. B., of the tribute
paid to that of Sir Christopher Wren, for everywhere a monument presents itself : and if
His Excellency had not long previously distinguished himself as a gallant follower of
his unrivalled chief, the Duke of Wellington, (whom may God long preserve to his
country and sovereign ! ) the great and incalculable benefits, which, whilst governor of
Ceylon, his unwearied zeal for, and devotion to, the best interests of the commerce
and agriculture of the colony, have conferred upon it, are sufficient to immortalize his
memory : — the public acknowledgments of its population best mark the general sense
of them ; nor will the name of any governor of that part of our Indian empire stand
higher upon its records than that of Sir Edward Barnes.

There are, however, some classes of persons, the relatives of the brave and zealous
European and native officers and soldiers, who fell victims to the malaria of the
jungles of the interior, in cutting roads through the almost impenetrable fastnesses
of the Kandyan kingdom, who cannot feel these public benefits. They can derive no
consolation for the loss of husbands, fathers, and brothers, upon whom, perhaps, was
their sole dependence, from the reflection that they had died in the performance of
such a duty : for although it has secured possession of the interior, ensured the safety
of the maritime provinces from a foe in their rear, promoted the commercial interests
of the colony, and augmented its resources and revenue, very many of these families
remain destitute.

These roads were made by the compulsory labour of the natives, (conjointly with
military working parties,) who from their several tenures were liable to it themselves,
or served as substitutes for others ; and although the government legally possessed
the power to avail itself of the monstrous system of oppression, which it had inherited
from its Portuguese and Dutch predecessors, the great number of families left destitute
by the loss of fathers, sons, and brothers, may still be deemed worthy of the humane
consideration of the government, by which, compulsory labour was subsequently abol¬
ished : and even now, at this distant period, it is not too late to afford them some
compensation, in proportion to the great public benefits, thereby achieved ; for it
cannot be a very difficult matter for the headmen of villages to report the names
of parties, who died, whilst employed upon the roads, and of their existing families ;

174

COMPENSATION SUGGESTED— HINTS TO TOURISTS.

and surely some proportion of the annual surplus of revenue oyer expenditure, and
which, by judicious management, every succeeding year will increase, cannot be more
benevolently or honestly applied, than in performing an act of strict, though of tardy
justice, to the native population of Ceylon, from a protecting and magnanimous
government.

The following preliminary suggestions may be useful to the tourist in Ceylon, both
in regard to his personal comfort and to economy. The emigrant, desirous of forming
an opinion for himself, respecting an incomparable and. magnificent country, and to
seek for a location where he may expend a part of his capital to the best advantage,
■would not think flying through the island in a mail coach, the best way to attain his
object ; and, by buggy, it is hazardous and inconvenient, even with relays of horses,
and fodder and medicines for them, at command. To be perfectly at one’s ease, to
stop when one pleases, to view the country, or to collect specimens in natural history,
there is nothing like the old-fashioned way, by palankin ; for any number of bearers
may be engaged, casualties by sickness or desertion be provided against by due pre¬
caution, and the traveller is always sure of a bed.

From Colombo to Kandy by the mail coach, there is no occasion for more luggage
than may be carried in a carpet bag ; but by the route round the island, by the north¬
ern road from Colombo, occasionally diverging from the sea coast, as the roads toward
the central province may present opportunities for investigating soil, climate, produc¬
tions, and sites for intended agricultural or other speculations, and returning to that
capital by the eastern and southern road, the traveller must be independent of acci¬
dent for supplies.

I would earnestly recommend the traveller in Ceylon to have nothing to do with those
pretty looking canteens, shining with patent leather and brass nails, at every outfitter’s
warehouse in town ; for there are places, where, unless the greatest care be taken,
the white ants will soon devour the leather, and perhaps the wood ; and as to the
ornamental brass nails, they are sure to exchange their brilliancy, in the humid atmos¬
phere of the island, for the green hue of old copper.

I have always found japanned tin boxes the securest and best ; and the traveller
may have as many as his habits require ; but he has one thing to bear in mind, viz.,
that the government regulations do not allow coolies to be compelled to carry more
than forty pounds (avoirdupois) to a greater distance than two miles from any town ;
and as they travel best with their burthens slung at each end of a pingo, a canteen,
when full, should not exceed twenty pounds. Therefore, a sufficient breakfast equi¬
page, with supplies of tea, sugar, coffee, powder, shot, caps, a small lamp fitted to

COOLEY LOADS— THREE MAXIMS FOR TRAVELLERS.

175

a low candlestick, with a couple of glass shades, wax candles, & c. &c., may be easily
fitted into compartments in a tin box, twenty inches long, by fifteen in depth and
width, and sufficient space to be left for a tray, of light cedar, over all ; and the
dinner canteen should be similarly fitted.

The Parsee and other shopkeepers have always hampers, containing an exact cooley
load of wine, &c., at hand ; and the gridiron and kettle may be slung upon the pole-
irons of the palankin. A couple of good guns are indispensable, but pistols and
swords, except for military men, are positive incumbrances.

The traveller’s cook should always precede his master by some hours, to the rest
house, whdre he may intend to halt during the heat of the day ; and be directed to
have a sufficient number of chatties of water (which, if exposed to the night air,
becomes the more cooling and wholesome) in readiness by his master’s arrival.

Chatties, of the common size, hold about a gallon of water ; these, emptied con¬
secutively over the head, impart a delightful coolness to the frame, that disposes
the tourist for one of those excellent breakfasts, a la fourchette, which the native
cooks are second to none in preparing.

During this gastronomic enjoyment, and whilst coolness of temper conjoins with the
temperature of early morning, let the traveller treasure the following in mind, as the
best advice that he can act upon. First, Never to strike a native, how much soever
his temper may be put to the test. Secondly, that for every day’s halting, Sundays
included, his coolies are entitled to Batta ,* at the rate of threepence each, in addition
to their regular hire. Thirdly, that they must not be compelled to travel more than
two stages, or twenty five miles, in twenty four hours ; or to proceed in cases of actual
illness ; under penalty, to their employer, of fine or imprisonment, at the discretion
of the nearest district court.

An umbrella should be carried, whenever practicable, during the heat of the day :
and I have found a circular curtain of green mosquito net, about twelve feet in depth,
with a centre ferrule fitted to the curtain, so as to admit the point of an umbrella, a
most excellent defence against that inveterate enemy of the new-comer, and constant
annoyance to European travellers, the mosquito ; for when the umbrella is expanded,
and the handle tied to the head of a common rest-house bed, or couch, one may
anticipate a night of comparative comfort, without having recourse to a mosquito dose
as a soporific.

To make a circuit of the island, by the coast, tourists should proceed by what is called

* Extra allowance.

176 ROAD THROUGH JAYELLE TO NEGOMBO— SAILING DIRECTIONS.

the northern route. This, after having crossed the Mutwal river by the bridge of boats,
lies through the village of Jayelle, a distance of 9-\ miles, through a fertile and popu¬
lous country; and from thence to Negombo the road lies chiefly through cinnamon
plantations. Everywhere the sight and the smell derive gratification ; for, on each side,
may be seen the beautiful crimson Clerodendrum infortunaturn, L., the Pinna-mal-geddi
of the Singhalese, Coffea trifiora, Lvoni roccnita, Nepenthes distillatoria of the climbing
and dwarf varieties (scandens and nano) ; the former, clinging to the cinnajnon bushes
for support, and displaying its “ pitchers," some with the lid closed, others writh it
open, and in an erect position, half full of water, like so many fly traps, as if the liquid
they contained was too valuable to be lost ; the latter, shrinking from exposure, under
the shade of the overhanging trees and grass : whilst the wild orange, lime, and shad¬
dock trees, ever in fruit and blossom at the same time, impart the most delicious fra¬
grance to the surrounding atmosphere.

For a considerable distance through the cinnamon plantations, the road is sandy :
and, in many places, it leads through large tracks of the pure white quartz sand,
already described in page 69, to which the cinnamon tree is partial.

Negombo is twenty four miles distant from Colombo,* and twro leagues to the
8. S. W. of Caymel. It lies in latitude 7° 15 north, and is a place of some trade, but
frequented solely by coasting vessels. The coast between Negombo and Caymel forms
a bight ; and the former is knowm from the offing, by the point projecting a great way
out, covered with coco-nut trees, and defended by a long reef beyond it. The bight,
as sailors call it, should not be approached by large vessels nearer than two leagues
off shore, nor in less than eight fathoms water, until the fort flag-staff bears S. E. by S.,
by which, the rocky ledge projecting from this part of the coast, and a rock with ten
feet water on it, and six fathoms close by, bearing from the flag-staff, or north point
of the fort, N. N. W., will be avoided.

For vessels bound to Negombo from the southward, the fort should be brought to
bear S. E. ; a ship ought then to steer direct for it, without borrowing any more to the
northward, and may anchor in five or six fathoms, abreast of the fort.

The present fort was built by the Dutch, more for a protection to the cinnamon
peelers, and storehouses of that spice, than as a sea defence. The only garrison, in
time of peace, consists of a few rank and file of the Ceylon regiment, under the com¬
mand of a non-commissioned officer.

* The roads, throughout the island, are measured trom the Queen s bouse, Colombo.

CHAP. XXII.

Negombo admirably situated for grazing farms — Suggestions for supplying Colombo, and the shipping, with
butchers meat, and stock, and the navy with salted provisions — A a val dependance upon Bengal for supplies —
Ceylon capable of supplying boatswains . carpenters , and other stores — Dutch families — Native women — Rest-
house — Wesleyan mission-house and chapel — Sapenntendaut of revenue and customs — Medicinal plants — Road from
Negombo to Kandy — Native pastimes — Northern route by the coast from Negombo — Recreations for the naturalist
and sportsman — Nattande — Madampe — Pepper plantations— Game — Harvests in the Chilaiv district — Chilaw —
Sailing directions — Manufacture of coarse paper and cation cloths — Mr. Wallbeuff' s escape from a leopard —
The plant called Rajah Wanya, or Jungle King — Artifcial Leu ays.

Negombo is an admirable place for establishing a grazing farm ; and for improving
the method of rearing and fattening cattle, sheep, swine, and poultry, for the Colombo
market; for every variety of green and dry fodder is produced here with 'very little
trouble ; and the inland communication by water would enable the farmer to have the
animals slaughtered over night at Negombo, and in the Colombo market soon after
day-break in the morning.

Ships touching at Colombo, might thus be supplied with live stock, and fodder, at a
few hours’ notice, equal to any that the very best farms in Bengal can produce ; but
this certain lucrative speculation, like many others, has been hitherto neglected or
unthought of, although a variety of proiects, and many of them Eutopian ones, are
constantly in agitation or progress.

The establishment of farms for the improvement of the breed of domestic cattle,
and for salting and curing meat, could not fail to prove a successful speculation ; and,
in the cooler regions of Neuwara Eliya, all the advantages possessed for the latter
grand object, are equal to those of the most temperate clime. It really astonishes the
considerate mind, that a country so highly favoured by nature, and the head quarters
of the British navy in India, should never yet have supplied that navy with a cask
of salted beef or pork from its own resources !

Whatever the distress of our fleet might be, the naval dependence for salt provision,
in India, is upon Bengal ; and yet there is not a single article that could be required

z

178

CAPABILITIES OF THE ISLAND FOR NAVAL SUPPLIES.

for the use of the navy, in point of boatswains’ and carpenters’ stores, and provisions,
which Ceylon, if her natural resources were properly applied to that grand object of
national importance, could not abundantly supply ; from sail-maker’s twine, to the
main-mast ; from the biscuit, to the cask of beef and pork ; rum, arrack, lime-juice,
vinegar, sugar, raisins, potatos, rice, pease, coffee, cocoa, pepper, oil, salt fish, live
stock, grain, dry fodder, spices, fruits, vegetables, tapioca, arrow' root, and a variety
of the most useful drugs for the sick, at a cheaper rate than any other place in the
British dominions.

Negombo is famous for its fish ; and, at certain seasons, the Sea Woodcock, or Red
Sur Mullet ( Mullus sunnuletus, L.) is caught in the greatest abundance and perfection.
Pliny, Seneca, Horace, and Martial, bear testimony to the great estimation in which
this delicious fish was held by the Romans, who purchased it at the very high rate of its
weight in silver. Apicius too, considered nothing more delightful than to view the
change of its beautiful colors, when expiring ; and nothing more exquisite than to
feast on it, when dressed with the “ Iiien que manque ,” or Carthaginian sauce of his
age of gluttony. Here, they are exposed in heaps, just after being taken from their
native element, at a few challies for half a dozen.

Kid, poultry, eggs, bread, fruit, and vegetables, may be obtained here in great
plenty, at moderate prices ; and the sportsman will find excellent snipe, curlew, and
widgeon shooting. The water is extremely brackish, unless it be obtained from
Kottidewe, or Children’s Island ; whore persons are employedi for the purpose of sink¬
ing pitchers in the sand over night, which, in the morning, are found full of pure and
sweet water, that had filtered in the interim. Very fine mushrooms are found
here, during, and for some time after, the rainy season ; and, from the facility with
which the country is irrigated, a great deal of paddee is produced : indeed, fertility
and cultivation are everywhere conspicuous, the pastures being of a rich and delightful
green, interspersed with magnificent teak ( Tectona Grandis, L.) and fruit trees, and
toddy topes.

Several respectable Dutch families formerly resided here, whose gardens were famous
for their exotic fruits, (originally introduced from Java and the Malay peninsula,) but
very few Dutch or Portuguese families, possessing wealth, remain in any part of the
island, in comparison with their former numbers.

The native women of Negombo have the credit of being prettier than at most other
places in Ceylon, and are generally modest and domestic in their habits.

The rest-house is a large and substantial stone building, with a spacious avenue
of very fine teak trees in its front.

REVENUE AND CUSTOMS— INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS.

179

The Wesleyan mission-house is large and commodious, and the chapel a particularly
neat building, having all the characteristics of a Protestant house of prayer.

The revenue and customs are superintended by an assistant government agent, who
is also a judge of the Colombo District Court, No. 2 south.

The neighbourhood of Negombo abounds with medicinal plants : of those used by
the native doctors, the following are the most generally known.*

The Indian Lilac ( Melia sempervirens, L.), Kassambu of the Singhalese, is much
esteemed for the medicinal properties of its bark and root. It yields a gum, that
smells like garlic ; and a valuable oil ( Margosa ) is extracted from its fruit, which is of
the size and shape of a French olive, with a part of its top cut off transversely, of a
yellow color, and grows in thick bunches.

The ripe fruit of the Domba gaha ( Calophyllum Inophyllum , L.) yields an oil which
is efficacious in rheumatism and rheumatic "out.

c

The Castor Oil plant ( Ricinus Palma Christi, L.) is so abundant, that it may be
regarded as a mere weed ; for when once it gets into a garden, it is as troublesome to
a gardener as the tobacco plant. The oil is generally esteemed for its medicinal pro¬
perties, and the leaves make a cooling dressing for blisters.

The Thorn Apple ( Datura Stramonium, L.). Of this common but invaluable plant
there are the white (called in Singhalese Attana ) and purple (Kalu-Attanaj-) varieties ;
these bear prickly pericarps, full of seeds, of narcotic qualities. The native doctors
make an ointment of the flower, for burns and contractions of the nerves ; and of the
leaves for curing the gout : but the leaf is not used, as with us, in asthmatic affections,
for the native doctors consider it injurious ; and prescribe the root only, after it has
been thoroughly dried, and chipped very fine, to their patients, who are then allowed
to smoke it ad libitum. The seeds of the white species are efficacious in dental com¬
plaints ; but these are seldom known where the use of Betel prevails.

The Wild Liquorice ( Abrus precatorius, L.), Olinda of the Singhalese. The leaf
has the taste of liquorice, and the native doctors make a decoction of it, with sugar
and lime juice, for coughs.

The Vanilla ( Vanilla aromatica, L.), Hinninwela gaha of the Singhalese, abounds ;
and yet not an ounce is prepared for exportation !

The Galangale Root ( Kcempferia galanga, L.) is equally neglected. The flower is
white, with a violet spot in the centre ; root bulbous, palmate ; leaves egg-shaped.

* Where there are no English names, the Singhalese precede the Linnaean ones.

+ The Singhalese have no definition of purple, and apply the word Kalu, or black, in lieu of it,

z 2

180

INDIGENOUS MEDICINAL PLANTS.

Its medicinal virtues are aromatic and diaphoretic. The broad-leaved galangale
(. K . latifolia), round-leaved ( K . rotunda), and narrow-leaved {K. angustifolia), are also
indigenous.

The Jacberi of the Singhalese ( Crotalaria laburmfolia and retusa, L.). Both have
yellow flowers, and the former is said to be the Radix Colombo, but, I believe,
erroneously.

The Tebu-gas of the Singhalese ( Costus speciosus ), an excellent substitute for ginger.

The Wal-pupulu of the Singhalese ( Eupatorium Ayapana), used to cure snake bites

The Sacsanda of the Singhalese ( Anstolochia Indica, L.). The root, steeped in
brandy or old arrack, is an invaluable tonic.

The Nil Kataroodoo of the Singhalese (Clitoria Ternatea, L.), a very common
creeper, and extremely ornamental, from its blue flowers and bright green leaves.
The root is used as an emetic.

The Angular-leaved Physic Nut ( Jatropha curcas , L.), J arrack of the Singhalese, of
which two or three seeds, cleansed from the skin, are a sufficient purge. Oil made
of the nuts is used in the cure of the itch, and the pounded leaf for ulcers ; and,
when mixed with tobacco, as an enema.

The Cocculus Indie us, L., mixed with moistened rice, is employed to intoxicate
birds and fishes.

The Coral Shrub ( Jatropha multijida, L.).

The Mendi of the Singhalese ( Ophiorhiza mungos), used in the cure of snake bites.

The Godogandu of the Singhalese ( Ophioxylon serpentinum, L.), also used for snake
bites, and as a tonic.

The Ratnethul of the Singhalese ( Plumbago rosea, L.).

The Rat Binunge of the Singhalese ( Periploca Indica, L.), with red flowers ; and
the Elle Binunge of the Singhalese ( Periploca sylvestris, L.), with white flowers.
Both possess similar properties to the Ipecacuanha ( Euphorbia ipecacuanhee, L.), and
delight in a sandy soil.

The Arooloo of the Singhalese (Terminalia chebulla), Boo loo of the Singhalese (T.
bellerica), and Nelli of the Singhalese (71 emblica).

The Jayapala and Nepalam gaha of the Singhalese ( Crown tiglium, L.), wild and
abundant. A very powerful oil is extracted, called Croton oil, and used in cases of
spasmodic cholera.

Lemon Grass (Andropogon Schcenanthus, L.), used in decoction as a cooling drink
in fever, and by the Dutch and Portuguese, for giving a lemon flavor to tea.

The Prickly Poppy ( Argemone Mexicana, L.).

J. W. Bennett del.

Citrus tuberoid.es
or

Caffrarian Lime

}

Koodalodeye of the
Singhalese

ROAD FROM NEGOMBO TO KANDY— FACE 0> THE COUNTRY.

181

The Cassia Fistula, L., abundant in jungles, and much used as an aperient medicine.

The Dewool gaha of the Singhalese ( Feronia elephantum), produces a medicinal gum.

The Jalap plant ( Convolvolus turpethum , L.), Tmstavcalla of the Singhalese.

The Wanassa of the Singhalese ( Ballota disticha, L.), a species of horehound.

The Lineya gaha of the Singhalese ( Helicteres Isora , L.).

From Negombo there is a road through Miniwangodde and Veangodde to Kandy,
distant 66| miles ; but I enjoyed the more unfrequented road, which, although in
many places it was with difficulty passed on horseback, I recommend to the naturalist;
namely, by the left bank of the Kaymel river, through Halpe, Kotadenia, Girule, (at
which place there is a ferry, and the name of the river is there changed to Maha-
Oya,) and Negahagidera, to the wretched cowshed, miscalled rest-house, at Naga-
hattoo, and from thence to Kurunagalle, or, as we call it, Kornegalle.

The whole country, except where there are occasional patches of jungle, is every¬
where cultivated and well irrigated, producing large crops of paddee, and small grains ;
and abounding in pasture lands, some of which have all the appearance of an extensive
English park : these teem with buffalos and bullocks, and the jungles with game.

Birds and insects, in great variety, and of the most brilliant colors, meet the eye
in every direction.

The villagers throughout the line of the bridle road, chiefly spend their afternoons
in cockfighting ; and, at night, are often successful in spearing elephants. At Kotadenia,
I mounted on a dead elephant, to make a sketch of a group of six which lay dead
within twenty yards of my position ; but not one of them had tusks. The villagers
informed me, that the animals were surrounded by so great a number of people, with
Chulos and Tom-toms, that they appeared paralyzed, and were speared without making
an attempt to defend themselves. I should not suppose the largest of these elephants
exceeded eight feet in height, and two of them were very small. I never saw one in
Ceylon, that, to the best of my judgment, exceeded ten or eleven feet in height.

Five miles beyond Negombo, the Kaymel river (as the Maha-Oya is called at its
mouth) is crossed at Topoo Ferry ; from thence to Kirimetteane the distance is six
miles, and to the bridge of Ging-Oya about 4^ miles ; the road flat and sandy, and
the land but partially cultivated. The next rest-house is that of Nattande, about a
mile from the bridge over the Ging-Oya.

The naturalist and the sportsman may find the most delightful recreation and exer¬
cise in this neighbourhood ; the former in collecting specimens of the various aquatic
plants, ferns, mosses, land shells, insects, and birds ; and the latter may select any

182

NORTHERN ROUTE BY THE SEA-COAST— VARIETIES OF GAME.

game he pleases ; for he has not to go far inland to find elephants, leopards, deer, elk,
hares, and almost every variety of animal and bird the country produces.

But if the tourist be neither botanist, naturalist, nor sportsman, and desire to have
game procured for him, he has only to hint his wish to the keeper of the rest-house
where he may halt, and a number of native sportsmen will soon be collected about him,
with their uncouth guns, ready to .bring him whatever game he may require, upon
receiving a charge or two of powder and shot, and a promise of a similar quantity, as
their subsequent reward ; for as they never fire until too dose upon their object to run
the least risk of missing it, they invariably earn the promised gratuity.

From Nattande rest-house to the bridge over the 'Kuddoopitte-Oya the distance is
5f- miles ; and half a mile further is Madampe, formerly a place of importance, and
the residence of native sovereigns ; and subsequently a swampy unhealthy locality,
tenanted by mosquitos, jackalls, monkies, and alligators ; until the late Mr. Peter
Engelbert Vanderstraaten obtained a grant of land from the government, and formed
pepper gardens there, in the hope of eventually rendering the island independent of
the Malabar coast for that most important spice, without which, the cinnamon would
lose its aromatic properties, and consequently its value, during the homeward voyage.

If Mr. Vanderstraaten had been supported by the government to the extent he had
been encouraged to anticipate, Madampe would have proved pre-eminently productive,
particularly in pepper, which is now produced there, but in a very limited quantity
to its capabilities. The clustering pepper bines unite the most stately trees, all valuable
for their timber, as if in one family compact ; these form cool and delightful avenues ;
and in every direction near his spacious bungalow, Mr. Vanderstraaten planted the
best and rarest varieties of the plantain tree, ( Musa Sapientium, L.) that the island,
and the neighbouring continent of India produced.

Madampe abounds with widgeon, snipe, curlews, sand pipers, the large and small
white and brown paddee birds, flamingos ( Phcenicopterus ruber, L.), and other aquatic
birds. The flesh of the flamingo is, at certain seasons, white and delicious, and
entirely free from the peculiarly fishy flavor of its genus that it possesses at others.
Elk,* deer,f wild hogs, the stock or original of the common domestic hog, and not
the Babyroussa (Sus Babyrussa, L.), as some have stated it to be, for that animal is
not known in the island ; Indian musk of Pennant ( Moschus Meminna, L.), pea fowl,
jungle fowl (G alius Indicus of Leach), small red-legged partridges ( Perdix Janninus

* Elk, the roe-buck ( Cervus Capreolus, L.).

t Deer ( Cervus Axis of Shaw, Cervus l)ama, L.), amongst which there is a variety perfectly white, with red eyes.

HARVESTS IN THE CHILAW DISTRICT— SAILING DIRECTIONS.

183

of Shaw), Coromandel quails ( Coturnix texlilis of Shaw), and hares, abound through¬
out the province.

The canal contains abundance of small mud fish, of the genus Perea, L., and eels.

The beautiful Nymphcea alba and N. Nelumbo cover the water tanks with their
odoriferous red and white (esculent) corols.

The Ceylon hare resembles the common European hare in every respect, except
that the fur on the nape of the neck is black. The flesh of the wild hog is a whole¬
some food, but altogether unlike pork ; and next to it, in point of flavor, but more
delicate, is the flesh of the porcupine, an animal easily domesticated ; for, though
“ fretful ” by nature, it will feed, and keep upon excellent terms with pigs in a stye.

The Maha or great harvest in the Chilaw district, of paddee sown between the 1st of
September and 31st October, takes place in February ; and the Yalta harvest, or second
crop of paddee, sown between the 1st of April and 31st of May, takes place in August.
Twelve sorts of this grain are cultivated here; and as many sorts of “fine grains,”
of which, those sown between the 1st of September and 15th of October, are reaped
at the Maha harvest in January; and those sown between the 1st of April and 31st
of May, are reaped at the Yalta harvest in July and August.

The directions for sailing along this coast are thus given by Horsburghu: “ Seven
miles north of Madampe is Chilaw, which village lies in about latitude 7° 48' north, and
may be known from the offing by a sand hill, having on it some bushes, and near it a
round hummock. In coming to this place from the northward, a vessel should keep two
miles outside the reef of rocks projecting from Calpentyn, until clear of its southern ex¬
tremity, then haul in towards the Ceylon shore. Coming from the southward, a vessel
may, if bound to Chilaw, steer along shore to the anchorage abreast of the river.

“ From the north point of Calpentyn to Chilaw, the distance is about nine leagues ;
and when a vessel has got an offing, the course is about S. S. W. along the west side
of the island. A reef of rocks stretches along that side, nearly from the middle part
beyond the southern point, where it projects nearly three miles from the shore, requir¬
ing great attention to the lead in passing. The bottom between Calpentyn and Chilaw
is mostly sand, with a little coral at times : the nearer the former is approached, the
worse it becomes for anchoring.”

The fort of Chilaw has a small garrison, and is a dependency of that of Putlam.
The rest-house is roomy and airy. At the time I first visited it,, in 1816, the best pack
of dogs (I cannot say hounds) in the island was kept there, by the then collector of the
district, Mr. Wallbeoff, who was a great sportsman. Chilaw, which is now superintended
by an assistant government agent, has manufactories of coarse paper, and also of com-

184 PAPER AND COTTON MANUFACTURES— ESCAPE FROM A LEOPARD.

mon cottons, table cloths, and towels : these are preferable to linen articles for wear
and tear, because the latter cannot withstand the Ceylon washerman’s principal soap
(beating against a stone) as the former does, to the tune of “ Europe, Europe, Europe,”
until the article, subjected to his manual operations, is more holy than sound.

The tiger is unknown in Ceylon, although that name is applied] to the chetah or
leopard (Felis Leopardus), which is as great an authropophagist as the former, whenever
opportunity admits of it.

Mr. Wallbeoff, whilst in search of a leopard, which had severely lacerated a native,
observed the animal crouched behind a fallen coco-nut tree. He fired both the
barrels of his gun at the animal ; one ball perforated the near hind leg, and the other,
passing through the lower jaw, lodged in the off shoulder. Turning round for his
rifle to the native to whom he had entrusted it, and who had faithfully promised to keep
close to him, he found himself deserted ; for his followers had all decamped, upon
seeing the danger he was in. At this moment, Mr. Wallbeoff received a violent blow
on the back of his shoulder, from the animal’s paw, which felled him to the ground,
when the enraged beast fastened its teeth in the back part of his head, and its hind
claws into his back ; but, owing to the wounds it had received, and its struggle with
a strong muscular man, the animal relinquished its hold, and retired into a bush.

As soon as Mr. Wallbeoff had so far recovered himself as to reload his gun, he
pursued the leopard and shot it through the heart. The animal, when measured, was
found to be seven feet ten inches from the nose to the tip of the tail ; and, after all,
Mr. Wallbeoffs injuries were not very material.

From Chilaw, the northern route lies to the Dedro-Oya, distant two miles ; from
thence to the rest-house of Battooloo-Oya, 10|- miles ; to Moondel, 4 miles ; to Mar-
rundamkoolle, 7j miles.

The botanist will be delighted with the beautiful little plant, called Rajah Wanya, or
Jungle King, which delights in marshy places, and abounds in this neighbourhood.
The plant bears a delicate white flower, upon a pink capillary stalk ; leaves cordiform ;
upper surface, resembling black velvet, striped with gold-like color, and veined after
the manner of a butterfly’s wing ; under surface, a light lake, inclining to ash color.
The natives, ignorant of the attractive influence of water upon trees, ascribe the
bending of their branches over the water and marshy places, inhabited by the Rajah
Wanya „ to their natural homage to the Jungle King plant ! !

The artificial Leways, or salt pans, are situate at Oedepencarre, Alempitty, Pullet-
chacalom, Mundel, Anea Kadda, Pallandowe, Perrea Natchicale, Karativoe Island,
Calpentyn, Chinne Natchicale, and Rattande.

CHAP. XXIII.

Pullam — Its garrison — Artificial salt pans — Face of the country — Crocodiles — Native devoured by a crocodile —
Living crocodile presented to the Author — Difference between the Ceylon and Ganges crocodile — Mosque — Burial
ground — Remarkable tree — Moorish dancers with a double-edged sword in each hand — Milk purveyors — Tyre —
Native Vermicelli — Road to Kandy through Kornegalle — Water conveyance to the islands of Calpentyn and Kare-
tivoe — Sailing directions alcmg the coast — Farm of the Chank fishery — Its extent — The Chank manufactured into
bangles and spoons — Estimated value of a Chank with its valve opening to the right instead of the left — Hint to
the naturalist — The sea weed Fucus aurylaceus, commonly called Jaffna moss — Custom-house establishment at
Calpentyn — Inadequate salaries, and contrast — The late Earl of St. Vincent's illiberal maxim for naval officers
not likely to ensure honesty in civil departments — Anecdote of a provincial judge of Calpentyn — Northern route
continued — Pomparripo — Face of the country — Wild animals — The great crane — Right Honorable Sir Alexander
Johnston — Ancient tank of Bawale — Singhalese records — Capabilities of the soil — Extent and population of the
western province.

Putlam is the next stage from Mammdamkoolle. It is a populous village, prin¬
cipally inhabited by Moormen and Hindoos, and has a small fort and garrison, com¬
manded by a lieutenant, with a medical staff of one assistant surgeon, and one native
medical assistant.

The commandant is also superintendant of salt under the civil assistant government
agent of Chilaw. This great staple of human economy is manufactured here in large
quantities ; the coast being very flat and sandy, and evaporation extremely rapid, the
artificial pans, soon after the salt has formed, appear, at a distance, as if covered
with snow.

The face of the country is flat, and abounds in tanks and patches of water, all which
are infested with crocodiles. The Ceylon species is the Lacerta Crocodilus, a very
sluggish animal. The natives catch them in nets, and also in traps, and with baited
hooks. In the former way, they have more sport ; for they spear and shoot them,
ad libitum, after having dragged them upon terra firma.

The crocodile possesses great strength, and is equally dreaded by men and animals.
It has been occasionally caught in the jungles. The only instance of its destroying
human life, that fell within my own knowledge, was at Hiccode, in the Galle dis¬
trict, in 1824 ; when a native, in the act of bathing, was seized by a crocodile, and
swallowed, with the exception of the head and one hand, which were found on the

2 A

186

NATIVE DEVOURED BY A CROCODILE— GIGANTIC TREE.

margin of the river ; from which it was inferred that the poor victim had seen the
animal approach, and had endeavoured to save himself, but was overtaken just as he
had grasped at an overhanging branch of a tree in the last fruitless effort to escape.

Immediately upon the report reaching the collector of the district, James Agnew
Farrel, Esq., he ordered a general search for the amphibious monster ; which, on
the second day, proved successful ; for just as our pic-nic party was about to sit
down to dinner, two carts lashed together, and containing the body of the animal,
which was 17| feet in length, were driven to the door. We had it removed instantly
to the sea-side and opened ; when the body of the native, already a mass of putrefac¬
tion, was taken out, and a coroner’s inquest held upon the spot.

The Ceylon crocodile differs greatly from the Lacerta Gangetica, which has a snout
thrice the length of the head, and the eyes very prominent, and so constructed that
the animal can see above the water when its body is below the surface. In the
Ceylon species the head is long, and flat towards the extremity of the jaws ; the eyes
very small, and so placed within their orbits that the outer part, when shut, is not
above an inch and a half in length, and parallel with the opening of the jaws ; the
nose is directly in the middle of the upper jaw, and about an inch and a quarter
from the extremity of it ; the neck is carinated, and both the head and back are
covered with a hard coat ; the tail rough, with two lateral crests ; but the belly is not
proof against a musket ball. ,

In 1827, the bullock drivers belonging to the salt establishment at Hambantotte,
brought me a living crocodile, which they had caught in a jungle near Magam. It
measured sixteen feet four inches from the extremity of the head to that of the tail.

This animal is called Kayman by the Dutch and Portuguese of the island, and
Kimbolah by the Singhalese ; and whatever is once seized by it can never escape ; for
there are alternate cavities between the teeth in both jaws. The living specimen had
twenty five sharp-pointed teeth in the upper, and fifteen in the lower jaw, of different
sizes ; but it evidently had had more in the former, by the remains of stumps that
had the appearance of broken teeth.

The crocodile lays from eighty to a hundred eggs, which are white, and of the size
of a goose’s egg, but more oblong, and convex at the extremities.

The Moormen have a mosque at Putlam ; and, in the burial ground, there is a fine
specimen of a species of tamarind, which is distinguished by the Malabars from the
common tamarind ( Tamar indus Indica, L.), which they call Bolam-Pulli and Maderam-
Pulli, by the name of Papara-Pulli ; as large as the one, under which Baldaeus is said
to have first preached the gospel in Ceylon, and which lies in the direct route to

MOOR-BOYS' DANCE WITH SWORDS— ROAD TO KANDY.

187

Jaffna, near the village of Illipekadewe. In 1816, this tree was thirty four feet in
girth, and nearly eighty feet in height.

Some of the young villagers display great agility in dancing with a double-edged
sword in each hand ; and in attack and defence, whilst rapidly moving to the sound
of native music.

The Moormen are the principal huxters, jewellers, and butter and milk purveyors,
in the island. At “ out-stations,” the last two articles may be obtained free from
adulteration ; but at Colombo, where the demand is greater, the adulteration of the
former, with flour, and the latter, from “ the standing cow in the yard,” is propor¬
tionally great.

At this place, and other country villages, the best Tyre is to be procured morning
and evening. .This cool, wholesome, and very nutritious curd, is prepared by boiling
new milk until one third of the quantity has evaporated ; it is then removed from the
fire ; and when cool, the addition of a table spoonful of butter-milk converts it, in a
very few hours, into a solid curd ; in which state it is eaten with sugar, nutmeg, and
boiled rice. Nothing can be more wholesome for children ; and it is a great favorite,
at breakfast, with all ranks and classes, both European and native. The Singhalese
call it Midi Kiri, or hard milk ; the Hindo-Portuguese, Tyroj and the Malabars, Tyree.
This curd is also eaten with a species of Vermicelli, which is formed of rice flour and
the expressed juice of the pulp of the ripe or curry coco-nut, forced through the
bottom of a chatty, which is perforated with small holes for the purpose, into a common
rice winnow, and held in the steam of boiling water until it acquires the consistency
of boiled Maccaroni.

From Putlam there is a tolerable road to Kandy, through the romantic station of
Komegalle ; which, for the traveller’s guidance, may as well be set down in Ceylon
road order ; because, if in search of a location, he would scarcely confine himself to
the line of road, and might prefer extending his tour, by diverging to the right and
entering the central province, so as to obtain information as to the nature of the soil,
its productions, and capabilities for being made available to any speculation that he
may have in prospective ; and, after having so done, return to the place from whence
he diverged, for the purpose of continuing his route round the island.

From Putlam to Katjemadowe, 12 miles ; to Dohanneamma, 11 miles ; to Bogalle-
gamma, 10 miles ; to Padennie, 10 miles ; to Kalloomoone, 8| miles ; to Kornegalle,
7^ miles ; to Kospotte-Oya, 8| miles ; to Madawalletenne, miles ; to Mavali-Ganga,
8f miles ; to the entrance of the tunnel (500 feet in length), 1^ mile ; to Kandy,
1| mile ; — total from Putlam to Kandy, 84 miles.

2 a 2

188

SAILING DIRECTIONS FROM PUTLAM TO MANAAR.

There is also conveyance by water from Putlam to Calpentyn ; and as the islands
of Calpentyn and Karetivoe lie parallel with this coast, and between Putlam and
Point Koedeemale (which forms a small bight between it and the south bank of the
Marritchicatty river) ; and the island of Manaar, forming, with the north end of
Karetivoe,* a considerable bay, the directions for sailing along them may be of suf¬
ficient utility to justify a temporary digression from the route by land.

According to Captain Horsburgh’s sailing directions, “ There are many dangerous
banks interspersed from the east end of the island of Manaar to Calpentyn island,
rendering the navigation unsafe for large vessels near the shore ; but small ones,
drawing seven or eight feet water only, and acquainted with the coast, pass inside or
between some of them. The east end of Manaar is in about latitude 8° 57' north,
having coco-nut and palmyra trees upon it ; also a fort, and several houses ; and in
the gut which separates it from the opposite point in Ceylon, Mantotte, there is said
to be ten or twelve feet water in some places.”

“ Calpentyn island, situated to the southward of Cardiva island, near to, and parallel
with, Ceylon, appears as part of the principal island, when viewed from the offing.
It is low, abounds with coco-nut trees, and extends from latitude 7° 56' to 8° 18' north.”

“ The fort and village of Calpentyn stand on the north end of the island, between
which and the south end of Cardiva island, there is a group of islets, with a larger
one, called Long Island,f adjoining the north point of Calpentyn, of which it seems
part. Close to this, vessels may anchor in four or five fathoms ; or farther to
the N. E. near Cardiva ; but the bottom being mostly rocky and foul, they will be
liable to lose their anchors. The best track in, is thought to be near the N. W. side
of the island, on account of dangerous overfalls on the rocky banks a little to the
northward. The bank of soundings is said to stretch from this island about six or
seven leagues to the westward.”

In the rainy season, the peninsula of Calpentyn becomes an island, and the mud
renders crossing impossible.

“ The rocky banks or reefs off this place are very dangerous ; one lies to the W.
and S. W. five or six miles off shore, with four fathoms water close to it, and the
outermost are said to be five leagues distant from the land. Ships bound to Manaar
from the southward, when 3 or 3\ leagues to the westward of Cardiva island, may
steer about north, till the breakers on the reef are discerned ; then haul to the west-

* Called also Cardiva and Nallandine Island,
t Distant from Chilaw by sea eight or nine leagues.

CHANK FARM AND FISHERY— ISLAND OF CALPENTYN.

189

ward about a league in rounding it. From this place, Manaar island will be seen to
the N. E., for which they should steer, keeping a good look-out , and the lead going, the
soundings being irregular over a rocky bottom, until seven or eight fathoms near the
island ; under these depths they decrease gradually towards it to five fathoms sandy
ground. In this track there are sometimes overfalls from twenty to twenty five
fathoms, to two or three fathoms less at a cast. If a vessel shoal to eight fathoms
hard ground, in passing near the reef or outermost banks, she ought instantly to haul
to the westward.”

“ From this part of Ceylon to the Tinevelly coast, soundings extend across the
gulf to the southward of Adam’s Bridge ; but the outer limit of the bank is not
exactly known to Europeans, as seldom any other than small coasting vessels navigate
in the gulf to the northward of Colombo.”

The farm of the exclusive right of fishing for the shell fish called Chank ( Voluta
Gravis ), which extends from the northern extremity of Calpentyn island, round by
Jaffna, to Moelletivoe on the east side of the island, is usually sold to the highest
bidder for a term of two years.

This univalve is an article of considerable commerce throughout India ; for it is
manufactured into bangles for women and children, by whom these ornaments are
worn, round their arms and legs, in indefinite numbers, as their circumstances may
admit of the display. Spoons are also made of it, which are occasionally purchased
by the curious European.

A chank shell with its valve opening to the right instead of the left, is considered
of very great value. I once heard a native estimate it at 10,000 rupees, or about
<£1000 sterling.

The palankin boys and baggage coolies will be much relieved by boating it from
Putlam to Calpentyn ; and by^ keeping close along the shore of Navakarre, the
naturalist may obtain shells, specimens of mollusca, madrepore, pearl-oyster spawn,
coral, sea weed ( Fucus aurylaceus), commonly called in the island Jaffna moss, which
is in general demand and estimation throughout India ; and, as it is superior in
quality to the Iceland moss, it might be made a profitable speculation, as an export
to this country.

The custom-house at Calpentyn is the only civil establishment on the island, and is
superintended by an assistant custom master, whose salary is 67/. lOs. per annum,
with a supervisor at £30, a conicoply* or cash-keeper and cloth-taxer (unus et idem ) at
£20, and a searcher at £10 per annum !! Is this enough to support them and their
families, and at the same time keep them honest in the midst of temptation ?

190

CHAMELEON DIET — A PROVINCIAL JUDGE— LEX TERRVE.

I have seen <£2000, £1000, £1200, and £b00 a year, insufficient to keep certain
Europeans, called Ceylon civil servants, faithful and honest in their public duties ;
but perhaps the indigenous breed arc expected to be composed of more trustworthy
materials, although, by comparison, expected to live on chameleon diet. The late
Earl of St. Vincent’s illiberal maxim in regard to naval officers, “ Keep them poor,
and they will serve you well!” will not' do to ensure honesty in post office, revenue ,
and custom-house departments.

The very name of Calpentyn is so connected with colonial anecdote, that I cannot
refrain from relieving the monotony of the route, by relating one, as 1 received it : but
without vouching for its authenticity.

Formerly, Calpentyn was the residence of a provincial judge ; and a vacancy having
occurred, a civil servant was appointed to that judicial office, who was as notorious
for his orthographical independence, as for his habitual boast “ that although he was
eight years fagging at Latin and French, he knew no more of either than when he
left school ; and, that at that time, he was just as wise as on the day he entered it ! ”

This new provincial judge proceeded to the King's house, as the Governor’s resi¬
dence was then called, with the twofold object of returning thanks for the appointment,
and of getting the Governor’s consent to the usual advance of six months’ salary, in
order to fit out for his new station. After having been, according to court parlance,
“ most graciously received,” his request was granted ; and just as the Governor was
about to give him his conge, the Stentorian voice of a neighbouring Dutch auctioneer's
clerk, whose name was Terry, and who was about to sell a lot of cast cavalry horses,
was heard in the street facing the King’s house : “ Going, — going, — can’t dwell, gentle¬
men, — going, — gone!” attracted his attention. He was a good judge of horse-flesh,
if not of Greek and Latin, and therefore anxious to depart from “ the presence,” in
order to attend the sale.

Upon rising to take leave, the Governor good-humouredly said to him, “ I presume,

Mr. - - that you are very intimately acquainted with the Lex terra,” — and, if the

judge had not suddenly interrupted him. His Excellency would have added, “ accord¬
ing to the Dutch code, as administered in this island.” The judge changed color, as if
gazing upon a ghost ; for his dignity was much hurt at the serious charge, as he con¬
sidered it ; and so anxious was he to acquit himself, that he very gravely assured the
Governor, that “if His Excellency did not joke, he must have been grossly misin¬
formed ; for that upon his honor, as a gentleman, except that he knew the fellow’s
surname was Terry, and that he was the auctioneer’s clerk, he knew not whether his
Christian name was Lex, or if he had ever been christened at all ! ! ”

SCENERY ABOUT POMPARRIPO— WILD ANIMALS— THE GREAT CRANE. 191

Reader ! imagine, if thou canst, the surprise, or rather mute astonishment, of His
Majesty’s sole manufacturer of provincial judges. His Excellency the Governor of
Ceylon !

To resume our route by land, the next stage from Putlam is to Pomparripo rest-
house, beyond the river of that name, (through the village of Nelliobar, distand 5 miles,
and Wannativille, 6| miles from the former village,) distant 18| miles; and to the
village of Pomparripo a further distance of four miles.

The face of the country is flat ; but although none of the scenery of the more
elevated parts of the island diversifies the prospect, magnificent forest trees, and
verdant plains, interspersed with neat native cottages and paddee fields, form
as interesting a landscape as any champain country can present. The sea is
skirted by low sands, with here and there an occasional Cactus opuntia, or Pandamis
odoratissimus.

The neighbouring jungle abounds with elk, deer, wild hogs, elephants, chetahs,
bears, sloths, monkies, and various other animals ; besides birds and insects in great
variety, and most interesting to the collecting naturalist. Of the stork or Grits
genus, which is numerous throughout the island, and particularly in the northern and
eastern provinces, the Mafia Kokah * is a splendid specimen, and its elegant white
feathers over the shoulders and back are much esteemed by the fair sex. My atten¬
tion was first drawn to its delicate plumage by the Right Honorable Sir Alexander
Johnston, with whom I had the honor to travel, some years since, when Sir Alexander
was chief justice of Ceylon, from Jaffna to Colombo ; during which period, I shot a
superb specimen of the Maha Kokah ; but not having any preparation at hand for
preserving the skin, putrefaction followed death most rapidly, and I contented myself
with sketching the bird, and presenting the valuable portion of its feathers to Sir
Alexander.

The northern part of this province is chiefly inhabited by Moormen and Hindoos ;
and there are so many vestiges of its original agricultural importance, that one is lost
in surprize at the apparent apathy of former European governments.

The naturalist or the botanist may not be disposed to lose an inch of ground ; but
the antiquarian will find little for research, unless he diverges very much to his right,
through jungle and cattle tracks, until he reaches the remains of the Bawale tank ;
for which place he can procure a guide at Pomparripo.

* Maha Kokah signifies the Great Crane, — Maha, a Sanscrit word, in general use by the Singhalese, for Great,

and Kokah, Crane.

192 TANK OF BA WALE— SINGHALESE RECORDS— CAPABILITIES OF THE SOIL.

This ancient tank is one of the very many vestiges of the former agricultural pros¬
perity of the northern districts ; for although the cultivation of rice had subsequently
become so neglected, that in the year 1785 Ceylon was supplied from Java, it is a
recorded fact, that in the year 1693 the whole Coromandel coast was supplied with
that grain from this part of Ceylon ! It is estimated, that if the Bawale tank was
restored to its original state of usefulness, the lands which would thereby be rendered
capable of irrigation, would afford employment to at least fifteen hundred or two
thousand labourers.

Although it is mortifying to the inquiring mind, that the period of authentic history
is so extremely limited ; and that, as it is generally understood, we cannot trace it
antecedently to Herodotus, unless we include the sacred writings of the great lawgiver
of the Jews, about eleven hundred years more remote, the Singhalese priests do
not hesitate to aver, that they have correct national records for upwards of two
thousand years.

The soil of this district is admirably adapted for the cultivation of cotton (Gossipium
herbaceum, L.), both of the white and Nan-Kin varieties ; Dhol ( Citysus Cajan , L.),
sun-flower ( Helianthus annuus, L.), Cassada ( Jatropha Manihot, L.), ginger (. Amomum
Zingiber, L.), pepper ( Piper nigrum , L.), annatto (fBixa orellana, L.), turmeric ( Cur¬
cuma longa, L.), and the greater and lesser cardamom (. Amomum grana Paradisi, and
E let aria cardamomum, L.).

The superficies of the western province of Ceylon is 4452 square miles. White
population, including military and their families, 3982. Free blacks, 492,605. Slaves,
606. Aliens and resident strangers, 1829. Thus giving a population of 111.78 to
the square mile.

CHAP. XXIV.

Northern Province — Pomparripo river — Pomparripo — Native inhabitants — Capabilities of the province for
supplying the whole island, with rice — Anticipated result of a liberal encouragement of Hindoo immigration — Indis¬
pensable elementary improvements — Increase of revenue from sea customs one certain result of Hindoo coloniz¬
ation — Depression of native agriculture — Singhalese landlords — Cultivators pay fifty per cent, upon advances
of seed com — Consequence of non-payment after the harvest — Native proctors — The law of primogeniture would
be a blessing to the Singhalese — Minute division of landed property — Northern route continued — Marrilchicatty
rest-house — Padoua caste — Covia and Nallua slaves — Headmen support caste from interest and prejudice — As¬
sumption of the rank of headmen in the Malabar provinces — Penalty attached — Kallaar pagoda — Ashes exchanged
for money — Malabar improvisatori — Scenery from Pomparripo to Kallaar — Apician luxuries — Common oyster
abundant, but neglected, although it might be made a profitable speculation — A Singhalese mile — Jaffna moss —
Description of the Hirundo esculenta — Its edible nest — Dutch partial to it as a delicacy — Its virtues — The pre¬
pared birds' nest humbly presented to His Majesty King George the Fourth, who commands it to be cooked for
his Royal use — Sir Henry Halford's communication to the Author.

The Pomparripo river separates the Western from the Northern Province, and
takes its rise in the mountains of the interior, near Nallande, in the former Kandyan
Dessavony of Matelle, now part of the central province. The village of Pomparripo,
about four miles north of the ford, is chiefly inhabited by industrious Moormen and
Hindoos. These people are of very contented habits ; and the province possesses
great natural and artificial capabilities of irrigation. If therefore the government
would but encourage Hindoo immigration, by grants of the crown lands, tax-free, for
a certain number of years, there would be no want of native capitalists to advance
money and seeds, upon the security of the crops ; and sufficient rice, cotton wool,
and tobacco, might be grown in this province to supply the whole island, and leave
a large surplus for exportation.

But, as an indispensable preliminary to the great and important measure of ex¬
tending the culture of these staples, the government will have to effect extensive
elementary improvements ; such as the restoration of the ancient tanks, and the
formation of canals and bridges, in order to increase the means of transit ; the want
of which, are the chief physical obstructions to commerce : for it is by such works that
the capital of a country is formed, and they ought to be promoted, if it be the object
of the government to attract, and render profitable, the capital of individuals.

2 B

194 INCREASED COASTING TRADE A RESULT OF HINDOO COLCLNIZATION.

For this grand object, it would be sound policy to encourage an extensive coloniz
ation of the northern parts of the western, and the northern provinces, by Hindoos ,
and it is morally impossible to estimate the extent of the local benefits, to which, such
a measure may lead.

Whether the Hindoos were the primitive inhabitants of the country or not, they
form one of the most ancient nations in the world, and were distinguished by letters
and arts, at a time when the major part of their Asiatic neighbours were scarcely
advanced beyond the first stage of civilization. Let it be recollected, that this race
is humane, gentle, and brave, (for there are nowhere better native soldiers than the
Hindoos, under proper discipline and European officers,) their manners obliging, and
their habits frugal, hospitable, and temperate.

If the latter be, as we are told, one of the effects upon society of Hindoo super¬
stition, whose positive injunction to rigid temperance preserves its votaries from many
of the gross irregularities, which, in our own country, sap the foundations of all social
happiness, let us hope, that the extension of Christianity will not introduce its anti¬
thesis to this now contented race of people.

It may be anticipated, that Hindoo immigrants would bring with them, exclusively
of those practiced in agriculture, cattle breeding, fishing, hunting, and mining, manu¬
facturers of cotton and silk cloths, shawls and mats, and tanners of leather, equal
to those of Cordova. As they are also inimitable dyers, there is not a fairer field
for their operations than Ceylon, where every kind of vegetable dye may be said to
be indigenous.

Although the restoration of the ancient tanks would be a work of time, yet culti¬
vation would be gradually extending itself, as the means of irrigation progressed ; and
one grand result of the occupation of the soil by industrious Hindoos, would be a
gradual, but important increase of the local revenue, through the additional stimulus
that would thereby be given to the trade between Ceylon and the opposite coasts.

The next important object, and not the least to a naval power, to which I would
beg leave most earnestly to draw the attention of Her Majesty’s government, is the
culture of the indigenous hemp ( Cannabis Sativa, L.), and the formation of teak
( Tectona grandis ) plantations, upon the crown lands of the maritime provinces. That
the Ceylon teak is not inferior to any that India, produces, is, I believe, undeniable ;
and, however great the supply that may now be obtained from the Malabar and Bur¬
mese coasts, a time may come when Great Britain may have to depend upon its own
resources for shipbuilding materials ; and all will admit, that it is the duty of the
present to anticipate the naval wants of succeeding generations. The teak flourishes

SUGGESTIONS FOR TEAK PLANTATIONS— NATIVE LANDLORDS.

195

best upon the sea coast ; and the neighbourhoods of Galle, Colombo, Negombo, and
Trincomale, offer every facility for forming plantations of this invaluable tree, for the
future purposes of the British navy.

Many objectionable circumstances still tend to depress native agriculture in Ceylon,
notwithstanding the abolition of forced personal service, or Rajah Karia, in the
year 1832 ; a measure by which the Earl of Ripon, when Viscount Goderich, immor¬
talized his Lordship’s second administration of the colonies.

We must not look at the improved system introduced by a few speculative English
capitalists, or their agents, (for those gentlemen do not condescend to cultivate rice, or
the smaller grains,) in the few thousands of acres devoted to coffee, sugar, &c., but
to the general agricultural system of the colony ; for “ the greatest happiness of the
greatest number ” ought to be the grand object of every good government.

The Singhalese landlords care not one straw for the interests of the cultivators.
The latter must contrive to pay them a clear profit of fifty per cent, for their advances
of seed corn, whether the harvest be good or bad ; * and they are naturally such a
litigious race, that if this exorbitant premium be not duly paid, upon the grain being
trodden out, (for they have no other than the primitive mode of detaching it from the
straw,) the omission is sure to be followed by a proctor’s summons ; whereupon, the
debtor, in his anxiety to save further costs, grants a bond for the value of the corn,
which he was to have paid in kind, at the rate of fifty per cent., upon the market
price, and bearing the usual legal rate of interest, in the colony, viz. twelve per cent
per annum. If, again, that bond be unpaid when due, wo betide the unfortunate
cultivator ! — the law is resorted to — followed up gradatim — and unmercifully, as far as
it depends either upon the Singhalese plaintiff or his proctor ; execution follows, and
all the poor defendant’s little property is seized and sold !

This curse upon agriculture, though great, is not the greatest. The law of primo¬
geniture, which is elsewhere considered a very unjust hardship upon the younger
branches of a family, would, if established in Ceylon, be the greatest blessing that
a wise government could possibly confer upon the country. It would decrease the
number of those pests, the Singhalese proctors, who infest every minor court ot
justice ; and a corresponding benefit to the agricultural classes would be one of the
first results of its enactment.

If a person, possessing landed property, die, its value is estimated, as the system
now obtains, by the produce of so many Jack or Coco-nut trees ; or, of so man\

* When advances of seed corn are made by the government, twenty tiv'e per cent, is the usual charge

2 b 2

196

LANDED PROPERTY HOW VALUED— NATIVE PROCTORS.

acres, (I suppose one must adopt the English term, according to the new system
introduced into the country, and which has puzzled the natives to understand our
superficial measure,) of paddee ; and if he leave a dozen children, the trees are shared
between the heirs , either conjointly with, or without, the land. And, if the owner of
one twelfth share dies, leaving twelve children, away goes that twelfth among his heirs ;
and so on, ad infinitum, until, perhaps, each share might cover but a penny piece in size.

The least trespass, the taking of a Coco-nut, or Jack, beyond the share, would inevi¬
tably be followed by a “ law-suit and in this manner the time and patience
of district judges are occupied and put to the test. The price of judicial stamps
might be so increased as to operate as a damper upon such eternal litigation ; but
nothing can effectually remove it, except by establishing the law of primogeniture ;
or by allowing the richest heir to buy the whole, and for the proceeds to be divided
between the rest ; giving always the preference to the eldest son, or to his eldest son,
if the former have died and left an heir.

If the crop be on the ground at the time a “ land suit ” is commenced, the proctor
moves the court “ for sequestration,” until final adjudication ; thus much time is lost,
and money expended, that would have been sufficient to buy up all the original
shares ; and who is the party ultimately benefitted ? the proctor ! no one else ; for
after the land, or produce, or both, is sold, if the share, or shares, for which the action
may have been brought, be insufficient to pay his costs, he forthwith brings actions
against the parties who have employed him, for the balance !

Can any country under heaven, let the Almighty’s bounty to it, be what it may,
prosper, where such glaring mismanagement, injustice, and litigation prevail ? The
picture is not overdrawn.

The next stage from Pomparripo is through the village of Marrande, distant 8-f
miles, to the rest-house of Marritchicatty, 16| miles from Pomparripo. The rest-
house is on the north bank of the river ; the road is very sandy, and, except in
certain places, and close to the villages, where there are paddee fields, skirted on the
east by dense jungle, which abounds with wild animals. There is but one inducement to
halt at this place, and that is to see a dance of the Padoua caste, — a class of people,
considered so very low and degraded, that they are restricted from playing on any
musical instrument whatever ; and therefore they adapt themselves to a necessity
which cannot be overcome ; and display no small share of ingenuity in drawing sounds,
by blowing into earthen chatties ; to which they keep admirable time. The males
of this caste dare not wear cloths below their knees, nor dare the females cover their
breasts. A few measures of rice will be well bestowed amongst these poor people.

COVIA AND NALLl'A SLA VES— HEADMEN SUPPORT CASTE.

197

There is every reason to believe, from the system of slavery that still obtains in
this province, that many of the inferior castes were originally slaves ; who, in the
frequent revolutions of the country, were left to serve the superior castes for their
means of support. In this province, slavery still exists ; and the registry of slaves,
which commenced in the year 1806, distinguishes them under the heads of “ Covia
and Nallua castes.”

In the year 1817, the government, in its wisdom and humanity, passed a regulation,
which, without infringing much upon the right of ownership, abolished joint property
in slaves ; and, by the same regulation, slaves were allowed to purchase their emancipa¬
tion, when they could obtain the means of so doing. In 1821, by another regulation,
the government, in order to hasten, as far as lay in its power, the abolition of slavery,
pleged itself to pay the owners ot slaves from 3s. 6d. to 5s. 3d., according to the caste
of its mother, for the freedom of each female infant, at its birth ; but this small sum
was greatly objected to by the Malabar proprietors ; and with some reason, when it is
contrasted with the manner in which the value of adult slaves was fixed ; namely,
by arbitration.

Here, again, I cannot refrain from referring to the circumstance of Negro manumis¬
sion ; the benefit of which was extended to the Mauritius, but not to the wretched
Covia and Nallua slaves of Ceylon ; the purchase of whose freedom would have made
but a small indent upon the <£20, 000,000 granted by parliament for that benevolent
object.

The headmen support the distinctions of caste from motives of interest, as well as
from prejudice ; and, for these reasons, all attempts, on the part of the inferior castes,
to improve their lot in life, are resisted and counteracted. This system must be ex¬
pected, until the headmen become more enlightened, by education and Christianity :
but ages may pass away, ere that grand object be attained ; for it is extremely remote
in the prospective ; notwithstanding the rapid strides, which, by all our missionary
reports, the light of truth is making in the island.

The unauthorized assumption of the rank of headmen, in the Malabar provinces,
had become so notorious, that, in the year 1 820, the government passed a regulation,
by which it involved a penalty of 500 rix dollars,* or imprisonment (not exceeding
six months) in default of payment ; but it is difficult to conceive upon what grounds
of justice the same regulation abrogated all former effective, as well as titular acts,+
granted by the authority of the government, antecedently to the fourth of June, 1809.

* £43 15s.

f Local name for the warrants, by which Headmen hold their titles.

198

MALABAR IMPROVISATORI— SCENERY ABOUT KALLAAR.

From Marritchicatty to Kallaar pagoda, which is a Hindoo temple, the distance is
7| miles. At this place, the poor coolies exchange money for ashes ; and consequently
ashes are never at a discount. This precious humbug is held in such veneration by
these untutored pagans, that they believe the effect of rubbing the ashes over their
foreheads and arms, will be, to protect them from all danger on the road, and to
preserve them and their families in health ! !

These “ palankin boys,” as the bearers are generally called, are principally Malabars.
They are naturally mprovisatori , for sing they must, and have responses ; and it
matters not what the burthen of the song be, but the more ridiculous the better. The
Right Honorable Sir Alexander Johnston, when chief justice, was so well acquainted
with the Tamul language, that he required very little aid from his interpreter. Upon
one occasion, a friend, travelling with Sir Alexander, being amused by the chaunt
of his palankin bearers, requested an interpretation of it ; this Sir Alexander did
not readily give ; but, upon being pressed to do so, his friend was informed that the
burthen of the song was, “ Taniby, tamby, for brother, brother,) shake him well, shake
the great fat English pig ! ”

The scenery from Pomparripo to Kallaar, and its immediate neighbourhood,
only requires a mountain or two in the distance, to stamp it as magnificent. The
trees to the right of the road are of the most splendid description, in point of girth,
spread, and height ; and the foliage is of every hue that the most perfect landscape
painter can imagine.

As to gastronomic luxuries, the Apician might justly include the snipe and ortolan
( Emberiza Hortulana , L.), as well as the sur-mullet and oyster of this coast, in his
catalogue of “ ways and means to provoke appetite.”

The common oyster ( Ostrea communis ) abounds ; but is altogether neglected, al¬
though the native inhabitants of the coast, between Putlam and Kallaar, might make
a very profitable speculation of gathering and pickling oysters for the Colombo and
Kandyan markets ; but, satisfied with a few paddee and fine grain fields, and cotton,
arum, or yam, and plantain grounds, they seem to have no care beyond the common
necessaries of Indian life ; this may arise from want of capital, or of example, to
stimulate them to speculative exertion.

The naturalist would find much to gratify and amuse him in this province : for the
jungles, tanks, and paddee fields teem with a great variety of birds, reptiles, and
insects ; of which, very many are still undescribed.

After a few hours’ travelling by palankin, one is often induced to inquire of his
attendant Appo, how much further it is to the rest-house, where his avant courier, the

A SINGHALESE MILE- -FOOTS AURYLACEUS— EDIBLE BIRD’S NEST.

199

cook, may have a good dinner or breakfast under preparation for “ master,” (which will
be the case, if Cookee be worth the salt he eats :) and it may so happen that the answer
is, “ only one mile, Sir!" whereupon, “ master” continues tolerably tranquil until the
lapse of a quarter of an hour or twenty minutes, every now and then anxiously peeping
through the front Venetians of his p.dankin, for the desired rest-house ; another quarter
of an hour passes, and still nothing before him but a sandy shore on the one hand,
and occasional paddee fields ttnd (ungle on tht other. Appo is again applied to
“ now only two trees Thirds, of one mile, Sir!” “ Long mile, Appo ! what, in half
an hour, only travelled a third of a mile !' “ I think bearers tired, very much. Sir .

walk plenty too much slow." Patienza per forza ! Another quarter of an hour, and
another half hour succeeds . when, at length, something white, appears in the prospec¬
tive, which proves to be the long wished for rest-house, (where it was formerly the
custom for the tables and chairs to be covered with white cloths ;) and in a very short
time “ master” and his legs will have occupied three chairs in the virandah. “ Master'
at length discovers that a Singhalese mile is two English leagues ! “ Verbum sap.”

The sea weed ( Fucus aurylaceus) locally called Jaffna moss, is peculiar to this
province ; but, although the same production is common to Java and other islands
belonging to the Dutch, where it is said to form the exclusive food of the swallow
( Hirundo esculenta), whose nest forms a chief luxury of the Chinese gourmand, the
bird itself does not belong to the ornithology of Ceylon.

There is no peculiar beauty m the Hirundu esculenta , it appeared to me almost all
feathers ; for half a dozen of these birds, presented to me by the first lieutenant of
the Piedmontaise frigate, (the late Captain Sir Thomas Carew,) did not weigh more
than two Spanish dollars. The color of the back was of a dark grey, tinged with
green, which showed more plainly when held in the sun ; the belly light grey, inclin¬
ing to fawn color ; tail forked, but not so much as that of the common swallow, and
marked with a round wrhite spot ; middle toe remarkable for its great length, compared
with the others.

The edible swallow’s nest resembles a small circular, or rather oblong, piece of
Dutch cheese, hollowed and scooped thin, with a feather here and there upon thf
concave side, more than any thing else ; but when prepared for sale to the mandarins
and other great men, it has a totally different appearance ; for by the process, it is
drawn out into long strips, about a third of an inch in width, having something of the
appearance of hartshorn shavings ; these are tied in bunches, of about four inches m
circumference, and fourteen m length, with the fine flax prepared from the stalks
of the wild plantain ( Musa sylvestris), and dissolve in wrater as easily as isinglass.

200 ROYAL DIET— HIS MAJESTY GEORGE THE FOURTH’S LAST ILLNESS.

I have occasionally eaten “ birds nest soup,” at the resident’s, and at Captain China¬
man’s tables, both at Amboyna and Banda ; but it was highly spiced, and withal so very
gelatinous, that I could not distinguish any very peculiar delicacy in its flavor.

The Dutch relish the soup best when it is prepared by the Chinese ; and they
ascribe to it the inestimable property of restoring the tone and powers of the stomach,
after they have become altogether debilitated, by excess in the use of opium, or ardent
spirits ; and they are at no loss to adduce instances of its great and renovating effects,
where medicine had altogether tailed

Having brought with me to England, m 1827, some of the “ very Jirst chop”*
prepared birds’ nest, which had been presented to me by the late Mr. Blettermann,
of the Ceylon civil service, who had received it from his brother, a Dutch factor at
Canton ; it occurred to me, at the time of the last illness of His Most Gracious Majesty
King George the Fourth, that it might produce a beneficial effect ; if not, that so novel
an article of diet might prove a grateful change to His Majesty, and could not do
harm ; and I accordingly transmitted it to Sir Henry Halford, one of His Majesty’s'
physicians. Sir Henry acknowledged its receipt, by letter dated Windsor Castle,
18th May, 1830, in the handsomest terms that language could convey, and thus
concluded it, — “ I did not fail to present it to the King in vour name, when Hi*
Majesty was pleased to desire that I would thank you for it, and to give orders for
preparing it to-day.”

* Chinese definition of the superior sort oi the edible swallow s nest. This article of Eastern commerce was
considered the most valuable part of the cargoes of Dutch vessels, or Malay Proas under Dutch colors, that our
cruizers mtiue prizes of in the Eastern seas during the late war

CHAP. XXV.

The Kallaar ncer — Route to Kandy — Thomas Ralph Backhouse, Esq — Brief description of the ruins of tht
ancient capital of Ceylon — Pilgrimage from the coasts of Coromandel and Malabar to Anarajahpoora — Kon-
datchie, the rendezvous of adventurers, jugglers, and thieves, during the pearl fishery — Various accounts of the
pearl fishery — Committee s report of the pearl banks, prior to u fishery — Rocky bank — The island of Car diva, u
protection to the pearl banks from the south-west monsoon — Superstition — Shark charmers — Roman Catholic
priests distribute amulets to the divers — Sharks — Boats — Mode of diving — Objections to the use of the diving
bell — Pearl oyster spawn, and opinion of the divers in regard to it — Average daily produce of each boat — Putrefac¬
tion of the pearl oyster — Field for naturalists — Kola or leaf oyster — Betel oyster — Position of pearls in oysters —
Pinna Marina — Difficulty of transferring the habitat of the pearl oyster considered insuperable — Various methods
of clearing the pearls from the oyster — Pearl oyster of Ceylon ( Mytdus maryaritifiru • a variety of the mother o
pearl oyster — Pearls most valued at Ceylon for their golden hue — Suggestions for disposing of the pearl fishenj by
lottery — Impolicy of abandoning the monopoly — Suggestions in regard to reduction of the rent — Suggested pano¬
rama — Arippo rest-house — Roman Catholic chapel — Kondatchie destitute •> f water

The Kallaar river takes its rise near Anarajahpoora, the ancient capital of Ceylon,
through which place there is a road from Kallaar pagoda to Kandy, by the following
route : — From Kallaar to Kiritenna Venditte rest-house, hi miles ; to Paymaddoo, .>£
miles ; to Oyamaddoo rest-house, miles ; to Alleaparte, If miles . to Anarajah¬

poora, 6-f miles ; to Tirapankadawetta, 12| miles ; to Manawevva, 9| miles ; to Nickm-
niawe, 8| miles ; to Damboola Vihare rest-house, 16 miles , to Leenadora post station,
7 miles ; to Natande post station, 7 miles ; to Palapawella Ella rest house, 4 miles ;
to Fort Macdowall, the station of the assistant government agent and district judge,
I 1 miles ; to the top of Ballacadua Pass, 6f miles ; to Mavali-Ganga Ferry, 7 miles ;
to Kandy, 2f miles ; — total from Kallaar to Kandy, 129 miles.

The ancient city of Anarajahpoora was the capital of Cevlon for eleven or twelve
centuries ; and I avail myself of the information respecting it, with which I wqs favored
by my esteemed friend, the late Thomas Ralph Backhouse, Esq., of the civil service,
after his ramble, (as well as the jungle would admit of it,) in the year 1>23. over the
extensive site of its pristine splendour : but although even now scarcely worthy of the
name of village, Anarajahpoora has been raised from the almost total oblivion, in the
official scale, to which it had been consigned for more than three centuries, by being
made the station of one of the assistant government agents of the province ho also
holds the office of a district judge of the northern circuit of the supreme court

2 c

202

ANARAJAHPOORA, THE ANCIENT CAPITAL OF CEYLON

“ I fell in with a very intelligent Budhoo priest at Mantotte,” says Mr. Backhouse,
“ who, at my request, accompanied me to Anarajahpoora ; but his account of this
deserted city borders so much upon the marvellous, that I shall limit my relation of it
to its probabilities. His story is, that the first Budhoo’s tree, or Bogaha, was miracu¬
lously conveyed to Anarajahpoora from Siam, where it is held sacred to Sommocodom,
(another name for Buddha,) which took root instanter, (without, I suppose, waiting for
the common course of nature,) and was there cherished by the royal hand of Petissa
Rajah, who flourished, according to his account, more than two thousand years ago,
and was the origin of the subsequent annual pilgrimages to that ancient city.

“ The Archdeacon has a fine copy of Ptolemy, with a map, to which you may
as well refer for Anarajahpoora ; the position is correctly given, under the name of
Anurogrammum.

“ This ‘ city of the ninety sovereigns,’ according to the Singhalese derivation ;* but,
by the late Mr. William Tolfrey’s, which is the most probable, from the planet Anooradu,
is stated to have been surrounded by a wall, from nine to ten Singhalese miles, or
from fifty to sixty English miles, in extent, and in a most fertile and well-cultivated
country : this is now a mere desert ; but amongst the jungle that surrounds it, there
exist innumerable vestiges of the former magnificence of Anarajahpoora granite
pillars, shafts, bases, and capitals, of an order unknown to the modern architect ;
remains of stone bridges over the Malwatte river, and of several spacious tanks, still
capable of being restored, to contain water for the irrigation of many lacsf of acres.

“ Notwithstanding the great difficulties interposed by the jungle, I examined the bases
of two temples, and found them geometrically correct as to the positions of the angles
at the cardinal points ; there are also vestiges of magnificent palaces, and of an exten¬
sively paved road ; and the more I see of the antiquities of this (the northern) pro¬
vince, the more I am convinced that it was originally peopled by a nation pre-eminent
in architecture and civilization, whose language is said to have been obliterated from
the earth, leaving only gigantic records of its characters in granitic rock, that seem
to set time and nature at defiance.

“ This ancient seat of long-departed royal magnificence and superstition, (the Kan¬
dyan Anurodgeburro ,) is frequented by numerous pilgrims from the Malabar and Coro¬
mandel coasts ; these are encouraged by their Brahmins, particularly by those of
Ramisseram, to believe that their future state of existence, in the metempsychosis
assured by their religion, materially depends upon their undertaking this pilgrimage

* Anoo, ninety ; Rajah, king; Poora, city.

f Lac. 100.000

KONDATCHIE— INSPECTION OF THE PEARL BANKS.

203

and, as the devotees cross from the peninsula to Ramisseram, where they make offerings
to the temple, for a safe journey to, and from thence, via Adam’s Bridge and Manaar,
and from thence to Ceylon ; returning by the same route, and renewing their offerings
for their safety on their way home, the motives of the priesthood require no explanation.

“ Whether Anarajahpoora was destroyed by some awful visitation of Providence,
or deserted upon the invasion of a barbarian conqueror, are at best but hypothetical,
for there is no record that may be relied on.”

From Kalaar pagoda, the next stage is Kondatchie; which, at the time of the Pearl
Fishery, becomes the general rendezvous of all boats to be employed, and of adven¬
turous traders, jugglers, and thieves ; for as the government Gazettes of the several
presidencies previously give six months’ notice of it throughout their extensive circu¬
lation, there is scarcely a nation or caste of the immense continent of India, exclu¬
sively of Parsee and Arabian traders, of which there are not many individuals, whom
the thirst of gain allures to this grand field of speculation.

Since the time of Pliny the elder, there has not appeared a work, professing to
treat of Ceylon, in which the pearl fishery has not been noticed ; and yet, as con¬
nected with the capabilities of the island, no novel method has hitherto been suggested
for increasing the revenue derived from this source.

It is not my intention to tread in the direct footsteps of some of my predecessors,
who have written elaborately upon the subject ; nor to adopt the brief reasoning of
others, “ that the pearl fishery is too well known to render further information neces¬
sary for although very many of my readers may have their own libraries at hand, and
not consider it much trouble to refer, either to the ancient or modern authorities upon
t'his point, the majority may find it attended with inconvenience, if not with expense.

Since the British government superseded that of the Dutch in Ceylon, the appoint¬
ment of supervisor of the pearl fishery has been held conjointly with that of private
secretary to the Governor. But as that office is materially connected with the revenue,
it ought, in strict justice, to form a part of the duties of the agent of revenue foi
the northern province, by which means the salary would be saved to the public : for
a supervisor may be from three to seven years in the receipt of £500 a year, and not
be called on more than once, or twice at furthest, to attend a pearl fishery ; and then
only for about fifteen or thirty days. If the salary of the private secretary, at th§
present rate of £500 a year, be inadequate, some less anomalous means might be
adopted for increasing it.

In the preceding November, the government institutes an official inspection of the
pearl banks, by a committee of the civil servants, including the supervisor. This is

2 c 2

204

FORM OF INSPECTORS' REPORT— TEMPORARY TOWN.

indispensaole ; and, upon its report, the banks selected for the purpose, which of
course will depend upon the maturity of the oysters, and value of the pearls obtained
from the samples examined, are advertised to be fished. The report of the com¬
mittee, according to the following formula, is then published in the Ceylon and other
Indian newspapers.

Statement of the Inspection of the Pearl Banks of Arippo, in Nov.

Number

Number

Description

(Quality and quantity of the Pearls

extracted.

Value of the Pearls.

Size. Rate of Valuation

. L

of

Parcels.

of

Oysters.

of the
Bank.

Cbow.

Kalingi.

Manjade.

P. N.
Pagodas.

Fanams of
Madura

20 pr. Pag.

It has happened, upon more than one occasion, that an over anxiety on the part
of a colonial governor to make a very favourable report of the revenue derived from
the pearl fishery, 'has placed the future produce of the pearl banks in jeopardy, by
over-fishing them. In April, 1820, the Madragam Paar was found to be the only
bank where the oysters had attained sufficient maturity. It was then fished on
account of government, and the oysters were sold, in lots, upon the beach. The
government seldom fishes in Aumanie, (viz. upon its own account,) if an average price*
be offered for it by individual speculators, who can give the requisite security, or
make an adequate deposit.

In the year 1814, the boats employed in the Aumanie fishery (after the rented fishery
had ceased) landed 76,000,000 of oysters during the first twenty days’ fishing.

About the middle of January, the boats begin to assemble ; between which period
and the commencement of the fishery, the medley of adventurers will have constructed
their various dwellings, with areka or bamboo poles, and the fronds of the talipat,
palmyra, and coco-nut palms, paddee straw, and colored cotton cloths, in endless
variety, and in tolerable order, upon the arid sands of Arippo ; at which place
stands the beautiful Doric mansion, built by Governor North. This is occupied by
the supervisor (who is vested with full magisterial powers) and his friends. All persons
frequenting the pearl fishery, are privileged from arrest upon any civil process ; but
the powers of the supreme court, in criminal matters, are not affected : and justice is
summarily administered in disputes, arising from matters connected with the fishery.

During the stay of the supervisor and his department, a strong military guard, with
a proportion of artillery, is stationed at Arippo. This place is rather less than five
miles north of Kondatchie, and is a small trading village, with a fort and barracks,
and, from the offing, bears four leagues south of the east end of the island of Manaar.

Arippo is situate at the mouth of the Aweria-Aar, which takes its rise beyond the

PROTECTION TO THE PEARL BANKS— KADEL-KUTTIES— SHARKS.

205

ancient capital of Anarajahpoora, in the central province ; and, about two leagues off
the land, a rocky bank, or reef, lies to the west and south-west. The island of Cardiva,
or Nalladive, which is very low, narrow, and crooked, covered in some places with
sandy patches, and in others with jungle, and about seven leagues south of Arippo,
affords ample protection to the pearl banks from any injurious effects of the south-west
monsoon ; and they are protected from the effects of the north-east monsoon by the
main land of Ceylon.

Prior to the divers commencing operations, those most useful humbugs, the shark
charmers, or Kadel-Kutties, are in general requisition ; for their services are indis¬
pensable, to give confidence to the superstitious divers ; who, upon their assurances
that they may fearlessly foDow their submarine occupation, for that “ the mouths
of the sharks had been closed at their command,” divest themselves of all fear.

Although all the divers are not pagans, superstition so predominates in almost every
thing connected with the native character, that, however incredible, it is an indis¬
putable fact, that even the Roman Catholic priests impose a similar farce upon the
(livers of their faith ; for not one of them will descend without a charm, composed
of brief extracts from scripture, fastened round the arm, which he is told will protect
him from danger.

This shark charming trade is a very lucrative one, because as it is not the mere
government stipend that satisfies them, they insist upon the additional daily tithe of
ten or a dozen oysters from each boat, which is readily paid.

Of the varieties of the shark ( Squalus ) genus, upon the coasts of Ceylon, the most
dangerous is the saw-fish ( Squalus Pristis, L.), the Depta Mora of the Singhalese, from
its long projecting and dreadful beak ; but fortunately it is less numerous than the
Squalus Carcharias, and S. malletis.

The boats employed at the pearl fishery are built upon the old Portuguese model,
without keel ; and head and stern nearly alike. These are from twelve to fifteen tons
burthen, and carry a crew of twelve or fourteen hands, and from eight to ten divers.

The inspector of the pearl banks makes a signal from the government vessel, for
the commencement of, and for leaving off, diving.

A stone, of a conical shape, and weighing from forty to fifty pounds avoirdupois, it,
slung to a double rope, which is passed over a boom projecting from the boat’s side.
The charmed diver then places the great toe of his right foot into the space between
the double rope ; and, with his left, he keeps a net, in shape like an angler’s landing net,
and capable of holding some dozens of oysters, close to the stone. The rope having
been adjusted for lowering, the diver, pressing his nostrils with his left hand, and hold-

206

SIGNALS FROM THE DIVERS— OBJECTIONS TO THE DIVING BELL.

ing on by his right, descends as rapidly as the weight will admit of. Upon reaching
the bottom, he suddenly jerks the rope ; upon which, the stone is hauled up ; and,
upon a similar signal, he intimates that he has filled his net, (which may occupy
about a minute, or a minute and a half,) and then, holding on by the net or rope, he
is drawn up within a fathom or two of the surface, when he relinquishes his hold ; and
having reached the boat, and taken breath, he is very soon ready to descend again.

Such is the process of diving upon the old system. The diving bell was first intro¬
duced for use upon the pearl banks, by the late indefatigable Governor, Sir Edward
Barnes ; but time alone must decide, whether the predictions of one of the most
intelligent Master Attendants in the Ceylon service, the late Captain James Chrisp,
formerly of the Honorable the East India Company’s marine, be verified, or not.

“ The diving bell,” said he, “ may answer very well at first ; but it will ultimately
be the means of destroying the oysters : for it must crush a great many, which will
putrify ; and so extremely delicate is the nature of the oyster, that it will spread like
a plague, gradually extending its vortex, and destroying all within it.”

The oysters lie in layers, from four to five feet deep : and when about five or six
years old, they abandon the madrepore, to which they had attached themselves, from
their first sinking, after the formation of the shell, (for the spawn floats about until
that process has taken place,) and ramble about the sandy regions of the bottom.

The divers entertain the belief, that the oyster spawn descends in showers during
the rainy season.

Each diver sends up about 3000 oysters, upon an average, daily ; and from 20,000
to 25,000 have been taken by one boat in a day. In the year 1836, the revenue
derived <£25,816 from the pear! fishery.

It is not uncommon for fifty or sixty, or even eighty pearls, of various sizes, to
be found in one oyster. The natives consider it a disease, or rather, the effect of a
disease, to which the animal is liable. If a pearl be cut transversely, and observed
through a microscope, it will be found to consist of minute layers, resembling the
rings which denote the age of certain trees, when cut in a similar manner.

After the second or third day’s fishing, the stench of the dead oysters becomes in¬
tolerable to all, except those whose thirst for gain absorbs every other sense. But, as
use reconciles one to most things in this life, custom soon neutralizes the olfactory effect
of the nuisance ; for the stench is considered less diffusive, as the process progresses.

It is here that the naturalist may devote a considerable portion of the day to
collecting and classifying the great variety of the class Moilusca, which, according to
Cuvier, is furnished with a heart and circulating system ; and almost every batch of

207

FIELD FOR NATURALISTS— VARIETIES OF THE PEARL OYSTER.

oysters is accompanied by specimens of zoophytes, which have neither the one nor
the other : and every day affords additional treasures, particularly in polypes, fuci,
and madrepore, for his information and amusement.

The Kola, or leaf oyster, represents an inverted hollow cone, and is one of the
most curious ; and the small red-tinged, or Betel oyster, which produces a superior
pearl, is well worthy of being included in the collection of the naturalist.

The largest pearls are found in the thickest part of the flesh of the oyster ; but it
does not follow that the largest oysters produce the finest pearls.

The oysters cluster together by a fine silky filament, of a similar nature to that
of the Pinna Marina of the Madaleine islands, (dependencies of Sardinia,) but it is
destitute of the valuable qualities to the manufacturer, that distinguish the latter.

As no means of successfully transferring the pearl oyster ( Mytilus margaritifera),
for the purposes of increasing its habitat , has yet been discovered, it may be more
advantageous to leave the natives to their old customs and mode of fishing, than to
adopt any new-fangled European methods, which may tend to the ultimate destruction
of the oyster beds.

There are so many different methods of clearing the pearls from the fleshy part ot
the oyster, that one can scarcely determine which is the best plan ; but certainly, that
in which putrefaction is resorted to, though it may be the most lucrative, is the most
likely to induce disease amongst the human myriads that attend the fisheries ; amongst
whom, there is no deficiency of dexterous thieves, who set detection at defiance, by
very extraordinary means ; de quo nil amplius dicendum ! !

The pearl oyster of Ceylon ( Mytilus margaritifera) has a similar hinge to the mother
o’ pearl oyster ; but the former, which is scarcely one half the size of the latter, is
more oblong, and seldom exceeds the Concale bay, or Jersey oyster, in size. Its
interior surface is equally, if not more, resplendent than that of the larger species.

The pearl oyster’s spawn may be seen floating in apparently coagulated masses upon
the western coast of Ceylon during the north-east monsoon ; and the uncouth anchors
of the native Dhonies, or coasting vessels, which are composed of a thick wooden
shank, with large stones lashed between transverse beams of wood, in lieu of flukes,
are often found, upon being weighed, enveloped in spawn.

For the first year, the oyster seldom exceeds the size of a shilling, and is not at
maturity for seven years. When it has attained the age of three or four years, or is
half grown, seed pearls only are found in its flesh ; but after that period, they gradually
increase in size, until the maturity of the oyster ; when the disease, which produces
them, destroys its bivalve victim. The pearl is not valued for its silvery whiteness,
at Ceylon, but for its golden hue.

208 SUGGESTIONS FOR DISPOSING OF THE PEARL FISHERY BY LOTTERY

The government has never yet tried the plan of a lottery for realizing the revenue
upon the pearl fishery. I never heard it suggested by any one ; but it occurs to me,
that as the pearl fishery, under all and every circumstance, involves extensive gaming
transactions and risk, the government may as well make the best of the prevailing
mania ; and by that means obviate the applications to which it is now constantly
liable, for a reduction of the sum, originally agreed upon with the farmer of the pearl
fishery, in the event of an unsuccessful fishery. By this means, the proceeds of lottery
tickets would realize treble the average amount of a successful year ; and, by being
made transferable, the tickets would find their way, as those of the continental lotteries
do, throughout India, and perhaps Egypt, Persia, and Arabia ; and the government
would incur no further expense than that of the superintendence of the fishery, and
the conservation of the public peace.

It could not benefit the colony, and would be the acme of bad policy in the govern¬
ment, to abandon the pearl fishery monopoly ; a lottery might be preferable to farming
it (whenever the committee report the beds, or any proportion of them, in a fit state
for a fishery to take place) to the highest bidder : but it is very bad policy to hold out
an expectation, that, in the event of failure, the speculator may claim a reduction of
his rent ; for these gentry take very good care, in the event of the profits exceeding
their calculations, to keep the overplus to themselves. The sale should be peremptory ;
and the speculators forewarned, that, in the event of failure, the government will not,
under any circumstances whatever, entertain their claims to a reduction of the rent.

The medley of colors, nations, castes, and trades, (amongst which pearl-drilling is
a very lucrative one,) upon the Arippo sands, would form a panorama, which, if taken
from the flat roof of the Doric, would be well worthy of Barker’s pencil.

There is an excellent rest-house at Arippo, and plenty of good water, which is there
a treasure of great value, owing to the difficulty of obtaining it elsewhere for very many
miles. There is also a Roman Catholic chapel in the village, but it is not much at¬
tended, except during a pearl fishery, when it proves a good thing for the priests ; their
Malabar communicants being a very numerous class, many of them wealthy, and all
very superstitious. The whole of the beach that borders the bay of Kondatchie is a
sandy waste, without a coco-nut tree or palmyra (except a few stunted ones of the
former in the distance) to relieve the eye of the monotony of the desert ; but to the
right, or eastward, of the sands, dense jungle, teeming with every variety of game and
beasts of prey the island produces, courts the sportsman’s attention.

The moment the fishery is over, Kondatchie’s glory ceases ; and it then becomes the
sanle miserable, waterless, (for it has no water except from Arippo,) and arid spot,
that it has been for ages past.

CHAP. XXVI.

Route from Anppo to Bangalle — Island of Manaar — Soil — Fish abundant — Suggestions for a factory for
curing it — Cheapness of the principal necessaries of life — Manaar sheep and cows — Agricultural encouragement
suggested — Harvests — Headmen — Sailing directions — Coasting trade — Mantotte church or rest-house — Mission¬
aries journey — Giajifs tank — Gentoo city — Antiquity of the Hindoos — Singhalese records and traditions — Sir
William Jones — Racshasas or giants — Invention of the game of chess — Magnitude of architectural works no proof
of extraordinary stature of the workmen — Suggestions to the traveller to proceed by sea to Jaffna^- Native cottages
— Lseful properties of cow dung — Route from Mantotte to Pooneryn — Scenery — Pooneryn to Jaffna — Jaffna
formerly a kingdopi — Principal villages of the northern province — Inhabitants — Cession of Jaffna by the Portu¬
guese to the Dutch — Fruits — Coasting trade — C hit ties— Tamul year — Hegira — Goldsmiths — Their node of selling
gold and silver plate — Exports for the China markets — Culture of cotton too limited — Its extension suggested—
Jaffna tobacco— Its value exemplified — Rajah of Travancore — His monopoly in tobacco — Contracts with the
Ceylon government — Maintains a body of troops by the profits — Countervailing monopoly — Its injury to the native
tobacco grower — Abolition of the monopoly, and substitution of a duty of 200 per cent. — Decline of the Ceylon
tobacco trade in the Eastern markets — Reduction of the duty to 2i per cent. — The trade recovers and flourishes.

From Arippo to Bangalle, the distance is eight miles ; and from thence the traveller
may as well vary his course, by proceeding to the island of Manaar- this he can
do, with more convenience to himself, from Bangalle than from Mantotte.

The fort of Manaar is a dependency of the garrison of Jaffna, and was at one time
commanded by a field officer, but is now without even a subaltern’s guard. There
are several villages in the island, with churches for native (Malabar) Christians, and a
Dutch church. The soil is sandy, as its name implies,* but not barren, for it abounds
with coco-nut and palmyra trees ; and fish is so abundant, that if a factory were estab¬
lished, for curing it in a proper manner, (upon a limited scale at first, by way of ex¬
periment,) a very profitable result may be justly anticipated ; because a better article
of food would be sold at a less price than that now paid for an inferior one ; thereby
ensuring an increase of the consumption, whilst its improved quality for exportation
would cause an extension of the coasting trade, to the benefit of the revenue, and the
profit of those concerned in the speculation.

Butcher’s meat, poultry, game, fruit, rice, and vegetables, may be obtained at Manaar
at very low prices ; and sheep appear to thrive better there than in any other part
of Ceylon, except in the extensive sheep walks between Jaffna and Point Pedro.

* From the Tamul words Man , sand, and Aeu mer

2 D

210

HARVESTS AT MANAAR— SAILING DIRECTIONS— COASTING TRADE

Manaar cows give double the quantity of milk (viz. three pints a day) yielded by the
Colombo cows. Here is an irrefragable reason for the establishment of an energetic-
agricultural society, for the improvement of the native breed of domestic animals,
and a proof of their present degeneracy.

Paddee is sown in the Manaar district in September and October, and reaped in
March. Korakan ( Cynosurus Curaccinus, L.) is sown in September, and reaped in De¬
cember. Gingillie seed ( Sessamum orientate, L.) is sown in March, and reaped in May.

Twenty four native headmen of rank are attached to the revenue department of
the Manaar district, which is superintended by an assistant to the government agent
at Jaffna, who is also a district judge of the northern circuit of the supreme court.

According to Captain Horsburgh, “ the east end of Manaar is in latitude b° 57
north, and may be known from the offing by the fort and houses on it, as well as
numerous coco-nut trees. The gut between Manaar and Mantotte has in some places
ten and twelve feet water ; but the only anchorage is on the south side of the island,
in four or five fathoms, and four or five miles to the westward of the gut.”

A considerable coasting trade is carried on, by the gulf of Manaar, between Ceylon
and the Coromandel coast, by Chitties and Malabars, who are principally Christians .
but if the channel were deepened, by a few of Colonel Pasley’s operations, so as to
admit of the passage of large vessels, it would be of more benefit, and of less expense,
to the island, than even if the Eutopian scheme of building a bridge across to
Ramisseram, and another between that island and the mam land of Hindostan, were
to be realized.

The distance from the island of Manaar to Mantotte, across the gut, is not more
than three miles at high water ; and at ebb tide, the channel appears more like a small
meandering stream than an arm of the sea. The rest-house at Mantotte, which is
distant \\ miles from Bangalle, was formerly a Dutch church, and was built, according
to the date upon its northern gable, in the year 1607. An amusing account of a
journey from Calpentyn to Mantotte, by two Wesleyan missionaries, was sent me by
my late highly esteemed friend, the Rev. William Buckley Fox, which will give the
reader a good idea of travelling in this part of Ceylon in 1822. It also shows the
spirit which animated the amiable and indefatigable individual by whom it was written,
and displays the character and zeal of the Christian missionary.

“ After thirteen days of sailing, wading, and walking, here I am, without a cooly.
You have a tolerably correct, though rough, view of my habitation. I have got coolies
from Manaar for Mr. Newstead, but I must wait till I get the means of proceeding
myself, and patiently.

MISSIONARIES' JOURNEY FROM CALPENTYN TO MAXTOTTE 211

“ A harder journey I never had. This day week we reached Calpentyn, after many
Quixotic adventures, and then found that we could not go to Jaffna by sea, the wind
being dead against us. Our commission mentioned nothing about turning back ; so
we sought for coolies, but could get but few, amongst whom were six Malays, (better
men I have never travelled with in Ceylon,) but these will not touch a palankin. We
procured as many as we could, and set off in a Pardie boat, across the Calpentyn
gulf. The sea was high, and our flat-bottomed conveyance was famously tossed ; but,
being both large and new, we crossed the gulf, (about four miles,) with very hard
rowing, and then hauling our house about two miles along shore, we came near Kare-
tivoe. There we anchored for the night, and sent for the postholder and headman,
one as commissariat , the other as tower-kill overseer. Our coolies were barely suf¬
ficient to carry our empty palankins, and the little baggage we had reserved.

“ The following morning one of the coolies ran away ; and, after an hour’s labour,
I got a malefactor in his room. Our first stage was through a jungle, or what they
call the Tappal road. It was hard walking. I waded the Pomparripo river seven times.
It is this way We stopped at Pomparripo all night, and were there

told, for our consolation, that a palankin could not go ; that the Tappal Peons waded
up to the neck on the plains of Pomparripo. Not wishing to give up the business
tnat called us northward, so quietly, I engaged a Tappal Peon as a guide, and, where
the water was very d$ep, to cut us a way through the jungle. From the description
he gave us of the country, I imagined we should not have to wade above a quarter
of a mile. Off we went ; and, in about three miles, came to the water, and waded to
near the waist, about half a mile ; when our guide informed us We were “ just upon a
very deep place,” and he took us through a swampy jungle for a full quarter of a mile .
we then waded half a mile further, and through several pieces of water, before we
came to Mardode. Having refreshed, we took to the water again ; and before we had
reached Marchicatty, we had not waded less than four miles. A very large leopard
had crossed our road just before us. We should not have got through our joume\ ,
had we not fallen in with eight Bengal palankin bearers, on their way to Madras, who
rendered us great service. The rest of the journey has been hard walking!, on bad
roads, with no water of importance to impede us.

“ Except being sadly pricked with thorns and bitten by leeches, and the loss of the
skin of my face, from exposure to the sun, I am not much'the worse for the journey
I have walked fifty seven miles, and have been carried two miles and a half ; and, as
I am not a prophet, I shall say nothing of the part of the journey before us till
mother time.”

2 d 2

212

GIANTS TANK— GENTOO CITY— ANTIQUITY OF THi HINDOOS

- “ These zealous Christians steadily proclaim

To listening worlds the glory of His name '

Greatness with goodness infinite combined ;

Wisdom and might and mercy unconfined 1
His eye the sun ; His heart the living breeze ;

The clouds His chariot , and His path the seas '
Pervading all things — boundless in His sway
Such is the God, to whom the Christians pray .

Such is the God, who frbm his throne above.

Sends to this isle the messengers of love ' " — Polynesia.

At Mantotte, the antiquarian will find an ample field for research, in the still extant
remains of remote antiquity ; amongst which, are the vestiges of an immense tank,
(Giant’s Tank,) but inferior in size to many in the island ; and the ruins of a former
Gentoo city, built of brick.

The antiquity of the Hindoos, by whom, I humbly presume, the island was ori¬
ginally peopled, and their civilization, at the remotest period of history, are accorded
by all the ancient Eastern philosophers ; and, of our modern literati, very few will be
disposed to dispute the late Sir William Jones’s title to be considered pre-eminent in
Asiatic literature, and thorough acquaintance with Eastern customs and history.

Notwithstanding the antiquity of the Singhalese records, (some of which, that are
extant, are said to have been written many centuries before the birth of Christ,) tradi¬
tion goes great lengths in Ceylon. Giants, forty feet in stature, are named as the
architects of the wonderful buildings, canals, and viaducts ; and the immense blocks
of granitic rock, prepared in a masterly way, are cited as proofs. Sir William Jones,
in his eighth anniversary discourse before the Bengal Society for inquiring into the
arts, sciences, and literature of Asia, remarks, — “ For Silan itself, we know, from the
languages, letters, religion, and old monuments of the various inhabitants, was peopled
beyond time of memory, by the Hindu race ; and formerly, perhaps, extended much
farther to the west and the south, so as to include Lanka, or the equinoctial point.’’

But, notwithstanding Singhalese traditions, and Sir William Jones’s allusion, in his dis¬
course upon the Indian game of chess, to the Racshasas, or giants, the people of Lanka,*

* This name (Lanka) was originally given to very extensive territory, the bounds of which do not appeal
to have been defined in any history to which I have had access. It is almost as vague as the mythology ul
Buddha ; into which, if the curious be disposed to dip, a volume might easily be compiled from the Asiatic
Researches. For this, in addition to the comments on the Vedas, or social historv of the Hindoos, (in vol. viii
appendix, page 529,) I would beg leave to refer the reader to the introductory remarks which were intended to
have accompanied Captain Mahony’s “ Papers on Ceylon and the doctrines of Buddha, which are given at length
m the seventh volume of the Asiatic Researches. The peninsula of Malacca is called, in the Sanscrit, •• Mu o'
Maha Lanka f the Great Lanka.

ORIGIN OF THE GAME OF CHESS— ROUTE FROM MANTOTTE.

213

or Ceylon, where the game was invented by the wife of Ravan, king of Lanka,
in order to amuse him with an image of war, while his metropolis was closely
besieged by Rama, in the second age of the world, there is nothing to justify the
belief, or supposition, that the ancient inhabitants of Ceylon were forty feet in stature ;
for, until we are better acquainted with the state of the arts and sciences in those
days, (and it may reasonably be inferred, from the splendid remains of cities, and
temples, still extant, that the island was extensively populated, by a highly civilized
race, ages before the Christian era,) the enormous masses of granitic rock which are
found indented together, and forming part of the ruins of canals, bridges, and tem¬
ples, are no proof of their having exceeded the present race of mankind in strength
or stature.

Much trouble and inconvenience will be obviated, by coasting it (by boat) from Man-
totte to Jaffna, a distance of nearly sixty eight miles ; but it cannot be expected that
a botanist will adopt this plan, because he may lose the opportunity of collecting a
number of plants, which, though common to this province, are rare in others.

The whole route is sandy, in many places inundated, and bordered by jungle ; and,
although cultivation is well attended to in the immediate vicinity of villages, and cattle
are abundant throughout the country, there is a great extent of uncultivated and desert
land, which is solely occupied by the wild beasts of the forest. No stranger, however,
can fail to remark the general neatness which characterises the native cottages ; where,
whilst some of the industrious housewives, at sunrise and at sunset, sweep up and burn
every decayed leaf within their respective compounds, others are busy in plastering
their cottage floors with diluted cow dung, which they level ; and, when dry, coolness
and comfort follow ; for the mosquitos retire from the smell of the sacred animals
ordure, although it is far from disagreeable to the native inhabitants.

Every Budhist temple, and Hindoo pagoda, has its flooring covered with this
cooling composition, which is regarded as anti-contagious, and wholesome to the
human frame.

From Mantotte to Woodettidivo, the distance is 9 miles ; to Illipekadewe rest-
house, 6 miles ; to Paliaar, 6^ miles ; to Pulleverayenkottoe rest-house, 8-f- miles ; to
Vauwattorege, 6f miles ; to Sembencoondu, 5 miles ; to Pooneryn, 5^ miles ; — total
from Mantotte to Pooneryn, 47| miles.

The fort and rest-house of Pooneryn are beautifully situated ; and the scenery,
notwithstanding that the whole coast is both flat and sandy, delightful ; for the
country is remarkable for its being well cultivated and verdant, interspersed with
abundant coco-nut and palmyra palms, and forest trees of the most magnificent and

214

FACE OF THE COUNTRY-JAFFNA— VILLAGES— FRUITS.

picturesque variety that the arboriculturist can well picture to his imagination. Here,
indeed, not the romantic, but the simple charms of nature, are most bountifully dis¬
played, untainted by the improvements of art.

From Pooneryn fort to Kalmoone (often written Calimony ) the route lies across a
long neck of land, very often inundated by the sea, and the distance is 14 miles ; but
it may be accomplished in less time by sea, during the south-west monsoon. From
Kalmoone to Colombo Torre (by water) 3^ miles ; from thence to Jaffna (by land)
3 miles ; — total from Pooneryn to Jaffna, 20^ miles.

Jaffna, or Jaffnapatam, once a kingdom of Ceylon, and now the chief town of the
northern province, is situate in latitude 9° 43 north, five leagues to the eastward of
Hamsheel (or Hamenhiel ) fort ; so called by the Dutch, who assimilated the shape of
the island to that of a ham.

The channel is within the islands ; but, having scarcely four feet water in some
places, it is only frequented by country boats ; by which, a very considerable coasting
trade is carried on. The course from Jaffnapatam to Calimoone point is E. S. E.

Jaffna is extremely populous, and so indeed is the whole of the northern parts of
the province. There are no other places entitled to the name of towns ; but the
principal villages are, Arippo, Tillipally, Batticotta, Oodooville, Pandateripo, Manepy,
Cayts, Manaar, Chavagachery, Vareny, Point Pedro, Moelletivoe, Nuwerakalawiye,
Tamankadewe, and Anarajahpoora.

The Moormen (of Malabar) and Hindoos form the majority of the population of
Jaffna ; but many respectable Dutch and Portuguese families reside there.

Jaffna was the last fortress held by the Portuguese in Ceylon : of this, they were
dispossessed, by the Dutch, in 1658. The fort is regularly built, and contains several
excellent houses, barracks, a church, and court house. The Pettah is extensive, and
contains a great many large and well-built houses, with delightful gardens, in which,
many delicious exotic and indigenous fruits are cultivated. The necessaries of life
are cheaper and more abundant here, than elsewhere in the island ; and the best
materials for building are to be obtained at an unusually cheap rate, when contrasted
with their prices at Colombo and Point de Guile.

The grape-vine flourishes luxuriantly ; and Jaffna grapes, both of the white and
purple sorts, are not inferior in flavor to the produce of our hot-houses : but, although
excellent wine has been made in small quantities, by private individuals, the cultiva¬
tion of the grape-vine has never yet been exclusively devoted to that object ; and,
as the demand for the fruit is general, the profit is much greater to the grower than
would accrue from manufacturing it into wine and brandy.

COASTING TRADE— CHITTIES-<30LD AND SILVER PLATE— EXPORTS. 215

Next to its grapes, Jaffna is famed for its large and delicious Mangos, which are
often sent as presents to different parts of the island. In its green state, the mango
makes a very fine marmalade and pickle ; — these, with ghirkins and preserved fruit,
are so much in request, that their preparation is a source of employment and profit
to several respectable Dutch and Portuguese families, whose incomes have been
reduced by misfortune.

The principal part of the coasting trade is in cotton manufactures, and is earned
on by Chitties, who are also the bill discounters and money changers throughout the
island. These merchants import calicos, muslins, handkerchiefs, palempores, mos¬
quito-net, &c., from the Coromandel coast, and realize enormous profits. The Chris¬
tian Chitties are pretty numerous, both here and at Colombo. They are Protestants,
and extremely regular in their attendance at church, where the service is performed in
the Tamul language, by the Rev. Christian David, (a pupil of the venerated Swartz,)
the Malabar colonial chaplain at Jaffna, who was ordained priest in the year 1817,
by the Right Rev. Dr. Fanshawe Middleton, the then Lord Bishop of Calcutta.

The Tamul year, Sreemoega, is the same as that of the Hegira, in reference to
time ; thus their year 1256, corresponds with our year 1»42.

The Portuguese are the principal manufacturers of the much-admired Jaffna rose
chains, and also of silver plate, which is usually massive and handsome ; but their
dinner and tea services do not show the exquisite polish of British workmanship ;
owing, perhaps, to the metal being nearly pure in the one case, and possessing a cer¬
tain quantity of alloy in the other, by which the hardness is increased, and the metal
better adapted for receiving a high polish. The usual way of selling gold plate, or
jewellery, is, by putting it into one scale, and gold (star) pagodas into the other ; at
the market price of the day, for the quality of the gold employed, with an additional
charge for the workmanship ; which amounts to a mere trifle, when compared with
the high price demanded for fashion at home. Silver plate is sold by the Sicca
rupee weight.

Dried sharks’ fins, and sea slugs, are exported from this province, and fetch a
ready sale, and high prices, in the Chinese markets ; where they are so highly
valued, that the Chinese esteem them next to the highly prized delicacy, the edible
swallow’s nest, already described.

Although more cotton is grown in this province than in any other, there is very
little cultivated in proportion to its extent and capabilities ; and it is to be regretted,
that whilst the East India Company is sparing no expense to extend the cultivation
of that valuable staple upon the Indian continent, and sending out experienced

216 COTTON PLANTATIONS— JAFFNA TOBACCO— RAJAH OF TRAVANCORE.

persons from America to superintend it, and improve the native methods of planting,
cleaning, and sorting it., nothing is being done in Ceylon towards rendering the mother
country independent of Egypt and America for cotton wool.

Tobacco, known by the general name of “Jaffna tobacco,” is largely cultivated in
this province, and is of a very superior quality and flavor, and of a peculiarly dark
color. The ground is previously manured, by sheep being penned upon it.

I knew a Dutch gentleman, a connoisseur in tobacco, to whom several boxes of the
best Havannah cigars had been presented, offer them to an officer of the medical staff
for one basket of Jaffna cheroots, the price of which in the market would have been
about three shillings, or less ; “ for (said he) in all the world there is no tobacco
like that of Jaffna and it is so much esteemed above the produce of Malabar, that
the Rajah of Travancore, who had a monopoly in this article throughout his dominions,
contracted with the government of Ceylon for all tobacco grown in the province for
the purposes of exportation. This, was locally called the “ Travancore investment
and the Rajah was enabled, by the high price he charged for tobacco, to pay a subsidy
to the government of Madras, for the maintenance of a body of native troops, under
the command of an officer of the army of that presidency, in Travancore.

By this contract, the government of Ceylon averaged an annual profit of at least
El 0,000 ; but as the arrangement was followed by serious loss and detriment to the
Jaffna tobacco grower, by increasing the consumption of the inferior production of
Malabar, the government established a countervailing monopoly in 1812 ; but as it
failed of the anticipated effect, recourse was had, in 1 824, to an export duty of nearly
200 per cent., in lieu of it. This, displayed very little fiscal knowledge on the part
of the governor and council, by whom it was enacted ; and, as might have been fore¬
seen, the result was, that, notwithstanding the drawback allowed upon exportation,
the trade rapidly declined in the Eastern markets, where Jaffna tobacco had long
been in great request by the Malays.

In 1837, the government of Ceylon determined upon a reduction of the enormous
duty of 200 per cent., ad valorem , on tobacco ; in lieu of which, a duty of 2^ per
cent, was substituted : the consequence was, that in less than three years, the trade
in Ceylon tobacco had doubled itself. A similar result may be anticipated as regards
cinnamon, by a similar reduction of the present enormous rate of duty upon
exportation.

CHAP. XXVII.

Climate of the northern province adapted to the growth of silk — Hindoo culture of the mulberry plant — Intro¬
duction of the silk-worm suggested — < uulev labour cheapened — Suggestions for reducing the colonial import duties
upon the raw productions and manufactures of British India, as an inducement to the Indian presidencies to abolish
their export duties upon cotton and sdk to l eylon, when intended for exportation from thence to the home markets —
Choya root indigenous — The culture of the Cacao, or chocolate-nut tree, altogether neglected , instead of being made
a profitable speculation — Provisions abundant— Came — Native cattle — Pasturage — Provincial breed of sheep—
Cape of Good Hope cows — Culture o f grass, and hay-making, entirely neglected — Suggestions for providing pressed
hay for ships' stock — Timber trade of Jajfna — Hindoo festival of the idol Jag an- Nath — The Pranava or mys¬
tical tri-literal character — The author accompanies the chief and puisne justices to view the triumphal car of the
idol — Decorated booth — Reception by the chief Brahmin — Sacred honors conferred upon the judges — Consecrated
limes — Description of the cat — The bride of Jagan-Nath — Temple mysteries — Brahaminical humbug — The
Devadasi of the Deura— Satire musicians — The Hindoos — Their diet — Domestic life — Amusements — Power of
the Brahmins — American missionaries — Their usefulness — Pringle's account of missionary privations inapplicable
to Ceylon missionaries — The moral of an old adage equally neglected by the American and British nations — First
Tamul translation of the Liturgy at < eylon at the sole expenst of the governor, who subsequently presented an
offering to a Budhuo temple — The national religion sometimes incompatible with sound national policy.

The climate of this province being much less humid than that of the other maritime
provinces, the silk-worm might be advantageously introduced, the mulberry plant ex¬
tensively cultivated, and silk become a principal staple of commerce, instead of being,
as at the present time, one of the entirely neglected capabilities of the island.

The Hindoo mode of culture may be the best for the native agriculturist, because
it is perfectly simple ; and cooley labour may be cheapened, by the employment of
children to prepare and lay down the sets, as soon as the nurseries of the mulberry
plant are sufficiently stocked to admit of the operations of the planter.

In Bengal, the land, having been cleared of weeds, and, where necessary, manured,
is lightly ploughed; and pits, large enough for the reception of eight or i ten sets,
having been prepared, in parallel lines, with a space of two feet between each pit, the
planter has nothing more to do, than employ children to cut the mulberry plants into
sets of about fourteen inches in length, whilst others distribute them, by laying down
the requisite number at the side of each pit, ready for being planted ; these having
been inserted, the planter presses the mould with his hands around each set, and
loose earth having been scattered over the whole, leaving only the tops to appear,
the primary object is effected. If this be done just before the rains set in, the fields

2 E

218 SUGGESTIONS FOR A REDUCTION OF CUSTOMS DUTIES— CHOY A ROOT

\vill exhibit, in the course of a week or ten days, a most verdant appearance ; for,
in that short space of time, the little clumps will be covered with foliage ; and thus,
any required quantity of mulberry leaves may be ensured for the ulterior purposes
of the silk grower.

It may be worthy of the consideration of the local government, whether the admis¬
sion into Ceylon of the raw productions and manufactures of the East India Company’s
territories upon the continent of India, at the same rate of duty as is there levied upon
our home produce and manufactures, and reducing the import duties upon paddee and
rice, until the island produces sufficient for the consumption of its population, might
not induce the governments of the several presidencies of British India to allow cotton
and silk to be exported to Ceylon duty free, (if intended to be shipped from thence to
Great Britain,) and materially diminish the price of labour in the colony.

It is to be expected, that such a change of system, in regard to the importation
of the raw materials and manufactures of British India, wrould materially affect the
importation of British cottons, because the native green or unbleached cloths would
then compete with those of the mother country ; but the result of such an arrangement
would benefit the native consumer in an equal ratio, which should be a primary object
of colonial legislation.

Choya root ( Oldenlandia umbtlluta, L.), which yields a valuable red dye for manufac¬
turing purposes, is both indigenous and abundant in this province ; nevertheless, its
culture, which would naturally tend to the improvement of the dye, has been hitherto
entirely neglected. This useful staple was formerly a government monopoly, and at
one time yielded a revenue of £2000 a year ; but it subsequently declined to about
a tenth part of that sum. The trade in it being now open, its culture offers a new
source of profitable speculation.

The soil is also admirably adapted to the growth of the hitherto much neglected
chocolate-nut tree ( Thcobroma Cacao , L.), which, in the course of a few years, might
rank as a staple of the island. I have had very fine specimens of the fruit in my own
garden, from trees planted by the late Jacobus Burnand, Esq., a Dutch gentleman,
whose name is deservedly remembered at Ceylon with respect and regard ; for he
was distinguished, both by his zeal for the welfare of the island, through the introduc¬
tion of the culture of valuable exotics from the Malay peninsula, and the Dutcn islands
of Java, Banda, and Amboyna, and by his botanical acquirements. The nuts were
equal to the finest I had seen at Penang and Malacca, or in the West Indies, and
in no degree inferior, either in size or nutritious properties, to the best productions
of South America.

C ULTURE OF THE CHOCOLATE-NUT TREE SUGGESTED— UNDER CROPS. 219

This tree requires shade ; and, for that purpose, plantations of banana and plantain
trees, which are of rapid growth, might be formed in parallel lines, leaving spaces of
ten or twelve feet between each, for the reception of the chocolate plants.

I am well aware of the objections likely to be opposed to my suggestions upon this
subject, arising upon a pnmu taut view of it, from the comparatively slow return for
the outlay, owing to the great difference of time between the produce of the chocolate
tree and that of the coffee bush attaining maturity : but it should be taken into
consideration, that here “the steed does not starve, whilst the grass grows;” for,
independently of the annual value of the fruit* of the banana and plantain trees,
which is m general request by the natives of all classes, the medicinal usefulness
of the leaves, which also afford excellent fodder for cattle, and the several mechan¬
ical purposes to which the fibrous stalks may be applied, as already described f
indigo, ginger, turmeric, cardamoms, cassada, arrow-root, maize, Guinea grass, and
the principal grains, after rice, to which the native farmer turns his attention, par¬
ticularly those called — Gingilhe Sessamum orientate, L.), Mun and Mung, a species of
Phaseolus, Meneri (Milium Zeylamcum . minus), Korakan (Cynosurus Coracanus. I,.;.
Badhaamu, a species of Doluho* and a feu others, known by the native names of
Mutches, Cadecoune, Cambanpullo, \\ arego, Swamy, Tinneswamy, Panneswamy.
and, although the last, not the least in value, for its domestic purposes, Dholl and
Horse Gram, might be planted and sown, by way of under crop, without injury to the
chocolate plants. To these might lie added, an extensive cultivation of the black
pepper vine ; for, notwithstanding the soil is well adapted to its growth, the island
is still dependent upon Malabar for supplies of this spice, which is indispensable for
the preservation of cinnamon bark during the homeward-bound voyage.

Surely, this is a speculation worthy of the attention of British capitalists; indeed,
but a moderate capital would be required, to bring very large tracts of ground into
a profitable state of cultivation ; and if a few zealous individuals would but determine
to adopt this system of agriculture, and give it a fair trial, it would establish the
truth of my assertions, that the returns from the under crops would be as rapid as
the most sanguine could have anticipated, and be ultimately increased by an abundan’
harvest of the chocolate nut.

The whole coast of the province abounds with excellent fish, and the interior par'
of it with fresh-wTater fish. Cattle and sheep are extremely cheap ; the former, varying
from twenty to thirty shillings a head: and the latter, from two shillings to half-a-crown

* Mandrakes of Scripture, Dodann of the Hebrew^. <»en x.\.\ 14

2 t 2

* Page 125

220 CATTLE— SHEEP— GRASSES— TIMBER TRADE— FESTIVAL OF JAGAN-NATH

Poultry and eggs are abundant, and proportionally cheap ; but swine are less plentiful
than in the Singhalese provinces, the Hindoos and Musselmans holding the “ unclean
animal” in almost equal abhorrence. Game abounds in every jungle, and a variety
of wild fowl, including wild duck, widgeon, teal, and snipe, in every swamp and
water tank.

There is great room for improvement in the native breed of cattle, here and through¬
out the island, by crossing it with that of England, or of the Cape of Good Hope ;
and if more regard be not paid to their feeding m this province than elsewhere, it
certainly does not arise from a deficiency of excellent pasturage, either here, or in the
several small islands to the westward. The native list of grasses contains 36 varieties.

As to the provincial breed of sheep, it is somewhat difficult to determine, by the
appearance of these animals upon the extensive sheep walks between this place and
Point Pedro, to which of Shaw’s genera, Capra or Ovis, they bear the nearest affinity.
Nevertheless, Jaffna sheep, after having been fed, for a few weeks, upon jack leaves,
paddee, or dholl, yield a tolerable substitute for Bengal or Cape of Good Hope mutton.

Cows, imported from the Cape, have been found to answer very well ; but, owing
to the immediate neighbourhood of lakes, rivers, and canals, being the most favourable
site for paddee fields, the appropriation of meadows, for the cultivation of grass, is as
much neglected as the making of hay, which the sun would fully effect in a few hours ;
and although the latter is altogether unnecessary for local purposes, where winter is
unknown, it might be prepared for the supply of shipping, if mechanical means of
pressing it for that purpose were introduced from England.

A very considerable timber trade in Palmyra rafters and laths, (locally called Paralies
and Reepas,) which are in great request, both for public and private buildings, is
carried on coastwise between Jaffna and the other ports of the island.

About the beginning of August, the Hindoos celebrate the annual festival of their
idol, Jagan-Nath, or Parameswara, the Lord of the Universe; but it is unaccompanied
by the tragic scenes of self-immolation which are occasionally displayed at the grand
Deura (temple) at Jagan-Nath, upon the coast of Coromandel, where pilgrims throw
themselves under the wheels of the stupendous car of the idol, and are crushed to
death. To this act, their religion incites them, as one so acceptable to Jagan-Nath ,
that a new birth, in felicity and honor, in the present world, is thereby assured to
these voluntary victims of superstition and error.

Patterson, speaking of the origin of the Hindoo religion, describes the temple at
Jagan-Nath as a famous resort for pilgrims of all sects ; “ for it is generally revered
by them, as a converging point, where all contending parties unite in harmony with

THE MYSTICAL PRANAVA— CAR OF JAGAN-NATH— TEMPLE MYSTERIES. 221

each other:” and, in describing the Pranava, or mystical character, which represents
the name of the deity, from which cypher they have made three distinct idols, viz.
Bal-Ra?n, Sabhadra , and Jagan-Nath , he calls it “ a stroke of refined policy in the
first founders of the temple, to present as an object of worship, the personification
of the tri-literal word, which is held in reverence alike by all sectaries, and to give it
a title, which each sect might apph to the object of its particular adoration and
considers “ that the intention of the foundation was evidently to render the temple
a place of pilgrimage open to all sects, and to draw an immense revenue from the
multifarious resort of devotees.”

Having been' invited to accompany the chief and puisne justices of the supreme
court, (the Honorable Sir Alexander Johnston and Sir William Coke,) at that time on
their northern circuit, to see the pagan ceremonies observed at the festival of Jagan-
Nath, I gladly availed myself of so favorable an opportunity for viewing the triumphal
car and procession of the idol.

A spacious booth, brilliantly illuminated, and decorated with white cloth, and natural
fruits and flowers, among which the white, pink, and blue varieties of the Lotos were
conspicuous, had been erected in front of the triumphal car, expressly for the recep¬
tion of the judges, who were received, upon their arrival, by the chief and other
Brahmins; after which, the head Brahmin placed over the shoulders of the chief justice
three chaplets of fragrant flowers ; of which, one was composed of the beautiful
rose-colored corols of the double oleander ( Nerium odoratum, L., var duplex),
and the others of the moogrie, or Arabian jessamine (Nerium coronarium, L.), and
the puisne justice was decorated with two white chaplets of moogrie flowers ; — con¬
secrated limes were, at the same time, presented to the judges, and the chief Brahmin
paid me a similar compliment.

The car of the idol, formed of wood, about twenty or twenty five feet in length,
and of proportional width, above its huge wheels, was highly gilded, and painted with
emblematical figures, (among which the Lingam was prominent,) surrounding the
carved figure of the idol.

According to the best account that I could collect from the Malabar interpreter
of the custom house, the festival continues for several successive nights, as the time
most adapted to the rites of pagan superstition ; and he positively asserted as a matter
of fact, “ that it commences by the presentation of a beautiful virgin to the Brahmins,
for the bride of Jagan-Nath , in whose temple ( Deura ) they leave her all night, after
persuading her to believe, that the deity will himself visit her during that period.
Jagan-Nath is then personated by one of the chief Brahmins; to whose lust, the poor
victim is first sacrificed, and then instructed in the part she is to perform at the

222 DEVADASI OF THE DEURA— THEIR DRESSES— HINDOO MUSICIANS.

ensuing ceremonial ; especially in the various stories which she is publicly to declare,
from her seat by the idol’s side, upon his car of triumph, as the commands received
trom Jagan-Nath himself, during the preceding night. “ Tantum religio potuit
suadere malorum.”

The Devadasi, or dancing girls of the Deura, having been introduced by the head
Brahmin, commenced their lascivious gestures, mis-called dancing. The prima donna
was a Malabar girl of great beauty, and, in point of figure, a personification of the
Medicean Venus ; the others were also pretty, and of good figure ; but the profuse use
of turmeric, with which their faces, arms, necks, and breasts were covered, however
charming to the native eye, neutralized the interest, with which, their otherwise attrac¬
tive appearance might have inspired the more fastidious European.

The dress of the Devadasi consisted of a robe of spangled muslin, which partially
covered the left breast, but exposed the right ; this was confined round the waist by
a massive zone of pure gold, of about three inches in width, and resplendent with
pearls and precious stones ; chiefly diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and sapphires. Splen¬
did jewels of similar materials ornamented their ears, nostrils, (descending over the
mouth and chin,) fingers, arms, ankles, and toes.

The Devadasi performed their parts to admiration ; their various positions and
movements were, perhaps, unequalled in point of lasciviousness, which gradually
increased with their excitement, until it apparently bordered upon Bacchanalian
madness, to the sound of the most barbarous music, if that word be not altogether
misapplied, that ever deafened ear.

But, as if the horrid din of perforated shells, native drums, cymbals, and pipes,
were considered insufficient to delight the European visitors, recourse was had to
vocal music, by way of auxiliary. The Hindoo artistes were chiefly old men with
snow-white beards ; but these anti-harmonists, instead of clearing their mouths of the
Pawn which they had previously been masticating, crammed into them additional rolls
of it, and then commenced their monotonous tic-tic-ticky-taw-tic-taw-ticky-taw.

The dancing having terminated, the procession commenced its usual circuit : — the
Devadasi, preceded by the singers and musicians, placed themselves in front of the
car, which, upon a given signal, and amidst innumerable Chinese fire-works, myriads
of torches, and the firing of small arms, was slowly dragged along by about a hundred
devotees, who seemed to vie with each other for the honor of buckling themselves
to the consecrated ropes of Jagan- Nath’s car. The order of this heathen cere¬
monial recalled to mind the more sacred one described by the royal Psalmist, “ The
singers went before ; the players on instruments followed after ; amongst them were
the damsels playing with timbrels.”

THE HINDOOS— THEIR DIET— AMUSEMENTS— GENERAL CONTENTMENT 223

All castes of Hindoos acknowledge the Brahmins * for their priests, and derive from
them their belief of the metempsychosis, or transmigration of souls. Although many
of the higher castes are extremely particular as to diet, and object to the use ol
animal food, the greater number are less scrupulous, and eat, sparingly, but not indif¬
ferently, of fish, flesh, and fowl. Their chief diet, however, consists of vegetable
curries, in which butter, made of buffalo’s milk, and clarified, is very generally
employed ; and they esteem milk as the purest of food, because the cow is regarded
as a divinity.

The best native condiments used by the higher classes, are compounded of coriander
seed, turmeric, black pepper, white mustard, green ginger, allspice, lesser cardamoms,
cummim seed, fenugreek, and cayenne ; but the lower classes are contented with the
simpler ones of turmeric, green ginger, cayenne, and a leaf of the carpintchee tree
( Cookia anisetta ).

The chief amusement of the Hindoos consists in assisting at the religious cere¬
monials prescribed by their Brahmins, who appear to have established among them¬
selves a regular hierarchy, and gradation of ranks, thereby securing subordination in
their own order, weight to their authority, and dominion over the minds of the people.
To enter into a detail of the complicated system of Hindoo superstition, is as far
beyond my power, as it is foreign to my present object. The village people appear
contented ; and, as if their happiness consisted in domestic life, being taught by their
religion that marriage is the indispensable duty of all, except those who separate them¬
selves from the world for the sake of religion, polygamy is allowed ; but they are
generally contented with one wife, who is distinguished for fidelity to her vows, and
solicitude for her family.

Native philanthropy displays itself, equally in the Malabar and Singhalese districts
At certain distances on the public roads, the way-worn traveller is sure to find the
means of assuaging thirst, from a large earthen chatty, filled with water, to which
a coco-nut-shell ladle is attached ; this is placed upon a rest, about two feet from the
ground, by the road side ; and the neighbouring villagers never fail to replenish the
“ travellers’ cistern,” morning and evening.

As already stated in the preceding pages, the Americans have a large missionary
establishment in this province. The first missionaries were acquainted with various

* According to Dr. Hyde’s history of the religion of the ancient Persians, they believed their religion to bavt
been that of the patriarch Abraham ; and it appears to have been his own opinion, that the ancient Brachmans
and modem Brahmins, derived their names from Abraham, or rather Braham, which is the common way ol
pronouncing that word amongst the Persians. — The Brahmin caste is distinguished by threads worn over one
shoulder, aud called Zennaar.

224 MISSIONARY PRIVATIONS— TAMUL TRANSLATION OF THE LITURGY

mechanical trades, and were not above imparting their knowledge of them to the
natives ; and they have done much good throughout their respective localities. They
have a Hindoo professorship of astronomy, which is taught upon the native system ;
and if their number of converts to Christianity be bounded, the social good they
have effected is boundless.

" He left his Christian friends and native strand,

Bv pity for benighted men constrained ;

H is heart was fraught with charity unfeigned ;

His life was stria, his manners meek and bland.

Long dwelt he lonely in a heathen land,

In want and weariness, — yet ne’er complained ;

But laboured that the lost sheep might be gained,

Not seeking recompense from human hand.

The credit of the arduous works he wrought
Was reaped by other men who came behind :

The world gave him no honour — none he sought,

But cherished Christ’s example in his mind.

To one great aim his heart and hopes were given, —

To serve his God, and gather souls to heaven. — Pringle.

Pringle’s account of missionary privations, however applicable to those he might have
had in view when he wrote, are certainly inapplicable to Ceylon missionaries of any
denomination. In all other points, those who know those gentlemen will very probably
agree with the author as to the applicableness of the above lines ; but, in Ceylon, mis¬
sionaries are, as I would wish they should be in every quarter of the globe, subject to no
want or privation except such as are common to other gentlemen, in the public service
and commercial community, arising from climate and distance from their native country.

But, like the good and well-intentioned of this country, the Americans have equally
forgotten an old but true adage ; for they too are more intent upon disseminating
Christianity amongst the pagans of India, than amongst the immense numbers of their
worse than heathen brethren at home ; who, according to that adage, have the nearest
and greatest claim.

The first Tamul translation of the Liturgy was made by the Rev. Christian David,
now Malabar colonial chaplain in this province, and was printed at the Serampore
mission press, at the sole expense of the then governor, the late General Sir Robert
Brownrigg, Bart., G. C. B. ; but it is probable that even this will not be considered,
“ sanctis et inter sanctos” of this country, to be a sufficient expiation for the deadly sm
of having made, as I shall show in the following pages, an offering to a Budhoo tem¬
ple ! ! ! — I much fear, that every attempt to reconcile the conflicting duties of religion
with sound national policy will ever be an insuperable task to even the most zealous
of our colonial governors.

CHAP. XXVIII.

Garrison of Jaffna — Provincial head quarters- -Extensive culture of the Betel pepper — Esteemed for its astrin¬
gent properties by native doctors — Flower and tea] of the wild and cultivated Betel — Mode of culture — Hater con
reyance to Point Pedro — 1'oint Pedro Shoal— huute by land — Bitter Aloes — I illages of Kopaay and Alchoewetle—
Veteran magistrate who served under Frederick the Great — The ruling passion— Route from Jaffna to Trincomah
— Katchay — Elephant Pass — Choondt t'oioni— Mullativoe — Face of the country — Postholders supply provisions to
travellers — Jungles — Game — Mullativoe house — Dangerous coral shoal — Sailing directions — Alembiel — Superficies
and population of the Northern Province — Humbert employed in agriculture , manufactures, and commerce
Eastern Province — tSay-Aar — Kokelay — Sand-flies — Kokelay river — Fish — Dead shells for lime abundant — Set
aery — Inhabitants — Tenia — Banyan fig tree — IVild hogs — Hint to sportsmen — C utchiavelle — Nilavelle — Salt
River — View of Trincomalc — Trincomah the chief town of the Eastern Province — Fortifications — Harbour-
Society — Garrison — Suggestions foi establishing farms for supplying shipping with salted and fresh provisiens-
Anticipated favorable result to Trincomah .

In time of peace, the military command of the province is held by a captain of the
army ; and the garrison of Jaffna, the “ head quarters,” consists of a few Europeans
and a detachment of the Ceylon rifle corps ; with a medical staff, consisting of an
assistant surgeon, and a native medical sub-assistant ; besides whom, there art' a
native medical sub-assistant, and a medical pupil, for the express purpose of vacci¬
nation. The civil departments are filled, as described in page 34, under the head
“ Fiscal division into provinces.”

The culture of the Betel pepper ( Piper Betel, L.) is more extensive in this, than in
any other province ; because its proximity to the Indian peninsula, enables the grower
to export the leaf and flower, in a fresh state, to a market, where these articles, being
scarcer, and indispensable necessaries of general consumption, are sure of a prompt
sale at remunerating prices.

The Malabars call it Betele or Betre, and the Singhalese Boolaak or Boolaat-waela
and their doctors esteem it one of their best astringents. The Dutch formerly exported
the dried flower, both of the cultivated and wild species, to the Cape of Good Hope :
— the former is about an inch and a half in length, of a bright yellow ; and the latter
about five inches, and of an ash color. The leaf of both species is septinervous ,
but the upper surface of that of the cultivated has a peculiar glossiness, of which,
the wild is destitute.

2 F

226

BETEL— POINT PEDRO SHOAL— VETERAN MAGISTRATE.

The Betel is propagated by layers ; — these are cut into sets of about two feet in
length, and the middle having been covered with earth, the extremities are left ex¬
posed ; in the course of a few days, roots strike forth, and when the plant requires
support, poles are employed, as in the hop-grounds of this country.

From Jaffna to Point Pedro there is conveyance by the river, which is only navigable
by boats, and debouches near that port, where there is a small fort, but it has no
garrison in time of peace. Point Pedro is the northernmost land of Ceylon ; and from
thence, during the north-east monsoon, Trincomale may be reached by a country boat
or D honey in a few hours.

According to Captain Horsburgh, “ Point Pedro Shoal encompasses the N. E. ex¬
tremity of the island ; and, from thence, stretches nearly parallel to the coast,
about six leagues to the S. S. Eastward, having only 3 and 3f fathoms on it, in many
places, and 2| fathoms on two patches ; one of these bears nearly E. f S. from Point
Palmyra, the N. E. extremity of Ceylon, distant about five miles ; the other N. E.
from the same Point, distant four miles.

“ Between this extensive narrow shoal and the coast, there is a safe channel, about
three miles wide ; with regular soundings, soft mud, 7 fathoms close to the shore,
7, 8, or 9 fathoms in mid-channel, and five or 6 fathoms close to the inner edge of the
shoal. To the Eastward of it, the bank of soundings is also flat, with regular depths ;
decreasing to 5 and 6 fathoms close to the S. E. and Eastern parts of the shoal, and
to 4 fathoms, coarse brown sand, close to its N. Eastern verge. — The whole of this
coast is low, and abounds in palmyra trees.”

If the tourist intend to travel by land to Point Pedro, his route lies through Kopaay,
passing to the left of Poetoer, through a low country, where there are extensive sheep-
walks, to Atchoewelle. The soil is sandy, but produces certain plants which are not
indigenous elsewhere in the island, and are consequently attractive to the botanist ;
amongst others, the Aloe ( Aloe spicata, L.), Komarita of the Singhalese, which yields
the Bitter Aloes of commerce.

The inhabitants of the villages of Kopaay and Atchoewelle, are an obliging, well-
disposed, and contented race of people ; and at Point Pedro, where there is a small
establishment for collecting the customs, one is sure to meet with every kindness and
hospitality from the resident civilian, who is an assistant government agent of the district.

Formerly the sitting magistrate at Point Pedro, was a Prussian gentleman of the
name of Theile, who had served under Frederick the Great. He was a fine specimen
of the Prussian grenadier of the old school, being not less than six feet three inches
in height. Mr. Theile entertained the late Sir William Coke (puisne justice of

ROUTE TO TRINCOMALE — FACE OF THE COUNTRY— ANT-EATER.

227

the Honorable the Supreme Court) and myself, upon our landing at Point Pedro from
Trincomale, with the greatest hospitality ; and, after dinner, a few extra glasses of Sir
William's Champagne took a pleasant effect upon the old gentleman, who was eighty-
years of age ; for instead of shouldering a crutch, “ to show how fields were won,” he
desired his daughter, a very pretty girl, to play a favorite Prussian march ; and “ ad¬
vancing arms ” with my gun, marched about the room as erect as if he had been sixty
years younger than he really was.

The direct route by land from Jaffna to Trincomale, after having crossed the ferry,
at Nawakooli, lies through Katchay, distant 17| miles ; and from thence to Elephant
or Bischuter Pass, 16 miles. The line of road is tolerably good, for a low champaign
country, where sand is the predominating soil ; and continues so to Choondi Colom,
a distance of 15 miles; and from thence, to Moolladivo or Mullativoe, a further
distance of lOf miles.

The face of the country is nearly the same throughout ; in some places well culti¬
vated, and studded with palmyra trees, with patches of jungle interspersed, and, here
and there, a few straggling coco-nut trees. So few Europeans travel in this part of the
island, that there are no regular established rest-houses between Jaffna and Mullativoe ;
but, at the several stages, the postholders provide eggs, milk, poultry, fish, and fruit, at
the rates, established by the agent of government for the province, including a certain
per centage upon the bazaar prices, for their own trouble and attention.

At almost every step, novelties present themselves to the attention of the naturalist
and the sportsman. The jungles abound with game, of which, the most sought after
are the Indian Samver (Cere us Aristotelts ), commonly, but erroneously called Elk, and
the Axis deer (Cervus Axis) ; but, amid the variety of wild animals, none is more
curious, or perhaps novel to the newly-arrived European, than the toothless ant eater
( Manis tetradaclyia, L.), the Kuballe of the Singhalese. This singular creature forms
itself into a ball, when suddenly obtruded upon, or at the approach of an enemy,
after the manner of the hedgehog ( Ennactus Europctus, L.); the whole body is covered
with imbricated scales, whose resisting power, arising in a great measure from the con¬
vexity as well as substance of its scales, (between every two of which a solitary bristle
protrudes,) renders it impenetrable either bv a spear or musket ball. The animal is
of a greenish ash color, and obtains its food by laying its tongue, which is protrusile to
the length of 16 or lb inches, upon the ground, and as soon as it is covered with ants,
it suddenly doubles it back into the mouth, and rubs them off against the palate.

The YVattoewekal-Aar is crossed at the ford, about a mile and a half or two miles
from Mullativoe, which has a small fort, and a good rest-house, and is situate in

2 f 2

228

SAILING DIRECTIONS- SUPERFICIES AND POPULATION.

latitude 9° 13 north, and longitude bl° 1 east, close to the sea, and bears about
N. W. by N. from Pigeon Island, distant thirteen leagues ; but, in time of peace, it
has no garrison or European resident.

Captain Horsburgh, in the last edition of his Directory, (1836,) calls Mullativoe,
Molawat or Molatuwa , and it one take the trouble to look at six or seven maps

of Ceylon, scarcel) two will be iound to agree in point of orthography.

“ From ‘ Mullativoe House, a dangerous coral shoal, hav ing only two fathoms water
on it, called Molawal shoal, extends to the eastward and north-eastward near four
miles from the shore, which ought not to be approached nearer than thirteen fathoms.
As there are twenty and twenty-one fathoms water about four miles from the shore,

and four or five miles to the south-eastward of the shoal, a ship should edge out a little

when near it ; but when abreast of its eastern extremity, she may with the land wind
borrow towards it to thirteen or fourteen fathoms. The north side of this shoal is
not so steep, but composed of detached knowls, the depths decreasing regularly to
nine or ten fathoms, dose to its northern verge, and to six and seven fathoms along
the N. W. part, close to the shore. From this, the coast is low to the N. E. point ol
Ceylon, with seven fathoms near to the sandy beach, but care is requisite to avoid the
Point Pedro shoal.”

The same orthodox authorm in regard to Eastern navigation, describes the coast
between Mullativoe House and Pigeon Island as “ low and safe to approach, to eighteen
or twenty fathoms in the night, if the lead be kept going, or to twelve fathoms
occasionally when working in daylight. About 3| leagues from Pigeon Island there is
a small river, and four leagues further to the N. W. the river Kokelay is situated.”

From Mullativoe the next village is Alembiel, distant 8f miles ; and from thence to
the Nay-Aar, which river separates this part of the Northern from the Eastern Pro¬
vince, 1\ miles.

The superficies of the northern province is 6,053 square miles ; and the population,
(excepting that of the Nuwerakalawiye division, where no returns had been kept,)
agreeably to the last Census, taken in 1835, is 252,619, making the average number
to the square mile, 41.73 ; viz.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL

Whites, including Military and their families ..

. 492

539

1,031

Free Blacks, ditto ditto .

. . 112,489

113,138

225,627

Slaves .

1 1,910

24,515

1,446

Aliens and Resident Strangers . . .

252,619

XAY.AAR— KOKELAY— FISH— VILLAGERS— TERRIA.

229

The number employed in agriculture, 67,662 ; in manufactures, 18,992 ; and in
commerce, 12,454. The marriages, in the year 1835, were 1,180 ; births, 4,336 ; and
deaths, 2,503 ; leaving a surplus in favor of the population of the province, of 1,833.

From the Nay-Aar, the distance to Kokelay, which is situate about mid-way between
Alembiel and Kanjarankenne, is rather more than 10 miles, During the heat of tht
day, the glare and the sand-flies are so embarassing, that no one travels between
9 a. m. and 4 p. m. if it can well be avoided ; but during the N. E. monsoon, the road
is rendered comparatively pleasant, by the refreshing breezes from the sea, to what
it is when the S. W. prevails.

The Kokelay river, and indeed the whole line of coast, abounds with fish, including
the Sole and Sur-mullet, and several varieties of the Ray ( Raiidce , C.) and Mackarel
(Scomberoidce, C.) families ; and there is such an accumulation of dead shells, that
sufficient lime might be burnt upon the spot to supply the whole province.

At early dawn, flamingos, widgeon, curlews, herons, and snipes, congregate in the
watery patches near the plains ; and these, covered with verdure and bordered by
magnificent forest trees, upon whose topmost branches innumerable peafowl await the
first rays of the rising sun, to exhale the night dew from their splendid plumage,

" - W bile o er the forest glade

The wild deer trip, and, often turning, gaze
At early passengers ' ”

delight the eye in every direction : but so little is produced by human exertions, to
what the country is capable of, that one naturally arraigns the neglect of man, whilst
he acknowledges, and is lost in admiration of, the bounty of the Creator.

The Hindoo villagers are an industrious race of people, and seem contented and
happy. Their usually plain diet includes the Kellingo, or meal made from the spring
leaf of the palmyra ; and their chief employment is in salting fish for the Kandyan
market, or attending to their humble husbandry. Every cottage has its garden, m
which, capsicums, tobacco, cotton, Indian spinach, water melons, ginger, pumpkins,
betel, cucumbers, turmeric, pepper, yams, beans, sweet potatos, and plantains, are tin
principal objects of culture. The people of the village are generally well-grown and
handsome ; the women are pretty, and extremely diffident in their appearance and
demeanour ; but all their children appear, as elsewhere in the island, subject to
obesity ; which, if one ask them the reason, is attributed to the rice, and they seem
to have the same remedy for it everywhere, in the flesh of the river tortoise or Kiri-Ba.
The villagers use the Caffrarian lime ( Citrus tubero'ides) as commonly here as in the
southern and western provinces, for cleansing their long and redundant black hair.

230

BANYAN TREE— WILD HOGS— CUTCHIAVELLE— NILAVELLE.

The next stage to the southward is Terria, distant Ilf miles; the natives pronounce
it Pehria. The neighbourhood exhibits immense rocks of singular appearance ; and
the surrounding scenery is altogether worthy of a master pencil. The native cottages,
which are built of sticks ( Warretchie) and clay, and whitewashed with chunam, are
extremely neat.

The banyan tree ( Ficus Indica) is common here ; and, during the time its red figs
are ripe, the sportsman has no further trouble than to station himself in a good
position, under cover, and within gun-shot of the trees, soon after dusk, when he may
kill wild hogs ad libitum for these animals are so eager for their favorite food, that
they return, after a short time, to the spot, (where they may have left many of their
original number “dead upon the field,’] and continue to run from, and return to,
the same place, several times during the night, until the sportsman is actually tired ol
slaughter ; but not being one myself, I am indebted for my information upon this point,
to some of the most experienced of my contemporaries, both English and Dutch.

From Terria to C’utchiavelle rest-house, the distance is rather more than 8f miles
road still sandy, with jungles abounding with wild hogs, deer, and buffalos. The place
contains but few inhabitants, and their appearance is not so pleasing and contented as
that of the people of the villages of Kokelay and Terria ; but they are equally civil
and obliging.

The next stage, to Nilavelle rest-house, is rather more than 13 miles ; from thence

I

to the Salt river, 4f miles ; and to Trincomale, 3| miles further ; road sandy, with
thick jungle, and occasionally undulating, and hilly ; affording magnificent views of the
bay of Trincomale, and of the numerous fortifications by which that most important
place, the Head Quarters of His Excellency the Commander-in-chief of Her Majesty’s
ships and vessels in the Indian seas, may be rendered, when adequately garrisoned,
impregnable.

Along this coast, there is little for remark, beyond a bold shore, immense tracks
of wood inland, and the abundance of the palmyra palm ; but the country is better
inhabited and cultivated than appears to the superficial observer.

Trincomale, the chief town in the province, (Batticaloa being the next, but scarcel)
deserving the name,) stands in a N. E. direction along the bay, in a woody and hill)
country, interspersed with coco-nut and palmyra trees ; but the appearance of it is
extremely wild, owin^ o the general neglect of agriculture ; and, like most seaport
towns, whose dependence is upon the navy, it experiences the inconvenience ol
peace ; for it is so little frequented by free traders, that it has nothing to compensate
it, for the loss of its grand support.

TRINCOMALE— FORT— HARBOUR— SOCIETY— GARRISON.

23 J

From its position, Trincomale is naturally strong, and art has since made it impreg¬
nable, by fortifications ; but although it occupies a larger area than the maritime
capital, it has scarcely hah the number of houses ; and these are very inferior, with
the exception of the late naval commissioner’s spacious mansion, built upon the Madras
plan, with flat roof, and verandah, whose pillars rival in appearance Parian marble,
and a few other pqblic and private buildings.

The fort commands the bays, and particularly the entrance to the inner bay, which
being nearly as much land-locked as Portsmouth harbour, ships of every rate and class
may ride secure there throughout the year ; but this very circumstance, as opposing
great natural obstacles to a free circulation of the sea breezes, is considered by many
medical men as a principal cause of the proverbial unhealthiness of the place ; to this
may be added, the swampy grounds on the land side, as another reason.

The strong brick-built fortification, called Fort Ostenburg, which also commands
the harbour, projects so far to seaward, that before an enemy can attack it, possession
must first have been obtained of the fort of Trincomale, as well as of the grand har¬
bour itself ; but, notwithstanding the importance attached to this naval station by its
former possessors, the French and Dutch, as well as by ourselves, for its proximity to
our possessions on the coast of Coromandel and bay of Bengal, it has never possessed
any trade of importance, in a national point of view ; and this not only deserves the
greatest consideration, but an adequate remedy.

The European society of Trincomale is limited to the families of those employed
in the public service ; and their general hospitality is such as Ceylon has been famed
for from the earliest period of our possession of it.

The garrison consists of a regiment of the line, with a company of royal artillery
and a detachment of the Ceylon rifle corps.

The medical department comprises a staff surgeon, one assistant staff surgeon, and
a native medical sub-assistant. The former duties of fort major and fort adjutant,
are now performed by the “ Staff Officer,” with an extra allowance of lOs. per diem.

The agent of government, district judge, colonial chaplain, and master attendant,
are, ex-officio, members of the Sub-committee of the commission for the general
superintendence of education throughout the colony.

During the war, Trincomale was, comparatively speaking, a flourishing place, when
contrasted with its present state ; but since the breaking up of the dockyard establish¬
ment, which caused the circulation of a great deal of money, and made it profitable
to the inhabitants, it may be said, “ Stat nominis umbra:” — but it might soon
be made a place of great resort by ships of all classes in the India trade, if a few

232

SUGGESTIONS FOR A MODEL FARM— ANTK IPATED RESULT

speculative capitalists were to establish an extensive farm in the immediate neighbour¬
hood, for the purpose of rearing and improving stock of every description for ships’
use, and for growing fodder and grain for its support on shipboard ; as well as for
supplying good beef and wholesome esculents to the royal navy in the harbour, as
suggested in page 111.

The patronage of the naval commander-in-chief, as well as of the army commissariat,
might be calculated upon, as one certain consequence of the speculation *. because it
would display a degree of public spirit that would unite all in a zealous desire to sup¬
port it ; and, for my own part, I would desire no better fortune than a tenth share of
the profit, for as many years, which might be realized by its efficient management.

The establishment of a “ model farm ” in this part of the island would piove of more
real importance to the country than a hundred upon the fatal banks of the Niger; not
only as regards the comparatively small cost, but the almost incalculable saving ol
human life. The culture of grains, including the millet ( P annum Italicum, L.), which
was originally introduced by the Portuguese, and called by them O milho pain^o ,
instead of paddee, now in general use, would throw a much larger supply of rice into
the market, and supersede the too general employment of coco-nut oil-cake.

This, in conjunction with a central farm in the highlands of Kandy,* would prove
a very lucrative speculation , tor their temperature is every way favorable to the curing
of provisions for supplying the royal and commercial'navies, for which they are now
dependent upon Bengal and Bombay ; and would soon render Trincomale as much
frequented by trading vessels as it is now neglected.

It cannot reasonably be doubted, but that such an extensive farm, capable of sup¬
plying shipping with stock, equally good and perhaps cheaper than either Madras or
Calcutta, and which might also include a depot for supplying steamers with coals,
would scarcely have had time to perfect itself, ere ten ships would put into Trincomale,
where one does now ; for everything would then be against Madras for supplying
ships, upon an equality, in point of goodness or cheapness, with Trincomale, inde¬
pendently of the difficulty of access at all times, owing to its surf, and the danger, il
not impracticableness, of lying in that roadstead, between the period of striking the
flag-staff of Fort St. George, in October, and re-hoisting it, at the change of the
monsoon ; and consequently Trincomale would naturally be resorted to for stock,
instead of the river Hooghly, if it could be obtained there equally as good and cheap
at all seasons of the year.

* Vide page 177

CHAP. XXIX.

Malacology of the island — Cabinet* "f shells got up far sale — Best method of procuring perfect specimiu*
Caution to strangers m buying lewcllei y / mm natire — Their importunate method of obtruding it upon notice
Adepts at transforming broken glass into nineties of precious stones — Laws to restrain imposition effectual, when
appealed to, ig lime — Jewellery expressly made for “ Chip Gentlemans — Ear-cutting — Ineffectual punishment foi
it — Suggestions for suppressing it — Rams — Lord Talentia — Crocodiles— Hot wells of Cannea — Little white ants
(Termes) great public peculators — Sailing directions into the harbour of Tnncomale — Reasons for not building
ships at Trincomale, inapplicable I >■ the neglect of growing Teak for the future exigencies of the royal navy —
Suggestions\for rendering grants, o> sales of crown lands, more beneficial to the public, in proportion to the ad van
tages derived by grantees or purchasers-

Trincomale has been proverbial for its marine shells, for centuries past ; and it is
no less capable of affording perfect specimens of the Malacology of the island at the
present day, than when it was considered, by our Dutch predecessors, in the zenith ot
its fame, for this interesting and extensive branch of natural history, which appears to
be in more general request than any other ; arising, perhaps, from the lesser degree
of care required to preserve shells for an indefinite period, and with but little loss
of substance or color.

The principal varieties to be obtained here, belong to the following genera of the
Lmnaean or Lamarchian systems, viz. Anemia, Area, Buccinum, Bulla, Cardium, Chamu,
C/iione, Carocolla, Carmaria, Ceritheum, Columbella, Conus, Cyprcea, Dentaliuvi, Dona a ,
Glycimeris, Harpa, Haliotis, Helu , Myu, Maetra, Mure a , Mytilus , Nautilus, Nenla.
Ostrea, Pholas, Pinna, Pleurastoma . Pteroieros, Sufula, Solen, Strombus, Spotisylu s.
Tellina, Teredo, Turbo, Tree bus, Venus, and Yolutu.

Shells are sold, en masse, in very prett\ cabinets of indigenous satin wood and ebonv.
which are occasionally ornamented with mother o' pearl ; but these, although at first
sight attractive to the new comer, are generally found, upon individual examination,
to be scarcely worth the trouble of carriage ; the most valuable part of the purchase
being the drawers which contain the trash, as such shells are justly considered by the
Conchologist. The best way to obtain perfect specimens, is to get a recommendation
from the government agent to the renter of the shell fishery ; and, as the latter will
expect to be paid in proportion to the value of the shells he procures, the purchaser
may rely on his strenuous efforts to get the best for him.

234

CAUTION TO STRANGERS LANDING AT TRINCQMALE.

Strangers landing at Trincomale, as casual visitors, are apt to be misled by thi
showy appearances of the jewellery offered by itinerant venders, who crowd together
at the landing place, upon the first signal of a ship standing into the harbour, to take
advantage of “ Griffin Gentleman

These fellows, who are chiefly Moormen and Malabars, vie with each other in
vociferously obtruding their “ Tort- shell boxes,” “ Sot jeweller's gold,” — “ All first
touch star pagoda gold shames"- “ lie all, he stone rings,” (representing those of
the island; some of the commonest of which may be genuine,) — “ He mooney-stont
rings,” — “ He Chinnanion slum " “ He mi fee i (sapphire) He rubai,” (ruby)
“He imral ,” (emerald; “ He topaze,” - “ He water sajeer,” He ambetyst ,” (ame¬
thyst) — “ He tourmaline," “ He opal,"- “ 1L agga manna,” (aqua marina) — and lots
of other “ He "-prefixed humbugs upon “ Chip Gentlemans for they know well
enough how to transform broken blue, green, purple, and yellow finger glasses inti;
sapphires, emeralds, amethysts, and topazes ; veneered tortoise shell, into solid “ Tort-
shell snuff-boxes f and fhrnnnuham gilt chains, into “ Real Ceylon gold shaines, Masta,
— et caeteris paribus !

As the local laws impose heavy penalties upon persons convicted of selling coun¬
terfeit, or inferior, gold to the quality bargained for, these Jews of the East, relying
upon impunity in their nefarious transactions ashore, or with officers and passengers on
ship-board, keep their several false and real Bijoux in separate boxes ; and it is by no
means uncommon, when they are displaying their best jewellery to residents, and are
asked to show what their “ other boxes” contain, to be told, “ that not do for Masta
or Lady ; that for Chip Gentlemans

Strangers being desirous of purchasing jeweller} , and of knowing what they do
purchase before they pay for it, will find it best to apply to the secretary of the district
court, who will introduce them to the Assayer generally a headman of the goldsmiths)
employed by the court ; and he will test the quality of the gold, and fix its value, so
that the purchaser will not be imposed on m the weight or quality of the gold ; and
the working goldsmiths’ charges for “ fashion " are extremely moderate.

The lower classes of Malabars about this place are a very bad set, and notorious
for “ear-cutting a crime which is peculiar to the northern and eastern provinces
and, as it does not enter into the catalogue of European felonies, may require sonu
explanation.

The rich Malabars, Hindoos, and C hitties, ornament their ears with enormous gold
rings, about three inches in diameter, reaching from the lobes of the ears to the shoul¬
ders ; these rings are generally of the purest gold, and set with resplendent jewels,

EAR-C L'TTIN ( > —LORD VALENTIA AND HIS CRITICS

235

chiefly emeralds, rubies, sapphires, and cats’-eyes, and, occasionally, pearls of a large
size ; sometimes the former, although merely polished, are considered of greater in¬
trinsic value than cut stones. This display causes frequent robberies ; and the thieves,
having waylaid their victims, instead of unfastening the ornaments, hastily clip the
lobes of the ears, and make off' with their valuable plunder.

Although the supreme court has never allowed an opportunity to escape of punishing
this crime to the utmost extent of the law, it has hitherto failed to suppress it ; but
as the natives dread deportation moie than any other penalty, (death excepted,)
which does not extend to ear-cutting, one would imagine that a Legislative enactment
for the transportation of persons convicted of it, to New Zealand, where they might
be usefully employed in the construction of roads and public buildings, would tend
to suppress this Malabar ptndmni for plundering their neighbours’ ears.

“ The rains” set in with the north-east monsoon, in October and November, during
which time the mean temperature is about 77", by the late Mr. Richard Brook's obser¬
vations ; but Trincomale \ lsited with heavy, although partial, showers in July,
during the south-west monsoon, when the mean temperature is about 82°; at which
time, this side of the island is as little aflected by it, o..,ng to the intervening range
of mountains, from 1000 to 82NJ feet above the level of the sea, as the western and
southern provinces are during the prevalence of the north-east.

Lord Valentia (the late Lord Mountnorris) has been unjustly accused of recom¬
mending “the cutting down of coco-nut trees, as the means of improving the salubrity
of the place near which the\ abound ; ” for, in his Lordship’s “ Travels,” the noble
author, in allusion to the coco-nut tree, gave his opinion, that “ when close-planted,
it seems to prevent the growth of underwood,” but that “ if all shelter were removed,
even in the lowlands, the ground crops might be injured by too much opening
them to the sun and wind, and the eflects, even on the fruit trees, might be un¬
favorable. But tall trees would protect, without stopping the circulation of air.
Clumps of them, and hedge-rows, ought to be planted, when the jungle and under¬
wood are cleared.”*

As regards the felling of coco-nut or other trees, by which a fort or fortress is
immediately overlooked or commanded, Lord Valentia displayed more sound judgment
than otherwise, in a military point of view ; and probably the recommendation “ to
cut down the coco-nut topes at Trincomale,” was but a natural consequence of that
view of their position.

* Lutd \ ulentia s Travels, vol. i. ]jage 313.

2 g 2

236

CROCODILES— HOT WELLS— WHITE ANT PECULATIONS.

Lord Valentia has, however, exposed himself, with more justice, to strictures, by
the severe remarks his account of Ceylon contains upon Professor Thunberg. What¬
ever local privileges the professor may have enjoyed under the Dutch administration,
there are no just grounds for doubting an iota of that gentleman’s account of them ;
and if Lord Valentia, as the r‘ lion of the day” there, could not get his coolies to
keep together, notwithstanding his peerage, and the Governor’s avowed anxiety to
afford every possible accommodation, his t Lordship might have supposed that times
were altered for the worse, instead of doubting the facilities for travelling which the
Dutch government appears to have readily afforded to Dr. Thunberg : or, there might
have been reasons in the back ground for the obstacles that the noble Lord complains
of ; because violence, or irritability of temper, on the part of Europeans, have operated as
effectually as the withholding the pay or Batta from their coolies, in causing desertion

at the first opportunity ; whilst a contrary system has been equally successful in secur-

«

ing the retention of their services throughout the journey.

The crocodile abounds here ; and the jungles teem with game and other wild
beasts. At Cannea, about eight miles from Trincomale, there are hot wells, but their
waters do not possess any mineral properties : they are walled in, and the enclosure
forms a parallelogram of about forty feet by twenty ; it is just a pleasant distance for
a breakfast party ; starting at davlight, and returning before noon.

According to Dutch tradition, one of their Collectors of Revenue for this district,
being unable to account for the disappearance of a few thousands of rix dollars, re¬
ported to the government, that “ the white ants had eaten them and as these insects
are believed to possess most extraordinary powers of digestion, from their forming their
“ covered ways” through walls and beams of wood, it was not altogether incredible ;
but one of our own Head Civil Servants, similarly circumstanced, and for very little
less than 100,000 rix dollars, (when he had only the small salary of T52000 a year and
pickings,) upon being ordered to make up his accounts, instead of endeavouring to
impose a similar story upon the government, (for the missing treasure included gold
star pagodas, as well as rupees, and it was the second time that he had been so
unfortunate,) merely accused the white ants of having eaten the “ vouchers" for the
expenditure of that sum!! This way of “ doing ” the public was a very thriving
trade in the colony for a number of years, because it seldom failed to insure im¬
punity, and was generally followed by promotion or a pension ; but let us hope that
these “ sweating ” times are past.

“ Ridenteiu dicere verum quid vetat 3 '

SAILING DIRECTIONS INTO TRINCOMALE HARBOUR.

237

As the best ascertained sailing directions into the bay and harbour of Trincomale,
are those given in Captain Horsburgh’s Directory, I have adopted his authority ; but
I have used the name of “ Ostenburg,” which is the proper one, instead of “ Osnaburg,”
employed by Captain Horsburgh.

“ Foul Point, the S. E. point of Trincomale Bay, named from a dangerous reef
projecting from its extremity upward of a mile to the N. N. Eastward, is low and
woody, and the breadth of the entrance of the Bay, between it and Flag-staff Point
is about five miles, this point bearing from the former about N. W. f W.

“ Flag-staff Point, in latitude 8° 33|' north, and longitude 8° 19' east of Madras, by
Captain Horsburgh’s chronometers, and 8° 26' east from Bombay castle, by Captain
F. Heywood’s observations, is high, steep to seaward, covered with trees, and has on
it several forts.*

“ This point is the northern extremity of a narrow and crooked peninsula, that
bounds the E. and S. E. sides of Trincomale Harbour, and separates Back Bay from
it and from the great Bay to the southward ; this peninsula being steep, bluff land,
fronting the sea, is easily known, as the coast is low near the sea, both to the north¬
ward and southward.

“ The S. E. point of the peninsula, called Chapel Point, has some islets near it on
the south side, called Chapel Island, and to the eastward a reef of rocks, distant a
large half mile, nearly on the edge of soundings, having 20 and 30 fathoms very clos^
on the east and south sides : on the inner part of the reef, one of the rocks is seen
above water. Flag-staff Point is bold to, and safe to approach, but between it and
Chapel Point, rocks stretch out from two small projections, which ought not to be
approached under 14 fathoms.

“ The S. W. point of the peninsula, called Elephant Fort Point, has an island called
Elephant Island, near it on the S. E. side, from which a reef, having 5 feet water on
its shoalest part, projects to the westward. Ostenburg Point, the westernmost poim
of the peninsula, is a little farther to the N. W., between which and Elephant Fori
Point there is a cove or safe harbour, with soundings in it from 8 to 14 fathoms.

“ The entrance of the Inner Harbour is not a quarter of a mile wide, formed b>
Ostenburg Point to the eastward, and Great and Little Islands to the westward. Little
Island being the easternmost, and close to the other.

“ About half a mile south from Great Island, and one mile to the west of Elepham

* Captain Basil Hall, R. N., in 1814, made it in longitude 81° 21' east, by stars east and west of the tnooi
and he made the variation of the compass, 1° 9' west.

238

SAILING DIRECTIONS INTO TRINCOMALE HARBOUR.

t

Island, Clappenburg Island is situated, close to a Point of the same name, and about
a mile further to the southward is a point, where the land is elevated a little, called
Marble Point, with rocks projecting around.

" Marble Point forms the western entrance of the Great Bay, separating it from the
entrance of the Harbour, and affords a mark for going in. To the westward of Marble
Point, there is an island, called Birds’ Island, near the entrance of a lagoon, and shoal
water. To the S. E. lies Pigeon Island, distant a large half mile, having 10 and 12
fathoms water close to ; and Round Island, nearly the same distance from the Point,
to E. N. E., having 30 fathoms water near it on the outside, then suddenly no ground.
On the south side of this island there is a rock above water, and between it and Clap¬
penburg Island, but nearest the latter, called Government Rock. The entrance
leading to the Harbour, is formed by these Islands and Rocks to the S. W., and
Elephant Island and Point to the N. E.

“ Four rivers, navigable by small boats, fall into the south part of the Bay, nearly
at equal distances from each other, of which, the principal is the Mavali-Ganga.

“ The bank of soundings lining the shores of the Bay, extends very lfttle outside
the islets or rocks, except at the S. E. part, between the rivers Cotiaar and Sambar,
where ships may anchor in 10 or 12 fathoms, regular soundings, soft mud, sheltered
from easterly and southerly winds.

“ The east side of the Bay is bounded by Norway Point to the northward, which is
about two miles to the W. S. W. of Foul Point. Norway Island lies on the west side
of the Point, having a rocky reef encompassing it, and the islets near it and the Point.
From this Point and the Island a sandbank stretches about a mile to the south, with
soundings on it 3 and 3| fathoms, and 20 or 25 fathoms close to. To the west of it
a quarter of a mile distant there is no ground ; but to the south, between it and the
river Sambar, there is good anchorage near the shore.

“ Norway Point and Foul Point must be avoided, on account of reefs projecting from
them about three-quarters of a mile ; nor ought the shore between them to be ap-
prqached, the soundings being irregular, and about half-way there is a very dangerous
rock, about a mile distant from the shore, called Northesk Rock, from a ship of that
name, lost there in 1748. Close to it, on the outside, there are 12 and 14 fathoms,
and 8 or 9 fathoms inside. When on it, Flag-staff Point bears N. 35 W., Norway
Island S. 33 W., and a hill in the country, touching Marble Point, W. 10 S., and
Foul Point E. 10 N., it making a transit line with these Points.

“ To sail into the Bay, and to the Harbour, with a fair or leading wind, a ship may
enter the Bay, keeping nearly equal distance from each side ; when Round Island and

SAILING DIRECTIONS INTO TH INCOMALE HARBOUR.

239

Marble Point are discerned, the Point ought to be kept about W. by S. \ S. open to
the northward of that Island, until the Harbour’s mouth is open. No soundings will
be obtained in the middle of the Bay. When Round Island or Elephant Island is
approached, she ought to steer in about mid-way between them, and will then have
soundings : after hauling to the N. W. for the Harbour, care must be taken to give
berth to a reef stretching from Elephant Island, by not coming under 10 or 12 fathoms
toward it. When a ship, going into the Harbour, first opens the channel between
Elephant Island and the main land, she is nearly abreast of that reef ; when wide open,
she is past it. On the hill of Ostenburg Point, there is a battery built with brick, on
the eastern part of the fortification, higher than any battery there, and easily distin¬
guished. The flank of this battery kept on with Elephant Fort Point, would carry
a ship close to the shoalest part of the reef, where there is only 5 or 6 feet water ; but
the battery kept open with the Point, (which is the best mark,) will carry her clear of
it, in not less than 10 fathoms. There are 24 and 30 fathoms between the Points that
form the entrance of the Harbour, and after passing the reef contiguous to Elephant
Island, a ship should steer direct for it ; although narrow, either of the Points may be
approached within a ship’s length, and when through this narrow part, a spacious har¬
bour appears, where a great navy may anchor in good ground, sheltered from all winds,
exclusive of several coves convenient for careening ships.

" When within the entrance, it is prudent to steer to the N. N. W. to avoid the shoal
within Ostenburg Point, and York Shoal further to the northward. The former has
only 11 feet water on it; with York Island and Flag-staff Point in one, and Pigeon
Island and the low part of Ostenburg Point in one, a ship will be in 5 or 6 fathoms
water on it, and close to the shoalest part. It is small with deep water all round,
between it and the shore near Ostenburg Point there are 7 and 8 fathoms.

“ York Shoal has only 5 feec water on its shoalest part ; to avoid it, a ship in steer¬
ing up the Harbour must keep Round Island a little open with Ostenburg Point ; but
there seems no good land-mark to point out when a ship is to the northward of it,
that she may haul to the eastward, for the anchorage abreast the town. When the
Intrepid’s boat was at anchor on its outer edge, in 3^ fathoms, within a ship’s length
of its shoalest part, Round Island bore S. f E., seen over the low part of Ostenburg
Point ; the centre of York Island E. N. E. f N., and the N. W. point of Great Island
nearly W. S. W. \ W. ; with this bearing of Round Island, the shoal is not more than
half a cable’s length from north to south, and is steep all round.

“ Ships may moor abreast the town, to the N. Westward of York Island ; also to the
northward of Great Island, or in any other part of the Harbour, clear of the shoals.”

240

REASONS FOR NOT BUILDING SHIPS AT TRINCOMALE.

No saving whatever is made, by not making a signal for a pilot, to enter the Inner
Harbour of Trincomale ; for pilotage is charged under either circumstance.*

The late intelligent Captain James Chrisp informed me, that the grand obstacle to
ship-building here, for naval purposes, was the limited rise of the tides, which seldom
exceeded thirty eight inches. But although this is a good reason for not building
ships, it is none for not growing the best timber for the purpose of the future exi¬
gencies of the British navy, upon all the waste lands of the Crown, near this, and
the ports of Colombo and Galle.

Ceylon teak ( Tcctona Grandis, L.) is considered of an excellent quality ; and if the
government were to make it a condition, in all its grants or sales of Crown lands, that
the grantee, or purchaser, should plant and protect a proportionate number of teak
trees, posterity would derive incalculable advantages from this timely provision for its
naval wants. Lands might be marked out by rows of teak trees ; and these, being
the property of the Crown, and the landlords or tenants compelled by their title deeds,
or leases, to protect them, and to replace all casualties with young trees, there could
be none of the disputes among neighbours, as to the right to the trees, which now too
often lead to endless litigation ; and the Crown may, with full justice to all, insist
upon some more proportionate benefit to itself, for the advantages which its grants, or
sales of lands, confer upon individuals.

Crown lands are sold by auction, at an upset price of 5s. per acre ; and, in the year
1841, the government of Ceylon disposed of nearly 80,000 acres, chiefly at the upset
price ; but some, as high as 17.?. to 17-?. 6d. per acre : — and therefore, if only six teak
trees to an acre were planted, the Crown would possess 480,000 saplings, gratuitously
planted, for the future purposes of the British navy, as some additional acknowledg¬
ment for the lands so cheaply sold. — The government might realize from £\ to £2 an
acre, by affording purchasers the facility and certainty in the acquisition of land,
which, in the Australian colonies, may be expected from the provisions of the recent
Land Act.

Trincomale, once considered very unhealthy, is now greatly improved in that
respect ; and as draining the marshy lands and clearing the jungles of underwood
proceed, so will its salubrity increase, until it equals that of the most favored parts
of the island.

* Vide Appendix, for the Laws relating to the Ports and Customs.

CHAP. XXX.

Anticipated extension of the culture of the Cassuda — Its valuable properties — Local names in various countries

Crops safe from the vicissitudes of weather — Method rf preparing the stalks for transit from Mauritius to
Leylon — Sweet variety edible, without previous preparation — Primitive method of preparing the Bitter Cassada—
Casleep — Tapioca — Substitute for mushroom spawn — Ant-hill clay — Native goldsmiths — Their simple imple¬
ments — Route from Trincomale to Kandy — Kandelle — Tamblegam — Hindoo temple — Kottiaar — Anedivoo—
Tapootorre — Patchene rice — A alive varieties — Mode of culture — Scarcity seldom attributable to natural
causes — Java formerly supplied < eyton from its surplus produce — Pumpkin Governors — Genera! Sir Hudson
Lowe, G. C. B. — Anticipated justice to that gallant officer , who teas expected to have succeeded Sir Edward
Barnes as Governor — No one more capable of developing the capabilities of Ceylon — Virgel-Oya — Kaddiravalle —
Pannitchuncanne — Kommollandam Moone — Air plant — A alloor — Erruoor — Region of mosquitos, Batticaloa—
La cert a Iguana, L

As the establishment of farms, for the purposes suggested in the preceding chapters,
would naturally lead to an extensive culture of useful roots, whose app'licableness, as
food for man, or fodder for domestic animals, might render them worthy of the atten¬
tion of the agriculturist, my long entertained hope, that the much-neglected Manioc,
or Cassada, will cease to be dreaded as poisonous, and be brought into general use,
may ultimately be realized.

Its valuable properties only require to be more generally known, to establish a
claim to universal regard, as an object of primary importance to the colony. I have
partially alluded to this exotic, as a farinaceous esculent, in page 127 ; but some
further notice of its usefulness to the agriculturist, may not be uninteresting to the
reader ; who, if he be an intending settler at Ceylon, will do well to treasure it
in memory.

This species of Jatropha, [J at r op ha mamhot, L.j, known by the several names of
Manioc, Cassada, Cassavi, and Cassava , in various countries, is either changed by cul¬
ture, or preparation, to an article of the greatest utility, both as food for man, in a
variety of wholesome forms, and for fattening every description of domestic animal ,
particularly swine and poultry.

Being safe from the vicissitudes of weather, the manioc root is rendered a certain
succedaneum for rice, in the event of failure in the crops from drought or blight,
which makes its value inestimable : and moreover, the facility of propagating it, and

242

INVALUABLE PROPERTIES OF THE ( ASS AD A PLANT

the rapidity of its growth, ensuring a regular succession of crops, week after week,
and month after month, throughout the year, render it worthy of general and par¬
ticular attention.

I adopted a very simple plan for conveying the manioc to Ceylon. Having selected
from the grounds of my excellent friend Madame Luzardm, (widow of the late Doctor
Luzardin, Ancien Chirurgeon- Major du Regiment de Bourbon, at Mauritius, as many
manioc sticks as I required, from four to five feet in length, and cfissolved a suf¬
ficient quantity of rosin and mutton suet over a slow fire, the ends of the cuttings
were dipped into it to the depth of an inch . and, when dry. the whole were formed
into a fagot, and covered with coarse gaum/ cloth *

When require^ for planting, the sticks are cut into sets of about fourteen inches
long; these, having been laid down horizontalh in trenches, either singly, at about two
feet apart, or doubly in parallel lines, leaving a space of twelve or fourteen inches
between the sets, are lightly covered with earth and watered. The plants appear
above ground in about a week and, as the growth is very rapid, the planter’s chief
care is to keep the ground free from weeds. One great advantage is. that the manioc
will grow any where in a tropical climate, and thrives well in a sandy soil.

Notwithstanding the lapse of twenty one years since I first introduced the C amnia
iuoc,i or sweet cassada, into Ceylon from the Mauritius, at which time my recommen¬
dation of the root as an esculent for the table, (for it' requires no caution in its prepa¬
ration, as the bitter variety does, and may be boiled or baked as a vam or potatoj was
regarded with suspicion and dread. e\en bv those whom 1 considered some of tin
most enlightened of my contemporaries, its culture is still almost entirelv neglected
and when we recall to mind, how long Ceylon has been, and >till is, dependent upon
other countries for rice ; and the repeated failures it has experienced of the paddee
crops, subjecting the poorer classes to all the horrors of famine, the apathy shown, in
regard to the manioc, is almost incredible, and must arise either from absurd notions
of danger, or ignorance of its domestic value.

By encouraging the natives to cultivate the manioc, as a resource against failure m
the rice ciops, prejudice will soon cease : and, by wav of more speedily overcoming it.
1 submit the following extracts from my notes, made during my stay in the W esi
Indies, and at the Mauritius, to the notice of the sceptical, in the hope that they nun
be induced to test their correctness, if only by way of experiment^ upon a limited scab

4 Made from the hemp of the < rolalano y uuceu , I,

t Linnaeus makes no distinction, which mav be merely accidental as m the < u>c of sweet and bitter almonds

SIMPLE METHODS OF PREPARING THE CASSADA FOR USE.

243

If this were done, the result Would probably lead to its general culture throughout
the island, and be followed by the beneficial effects that I originally anticipated, when I
gave up the personal comforts of a cabin, during the voyage from Teneriffe to Mauritius,
and from thence to Ceylon, to ensure the safety of the several exotics, which I had
shipped at these places, in the sanguine hope that their introduction would prove lasting
benefits to the island and that the invaluable properties of the manioc would recom¬
mend it to public notice, as one of the chief blessings', next to vaccination, that had
ever been conferred upon the colony bv the hand of man.

The sweet cassada (Jatrupha mamhot, L., var duicun never flowers; and its bark is
of a reddish brown, instead of the ashy color of the common or poisonous sort
but the bitter, or common cassada, may be rendered equally wholesome ; for, by
expressing its juice, that very liquid, which, if mixed with wheaten flour and made
into pellets, will destroy rats, and is used by the Indians, of some countries, for
poisoning arrows, mav be manufactured into a delicious sauce for a variety of
domestic purposes.

The roots, which grow as large as parsnips, but not so tapering at the extremity,
having been peeled, are reduced tu a pulp In a largt trn or copper grater ; (the latter
is generally employed at the Mauritius j and as this mode is more primitive, it is con¬
sequently better, at present, for Ceylon, (where manual labour is so very cheap,) than
the horse-hair bags, or machinery, employed for it in the W est Indies : the pulp is
then enveloped in coarse cloth, and laid in an oblong trough, perforated with holes,
and standing within a receiver of sufficient depth to contain the juice ; and a board,
fitted to the inside of the trough, having been laid upon the pulp, as much weight
as may be required is placed upon it, until the juice is thoroughly extracted, when
the farina is removed from the press, and prepared for use in the following equalh
simple nJknner.

A smooth circular plate of iron, of about eighteen inches diameter, and two-thirds
of an inch thick, supported by stones over a wood tire, is first made nearly red hot
the person emploved to make the cakes, then spreads half a coco-nut shell of the
farina e^'er the iron pla'e, of an equal thickness (about the fourth of an inch) through
out, with a small whish of split bamboo . and, when required, a flat piece of iron .n
wood (shaped like a paper knife, but wider and longer) is introduced between tin
plate and the cake, and the latter is turned as dexterously as any expert cook would
a pancake. By this simple process, the cassada bread — the negro’s staff of life is
prepared for use These cakes are rather thicker than the “ Passover biscuit of rh<
.lews, and of similar size.

2 h 2

244

( ASLEEP— TAPIOCA— GOLDSMITHS CRUCIBLES OF ANT-HILL CLAY

The juice of the bitter cassada, having been drawn from the sediment, and boiled
over a slow fire till it has attained the consistence of treacle, (by which process the
deleterious but very volatile principle is quite dissipated,) is seasoned with pepper and
salt, and bottled for use. This sauce, which will keep good for many years, bears
the name of Casleep, and is a principal ingredient of the far-famed West Indian olla
called “ Pepper Pot.”

The sediment having been laid on mats and dried in the sun, (when it resembles
arrow root, and may be used in a similar manner for invalids and children,) is formed
into a thick starch ; which, having been sprinkled with cold water, and laid on a cloth
over a pan of boiling water, is closely covered, and soon becomes condensed by the
steam into a viscid irregular mass ; and this, having been dried in the sun until it is
quite hard, is broken into small grains for use, and forms the Tapioca of commerce.

The rind of the cassada is employed, in a rotten state, at the Mauritius, as a sub¬
stitute for mushroom spawn, for which it answers remarkably well.

Such then are the domestic uses to which a naturally deadly poison is applied a
proof, amidst the millions the creation affords, that there is nothing in that creation
without its utility to mankind.

It may with truth be said, that even the very ant-hills, which abound here, may be
turned to useful purposes. The trading goldsmiths, who are very ingenious, or they
could never manufacture such beautiful ornaments as they do, particularly rose and snake
chains, with their simple and uncouth materials, form their finest crucibles of the red
earth or clay of the ant-hills. These, with an earthen chatty, full of saw-dust, or
fine sand, and containing a small charcoal fire, under which is laid a short cylinder,
of the size and shape of the spout of a small coffee pot : an anvil, a pair of tongs,
(just like those that are used by cooks to turn a steak,) a piece of bamboo cane for
a blow pipe, a few hammers, files, and some straight pieces of metal, compose the
whole of their working implements.

The direct road from Trincomale to Kandy, lies through the following villages :
to Pallampoota rest-house, 10| miles : from thence to Wenyron C’olom, 12f miles ; to
Gantelawa rest-house, 2| miles ; to the Kandyan Limits, 4f miles ; to Talgaha Ella,
2| miles; to Alootveva-Oya, excellent water, and post station,) 6 miles ; to Nayapane
Pass, If mile ; to Gal-Oya right bank, (excellent rest-house, and post station,) 4| miles
to Talbaddegalla, or Three-wells, miles ; to Haboorenne village, (large tank, and
post station,) 3 miles ; to Oulandangawa village and tank, 2| miles ; to Innamallou t
post station, 6f miles ; to the Junction Kandy Road, 3f miles ; to Damboola rest-
house, f mile ; to Leenadera post station, 7 miles ; to Nalande post station, 7 miles .

ROUTE FROM TRINCOMALE TO KANDY— ROUTE SOUTHWARD.

245

to Palapatwella Ella rest-house, 4 miles ; to Fort Macdowall, (the station of the
assistant government agent and district judge,) 1 1 miles ; to the top of Ballacadua
Pass, 6^- miles ; to the Ferry of the Mavali-Ganga, miles ; and to Kandy, 2f miles.
Total, from Trincomale to Kandy, 113^ miles.

Leaving Trincomale, the next stage to the southward is Tamblegam, distant 15|
miles. The road is sandy, and bordered with jungle ; but, upon nearing the village,
the country appears fertile and well cultivated, and the view of the bay is magnificent.

Kandelle lake supplies water for irrigating the paddee fields : — these either wear the
verdant appearance of fields of young wheat, or the golden richness of that grain at
maturity, as the season may be commencing, or advanced ; and nothing can be mort-
grateful to the eye, in this climate, than a field of young paddee, sugar-cane, or maize.

Tamblegam has a good rest-house, but is without a postholder, the road being sel¬
dom frequented by Europeans. May speculation and capital yet give it a different
appearance ; every road throughout the island be bordered with cultivated grounds
and verdant pastures, and covered with the busy transporters of produce to ports of
export !! — There is a Hindoo temple here, but it is scarcely worth a visit.

From Tamblegam to Kottiaar the distance is about 12^ miles, partly along the bed
of a stream that issues from the lake, or tank, of Kandelle, and occasionally through
fertile vallies, interspersed with dense jungle. Kottiaar is situated between the two
branches of the Mavali-Ganga, both which are fordable.

From Kottiaar, the route southward is through Tapootorre, distant 9j miles from
Kottiaar, and 13| from Anedivoo ; chiefly through well-cultivated paddee fields, in¬
terspersed with palmyra, coco-nut, tamarind, and wild tea trees ; — the country is rather
populous, and the plains are covered with cattle, particularly buffalos.

A peculiar kind of rice is grown here, called by the natives Patcherie. Its grai i,
when boiled, is nearly twice the size of the Patna rice, and more oblong and egg-
shaped, having thin strips of reddish skin attached to it, which is not altogether got
rid of by the operation of pounding. This rice, not being so white as the Patna, or
other varieties, is never set before Europeans, except when none other may be at
hand ; but it is of a more mucilaginous nature, and has a fine and peculiar fiavoi
which makes it worthy of notice.

Ceylon, however, has such varieties of rice, that it is a hard task to make one n
self acquainted with them. Linnaeus limits his information upon the subject to the
generic and trivial name of one species only ; namely, Oryza sativa, class Hexandria,
order Digynia : but the natives have several distinguishing names ; such as, Elenkalyen,
Gotiaran, Handiran, Pode-wee, Coloocombele, Henette, Ratte-wee, Mornaga-wee,

246 VARIETIES OF RICE— ITS CTLTURE INADEQUATE TO THE CONSUMPTION

Polle-elle-wee, Karte - Elenkaylen, Panengeallvn, Mootomanica, Radecatten, Eki-
chamba, Hadelle, Pondichambe, Noorocengau Chienette, Moroega, Pallechederie,
Mahama-wee, Gedeme-wee, Balema-wee, Seeniette, Manelworie, Perocrielle, Moe-
raingew, Patjedroema, Kottehandiram, Nandoohandiram, Elle-wee, Kallukarayel,
Ratkarayel, Sooderkarayel, kahatunhamba, kahaniman, Galpe-wee, Mukelu-vvee,
Ratkonde, Tawalve, Sooderkuru-wei , Pok-vel or Hatiel, Kotukuru-vvee, Roombole.
and Danchala.

These include both the Malabar and binghalese names of paddee grown in the
several districts. The natives grow both upland and lowland paddee ; the former is
not transplanted, and does not require so much irrigation as the latter, which is grown
in stvamp and water till nearly ripe.

When lowland paddee has shot up a few inches above the ground, it is trans¬
planted by half a dozen plants at a time, in rows, subsequently inundated, by open¬
ing the dams of the reservoirs, and kept under water until the stalks become quite
strong; the land is then drained, by opening the dams of each paddee field, and
the sun soon dries it. The natives both reap with a sickle, as with us ; and they
also cut off the stalks about a foot below the ear separately, and bind them into
small sheaves.

Paddee grows in loose spikes, like our common oat . and is divested of its husk
(when it is called rice) by beating it with a heavy rice pounder, ( Mol-Kotta ,) made
either of iron-wood or of very old Kettule wood, in a huge wooden mortar.

It is almost incredible to the observant traveller through, the provinces of Ceylon,
that this natural granary should ever have been dependent upon any other country
for the grand staff of human life in India. That it has been most discreditable to the
British government to attribute scarcity in this colony to natural causes, where, let the
heat of the weather be what it may, irrigation is ever at command, by the application
of industry, no one will deny : and that it was still more so to the Dutch government,
to depend upon Java for supplying grain to Ceylon, until the presence of British
cruizers upon the coasts, made it necessary to depend upon its own local resources
for grain for its consumption, will be apparent to all whose inquiry may have enabled
them to form an opinion upon this most important point of local polity.

In the year 1767, Java supplied 14,000 tons of rice to Ceylon and Banda, from
the surplus of its produce, after all the wants of its own population had been pro¬
vided for ! !

At Tapootorre there is a very extensive tank . but want of capital unfortunately
prevails, or this country tvould produce a thousand-fold where it now does one. Much

NATIVE OPINION* Op GOVERNORS — GEN EH AE SIR HI DSON LOWE.

2-17

depends upon the appointment of Governors ; and such as are most active and energetic,
and general officers, instead of civilians, are the best everywhere. The natives cannot
reconcile what they call “ arrack and onion," or “ pumpkin Governors,” with the
dignity of the British nation.

These people are ver\ observant . tliex do not like to have a Governor who stoops
to the degradation, in their opinion, ot cutting 111s own vegetables, and filling every space
of the public grounds, upon whit h his residence may stand, with pumpkins, &c., instead
of encouraging horticulture amongst the natives, and depending upon the market* for
supplying his own table.

Neither Sir Edward Barnes, nor fins, at one time much hoped for, and, as it was
believed, intended successor in tin government ot ( eylon.j the much calumniated
Lieut. General Sir Hudson Lowe, G. C. B., were ever stationary ; but here, there, and
everywhere ; investigating the resources of the island, and running their chances of
jungle fever and malaria, as well as other people . for they knew that nothing but
cultivation could rid the island of those most unwelcome colonists.

Sir Hudson Lowe no sooner became thoroughly known at Ceylon, than he was
praised as much as he was elsewhere calumniated although but a very short time
prior to his arrival at Colombo, as second m command, the prejudice against him
appeared as insuperable there as it did in France . but it was as transient as a passing
cloud, and those who were the most prejudiced, and the highest in the colony, were
the first to express their opinion, that " Sir Hudson had been sacrificed to his soldier¬
like obedience of orders,” and that “ he could onlv be done justice to, in England
and France, by Lord Bathurst’s despatches, from first to last, including the “ most
secret ” and “ most confidential ” ones, addressed to Sir Hudson, as Governor of St
Helena,) being laid upon the table of the House of Commons!” What an expose
this would produce !

If fortunately this be read by some independent member of that Honorable House,
who, in addition to moving for these papers, will act upon the motto, “ Fiat justitia .
ruat coelum!” now is the time, befitting the occasion, tor doing justice to as brave,
generous, and intelligent an officer as ever yet drew sword in the service of his
sovereign and his country l nder the auspices of such a Governor, Ceylon might
yet display all its “ capabilities.

The tourist having crossed the Virgel-Oya at Molcade, about 2f miles from Ane-
divoo, (where boats are always at hand, and a palankin is soon ferried across for a few
fanams,) will find a well-cultivated and delightful, but low country before him. The
pagoda upon the left or north bank is of great antiquity, and worth examining.

248

ROUTE TO BATTICALOA— LACERTA IGUANA.

From the Virgel-Oya to the village of Kaddiravalle, the distance is 4 miles ; and
from thence to Pannitchancanne, where the ferry is crossed over the river of that
name, or Pannitchan-Oya, (which is most probably another branch of the Mavali-
Ganga,) 9 miles. Wild orange, lime, and cinnamon trees abound here, and attract
myriads of monkies.

From Pannitchancanne, the next stage is Kommollandam Moone, distant i5| miles,
a small and thinly populated village, with but little cultivation, and surrounded, except
upon the east, by dense jungle : the road good throughout. The next village is Nal-
loor, distant 4| miles, abounding in wild cinnamon, and a very beautiful species
of air-plant, the petals of which are of a bright yellow, partially marked with dark
purple specks.

At one time I collected several specimens of the indigenous Orchidecr, of the Maha-
gampattoo, some of which were tied to the pillars of the verandah, and others to
the backs of chairs, where they both flowered and seeded, in as great perfection
as in their native jungle.

Nalloor, called also by the natives Bapoor , is in a populous neighbourhood, and the
country between it and Erraoor, 10 miles further south, extensively cultivated witli
paddee fields, and plantations of yams and plantains ; but the road for the latter part
is over very deep sand. C otton is grown here, but in a limited quantity, instead of
whitening thousand-s of acres with its produce.

Ferry-boats are always at hand, for crossing the Nalloor and Erraoor rivers ; and a
further distance of nine miles from the latter, which is salt, and a part of the Batticaloa
river, ushers the tourist into that meridian of mosquitos, — Batticaloa.

Throughout the whole of this route, from Trincornale to Batticaloa, game will be
found in abundance, as well as the Guana, ( Lacerta Iguana of Shaw), whose flesh
equals, if it does not excel, that of the rabbit, in delicacy and flavor. There exists a
great antipathy to its use at English tables but the native Dutch and Portuguese
esteem it as much as the West Indians do, and make exquisite soups, curries, and
ragouts with it. This animal burrows, the same as the rabbit, but is oviparous, and
lays from fifty to seventy eggs, which are considered delicate food, after the first preju¬
dice against them is overcome.

CHAP. XXXI.

Sailing directions along the easternmost coast of Ceylon — Batticaloa — Its small commercial importance — Civil
and- judicial departments — Island — Fort — Garrison and medical establishment — European Society, famed for its
unanimity and hospitality — No Protestant church or chapel, clergyman or missionary — Roman Catholic chapels —
Bazaar — Suggested establishment of a factory for miring fish — Anticipated increase of the coasting trade — Green
beetle (Buprestis chrysis) — Employment of its irridescent elytra for ladies' dresses and other ornaments — Appear¬
ance of Batticaloa from the sea — Sandstone rocks — Veddah country — Mr. Lambias, secretary of the magistrate's
court at Hambantotte, wanders into the Veddah country — Kindness of the Veddahs — Their language — Method of
preserving flesh — Manner of shooting elephants — Veddahs visit Hambantotte — Primitive method of kindling fire —
Veddah gratitude — Caste — Extensive area of forest lands occupied by the Veddahs — Their mode of disposing of
their dead — Inhuman custom of the inhabitants of the Mahagampattoo — Author's endeavours to suppress it —
Report to the Governor.

The following sailing directions along the easternmost coast of Ceylon, according
to Captain Horsburgh’s Directory, may assist the navigator, in the case of his being
unsupplied with that valuable work.

** Agaus or Aganis, in about latitude 6° 50' to 7° north, a space of land with some
hillocks near the sea, is the easternmost part of the island, and situated about six
miles east of the meridian of the Little Basses ; being 1° 41 east from Point de Galle
flag-staff, by chronometers, and in longitude 81° 58| east, by mean of many lunar
observations taken by Captain James Horsburgh, F. R. S., at various times.

“ Between the hillocky land of Aganis and the hills to the N. Westward of the
Little Basses, there is a considerable space of low land, excepting an isolated mount
on it, which has a regular peaked appearance when viewed from the eastward ; but
resembles a saddle, having a gap in it, when seen from the southward.

“ From the Little Basses to the land of Aganis, the course is N. N. E. \ E., and
N. N. E., distance ten leagues : between them the coast may be approached with
safety to 17 or 18 fathoms, about l\ league off shore, the depths on the bank being
pretty regular, generally sandy bottom ; and the edge of it, where there are 45 and
50 fathoms, is distant 4| or 5 leagues from the shore.

“ At a considerable distance inland from Aganis, in about latitude 7° north, there is
a table mount, called Westminster Abbey, with a large square nob or turret on its
north end ; and there is another peaked hill near the sea, generally called Aganis
Peak : these are in one with each other, bearing W. by S.

2 i

250

SAILING DIRECTIONS ALONG THE EASTERNMOST COAST.

“ The whole of the S. E. coast of Ceylon forms a convex curve, rounding gradually,
without any conspicuous head-lands projecting into the sea. Between latitude 6° 30
and 7° north, is an advisable place to make the land, for ships running toward the
eastern part of the island in the N. E. monsoon ; taking care in the night to fall in
with it to the northward of the Little Basses.

“ Batticaloa River’s entrance, m latitude 7" 44 north, and longitude 31° 50 east, by
chronometers, bears from the land of Aganis, in latitude 7° north, about N. by YV.,
distant 14| or 15 leagues, the coast between them having a little convexity, and
generally very low near the sea, interspersed with toco-nut topes and houses or small
villages. In this space a ship may generally borrow to 10 or 20 fathoms, these depths
being from 2\ to 3 or 4 miles off shore, and the bank of soundings extends out from
it to the distance of 2| or 3 leagues, where the depths are from 45 to 70 fathoms, but
not always regular ; for in a few places within 4 miles of the shore there are 35 and
38 fathoms. In working during the day, a ship may in some parts venture into 15
or 16 fathoms, and tack within two miles of the shore ; but 20 or 22 fathoms is as
near as it should be approached in the night ; for m these depths, if the moon shine
bright, the surf will be seen breaking on the sandy beach, or the noise of it may
sometimes be heard with the land wind. From some of the small projecting points,
foul ground is said to extend about 1 or M mile, rendering it prudent not to come
under 20 or 22 fathoms near them, particularly in the night.

“ The coast contiguous to Batticaloa is low, but several circumjacent mountains or
hills, situated inland, are conspicuous in sailing along this part of the island ; the most
remarkable and highest of these is the Friar’s Hood, in latitude 7° 29| north, and
longitude 81" 36' east, about 4^ or 5 leagues from the sea, and leans over to the left,
resembling a friar’s hood, when bearing to the S. Westward, but has the form of a
pyramid, when it bears to the N. W estward. To the southward of it there is another
mountain, somewhat similar in appearance, called the False Hood, which is not so
high as the former. Far inland, about 7 leagues to the westward of the Friar’s Hood,
there is a round conical hill, called the Kettle Bottom, visible in clear weather ; and
on the middle of the great level plain, in latitude 7° 49 north, is situated, about 6
leagues W. by N. from the entrance of Batticaloa river, the Sugar Loaf, a sharp
isolated cone. Nearly abreast the Friar’s Hood, but rather to the southward, is the
entrance of a river which extends a great way inland, having to the southward a
pagoda, among a grove of coco-nut trees, at a place called Tricoil.

“ Batticaloa river is narrow at the entrance, not discernible except from the north¬
ward, the opening being in that direction ; but it may be known by a house and

SAILING DIRECTIONS— BATTICALOA—GARRISON— SOCIETY.

251

flag-staff, where the colors are usually shown to passing ships. There is 6 feet water
on the bar, (at low water,) and the tide rises about 2 or 3 feet perpendicularly ; high
vater at four hours on full and change of moon, but not always regular.

“ The Fort is four or five miles up the river, on an island where water may be pro¬
cured, by landing casks at the wharf and rolling them to and from the well. Plenty
of wood may be cut near the bar on the river’s banks.

“ The anchorage in the road is not always safe in the N. E. monsoon, when a gale
from that quarter may be liable to happen from September to February ; but in the
S. W. monsoon it is safe. Ships generally anchor to the N. W. or westward of the
reef, with the entrance of the river about south, the Friar’s Hood S. S. W., distant
about two miles from the river’s entrance, abreast of a cluster of rocks projecting
from the shore to the northward of the river.”

Batticaloa is, unfortunately, of small commercial importance, owing to its having
but little connexion with the southern and western provinces, and no very great coast¬
ing trade with the northern province, or coast of Coromandel.

The revenue and customs’ duties of the district are superintended by an assistant
government agent, who is also the district judge.

The island of Batticaloa is about four miles in extent, and defended by a small
square fort of four bastions, capable of mounting from twenty to thirty guns, and
containing a barrack, magazine, and a spacious house for the commandant.

The garrison consists of a company of the Ceylon rifle corps, and a native medical
sub-assistant for the hospital duties.

At one period, when the necessity of watchfulness against Kandyan irruptions was
a matter of primary consequence, this fortification was of the utmost utility, for the
Kandyans always took care to keep out of the reach of shot ; and, within that range,
every native subject of the British flag felt secure, both in person and property : but
it has no longer an internal enemy to threaten it ; and, in the event of a naval war,
the fort would afford sufficient protection to such small craft as might shelter in
the river.

The limited society of Batticaloa has long been famed for hospitality and friend¬
ship, notwithstanding the variety of changes to which it has been, like all our small
colonial settlements, continually subject. At a distance from the other stations, and
depending upon unanimity for the chief comforts of life, the European military and civil
servants seem to have successfully studied, and, spite of the fable, adopted, “ il modo
di piacere a tutti ; ” for I have never once met an individual of either service, who was
not sorry, malgrd the mosquitos, to quit that station : and several instances are

2 i 2

252 SUGGESTED FISH FACTORY— GREEN BEETLE— SANDSTONE ROCKS.

recorded of the expression of the kindliest feelings, by farewell parties, and occa¬
sionally by presentations of plate, at parting.

It is remarkable, that although Batticaloa has neither Protestant church nor chape),
and is without either a clergyman or missionary to perform divine service, it has two
very neat Roman Catholic chapels, which are built of stone, with tiled roofs, and are
the best ornamented in the island. The Fishers are Roman Catholics, and occupy
one chapel exclusively to their own use ; the other, is open to all comers.

The Bazaar, as it is called, is a straggling village of huts throughout the island,
occupied by venders of fruit, vegetables, fish, poultry, eggs, rice, and other articles
of native consumption ; all which, are abundant and cheap.

As the coast abounds with fish, a factory for curing it for the Kandyan markets,
and for exportation, might be established here ; for any quantity of salt may be
obtained from Hambantotte during the S. W. monsoon. This could not fail to prove
a profitable speculation, a ready sale being at all times certain, as well as quick returns
for the outlay of capital ; and the consequent increase of the coasting trade Would
prove an additional source of revenue to the crown.

Batticaloa has a very pretty appearance from the sea ; and the adjacent country
is both fertile and romantic. The shore is bold, and those immense sandstone rocks,
known as the “ Friar’s Hood,” “ Elephant Rock,” and “ Pagoda Rock,” afford excel¬
lent land-marks to the navigator.

The beautiful green beetle ( Buprestis chrysis ), so much esteemed at home and upon
the continent of India, is very common here. The most splendid ladies’ dresses are
ornamented with the elytra of this insect ; which are also mounted in gold, and formed
into necklaces, tiaras, and armlets : for the colors they display, arising from an unrivalled
richness of tints, brilliance of metallic lustre, and the irridescence of their ever-varying
hues, according to the change of fight in which they are viewed, may be considered
the most splendid in nature.

Batticaloa is bounded on the west by the country of the wild Veddahs ( Veddah
Ratte ); of which most extraordinary people, there exists a great difference of opi¬
nion : for whilst some aver that they are the aborigines of Ceylon, others are as positive
of their descent from a race of Malabar fugitives.

The best information in my power to obtain, when I was almost, it may be said,
upon the spot, (for the Mahagampattoo district extends very nearly to the confines
of the Veddah country,) I derived from Mr. William Lambias, the secretary of the
revenue and sitting magistrate’s court at Hambantotte, during the time that I presided
there, in the years 1826, 1827.

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MR. LAMBIAS’S ACCOUNT OF THE V ED D AH S — THEIR HABITS.

253

Mr. Lambias, who was an excellent shot and had in his time bagg’d many a “ tusker,”
having, upon one occasion, rambled rather too far from Mattawille, in the Nadekadoe
district, at present part of this (the eastern) province, fell in with a party of straggling
Veddahs, armed with bows and arrows, who had several dogs with them, by whose
barking, he was first made aware of his danger.

Expecting nothing less than death, Mr. Lambias determined to sell his life at as
dear a rate, as any one man with a couple of guns, could possibly do against so many ;
but he was in no danger, for one of the Veddahs directed another “ to bring the Por¬
tuguese some flesh and honey,” and thereupon laying down his arrows, he respectfully
approached Mr. Lambias with repeated salaams ; — this inspired confidence, and Mr.
Lambias, addressing them in low Singhalese, inquired if they had many elephants in
their country. They understood him, and one of them ran and brought some arrows
to him, which, he said, had been headed by a smith at China- Kanda ; to whom they
had taken some honey and bees’ wax, together with a Mooua ( Cervus Aristotelis ),
in return for the arrow heads, some of which were about three inches long, and of the
exact shape of the leaf of the Naghas ( Mesua ferrea, L.) or iron-wood tree ; and
the rest about fourteen inches long, and an inch and a half broad, for killing wild
buffalos and elephants.

These savages were extremely civil ; and so far from offering Mr. Lambias the
slightest annoyance, they asked him to their village, which greatly surprised him,
because he had always understood that they lived in trees. In full confidence in his
safety, (for he acknowledged to me, that “ he had abandoned all idea of danger from the
moment he heard their original conversation respecting himself,” and he was perfect
master of both high and low Singhalese, as well as of Tamul,) he visited their village,
as they called it, upon their promising to conduct him to Mattawille afterwards.

Although these people resembled the Singhalese, and spoke to him in that tongue,
their general language amongst each other, seemed, to his ear, to be a mixture of
Malabar and Singhalese. Mr. Lambias did not see any huts in trees, and their village
consisted of straggling sheds, constructed like the habitations of the lower classes
of Singhalese, with sticks and mud, (the smoke issuing from every aperture,) and
surrounded by thorn bushes, scattered about without regard to order.

When he asked them if any of them lived in trees, they shook their heads ; and,
pointing towards the Kandyan mountains, said, “ those in the high and very far country
did.” All the Veddah party had scraps of cotton round the waist, and chewed betel,
which must have been obtained at some bazaar. They talked much of Kattregam
Dewale, where two of them had been, as well as of Hambantotte.

254

VILLAGE VEDDAHS— THEIR MODE OF KINDLING FIRE.

The Veddahs preserve the flesh of deer and buffalos in honey, and stow it away in
hollow trees, as described by Knox, for use when fresh game is scarce ; and they also
cut it into long slices and dry it in the sun ; but I never yet knew any one disposed to
partake of it, for the best Ceylon venison is rather lean food ; and, as to dried deer
flesh, it is merely fit for the grater.

The Veddah mode of killing the larger ( animals, such as the elephant, wild buffalo,
and samver, is by lying on their backs, holding the bow with their toes, (which they
use with the same facility that we do our fingers,) and drawing the arrow to the head
with all the force of both hands, let fly : and so near do they contrive to place
themselves to the elephant, unseen, that they seldom fail to hit the animal in its most
vulnerable part, viz. behind the ear. They wing their arrows with the deep red
feathers of the peacock.

The Veddahs showed Mr. Lambias various roots, (their chief subsistence except
game and wild honey, of which they have abundance,) and a wild species of Brinjal
(Solanum insanum, L.), called Wal-Bambuttoo by the Singhalese.

During my residence at Hambantotte, two village Veddahs were brought to me,
who were any thing but fine specimens of the Homo Sapiens. Their jargon was with
difficulty understood by my Malay interpreter, although they comprehended his
Singhalese easily enough ; and Mr. Lambias being absent on leave, I had not the
benefit that I otherwise should have derived from his acquaintance with their dialect.

These Veddahs were not more than five feet two inches in height ; their hands small,
but feet long and flat ; hair matted, and tied in a bunch at the back of the head ; large
bushy beard, almost covering the face ; eyes small, piercing, and constantly in motion
to the right and left, and their ears seemed almost as restless as their eyes. They
showed no surprise at a looking-glass, nor any of the curiosity of the monkey to see
what was at the back. I gave each a Malay knife, some nails, a common bazaar
handkerchief, a betel knife, some tobacco, several sorts of seeds, and cuttings of the
cassada; at which latter they at first sneered, but upon my showing them how to plant
it, and giving them some specimens of the roots that would be the produce of their
labour, they seemed more pleased than otherwise.

Upon being told, by the Mohandriam, to show how they kindled a fire, they proved
their independence of flint and steel for that purpose ; for in less than three minutes,
with two dry sticks, of which, one was hollowed a little in the middle, and the other
pointed at one end, the elder Veddah, steadying the former on the ground, by placing
a foot upon each extremity, inserted the latter in the hole, and then whisked it about
rapidly between his hands, after the manner of making chocolate ; whilst his com-

EFFECT OF CLARET UPON VEDDAHS— BEES’ WAX— VEDDAH GRATITUDE. 2 55

panion, holding a handful of dry leaves to the orifice, caught the sparks elicited by the
friction, which he soon blew into a flame.

Some claret was given them, which they received in their joined hands, so as to
form a substitute for a cup ; but it had scarcely entered their mouths ere it was spouted
over the floor, whilst their countenances exhibited all the effect that the most nauseous
medicine could have had upon the palate.

These people defraud the Singhalese who venture to barter with them, by concealing
a lump of clay in the centre of each cake of bees’ wax. It is so artfully effected, that
it cannot be discovered, unless by means of an intense light, or by breaking the cakes ;
and therefore the Singhalese think it safer to put up with the roguery, than, by
exposing it, to run the risk of Veddah revenge.

Nevertheless, they have virtues ; and, from what I saw of these two Veddahs, I
would no more fear going through their country, (unarmed,) than, except for the com¬
parative comforts one must abandon in the one, for the privations of the other, to
travel in any other part of the island ; for I am convinced that it only requires tact
and kindness to bring the wildest of them within the pale of civilized life.

Upon being informed, in the usual way, that “ they might go,” the Veddahs salaamed
very low, touching their foreheads with the palms of their hands. One of them
having dropped a small nail, instead of taking it up with his fingers, did it equally
well with his toes, which he seemed to have just as much at command.

About two months after this interview, (at the conclusion of which I had directed
every kindness to be shown them throughout the district,) a couple of elephant’s tusks,
nearly six feet in length, found their way into my front virandah at night ; but the
Veddahs, who must have conveyed them, never gave me any subsequent opportunity of
rewarding them. What lesson in gratitude and delicacy even a Veddah may teach !

It appears to me quite irreconcileable with various accounts of these people, that,
notwithstanding their seclusion from the rest of the community by their savage life
and roving habits, they belong to the highest in the classification of Singhalese castes ;
viz. the Goewanse of the highlands, and Vellale of the maritime provinces, (cultivators
of the soil) ; by whom, all temple and state honors have been monopolized from imme¬
morial time ; although, according to the specification of the employments peculiar to
each caste, agriculture is the exclusive privilege of the Goewanse.

The Veddahs occupy an immense area of forest lands, (which nay be estimated at
a rough calculation, at 1500 square miles,) distinguished as Veddah Ratte, and Maha-
Veddah Ratte; the former, in the district of Bintenne, and the latter, in Wallasse
and a part of Ouva, to the east and south-eastward of the Kanfiyan mountains, and

256 WILD AND VILLAGE VEDDAHS— INHUMAN TREATMENT OF THE DYING.

to the westward of the district of Batticaloa in the eastern, and of a part of the
Mahagampattoo in the southern, province.

Divided into two distinct communities, one of which Europeans denominate “ the
wild,” and the other “the village” Veddahs, these savages seldom meet but to com¬
mit hostilities ; for the former, who build their huts in trees, and display no trace of
even incipient civilization, are held in great dread by the latter, who congregate in
villages, live in huts, as already described in Mr. Lambias’s account of them, and cul¬
tivate, if raking the earth, scattering seeds, and sticking roots into the ground, may
be so defined, small patches of Korakan (Cynosurus Coracanus, L.), maize ( Zea Mais,
L.), and a species of the Arum esculentum, called by the Singhalese Wal-Kidahran.

The Veddahs observe no rites of marriage or of sepulture, neither do they give
their children “ rice names,” after the custom of the Singhalese ; but they believe that
they propitiate the great demon with offerings ; and resort to the abominable custom of
consigning their dead to the wild beasts of the jungle, instead of burning, or burying,
the bodies. If, however, they do not anticipate the death of their relatives, but wait
for that event, ere they throw their bodies into the jungle, they are more humane and
civilized than their neighbours of the Mahagampattoo ; where, so recently as the year
1826, many cases occurred of parents, brothers, sisters, and children, having been
consigned, during

“ That awful pause, dividing life from death,”

with a portion of rice and a chattie of water placed by the side of each dying individual,
to the “ tender mercies ” of bears, leopards, crocodiles, and jackalls.

But, notwithstanding my great anxiety and strenuous endeavours to suppress such
inhuman and detestable practices in the district, my avowed determination, which was
proclaimed by beat of Tam-a-tam in every village and bazaar, to commit all who might
be guilty of, or accessory to, this species of murder, for trial by the supreme court of
judicature, and my successful intervention in several instances, through the zealous
co-operation of the native headmen, I much fear that I failed in altogether preventing
their clandestine continuance. — In the hope that it may not be considered superero¬
gatory by the reader, I insert an extract from my official report to His Excellency
the Governor of Ceylon, in the year 1827, upon this subject.

“ 4thly. I have put a stop, as far as my preventive means could enforce it, to the
unnatural exposition of parents, when considered in a dying state, to the wild beasts
of the jungle, by their own children ; and, in several instances, I have succeeded in
impressing upon the minds of the natives, a conviction of the iniquity and ingratitude
of thus disposing of the authors of their being, at that awful period.”

CHAP. XXXII.

Route southward continued — Naypattri-Moonne — Wambimodoo — Asc/epias gigantea — Its medicinal properties
— Tourist recommended to travel only by day — Wild beasts abundant — The jungle bear will attack man, notwith¬
standing its frugivorous and insectivorous habits — Field for the sportsman and naturalist — Caution necessary in
entering a jungle — William Gisborne, Esq., an excellent elephant shot — Death of Major/ Haddock — Natives killed
by elephants — Elephant catchers — Pliny s account of Ceylon elephants — Distinction between the Indian and African
elephant, according to Cuvier — Ceylon ivory — Anecdote respecting elephants petit-toes being sent to the late Earl
Bathurst — Lord Charles Henry Somerset s enigma — The sloth — Squirrels — Maucauco — Temate bat — Racoon —
White baboon — Black baboon — Brown monkey — Anecdote of a Wanderoo — Summary of migratory and indigenous
birds — Native summary of indigenous birds.

Leaving Batticaloa, the next stage is to Naypattri-Moonne, distant 17^ miles, where
there is a tolerable rest-house, but the neighbourhood presents little in the shape of
cultivation to attract attention ; from thence to Wambimodoo, where there is also
a temporary rest-house, the distance is 7f miles.

The line of road abounds with the gigantic swallow-wort ( Asclepias gigantea, L.,
Calotropis mudarii, R. Brown), Manughawael of the Singhalese, a beautiful plant when
in flower ; its corolla being of a lilac color, powdered, and the leaf a bright sea-green.
The native doctors dry the root, which they consider a powerful sudorific ; this has
the extraordinary property of gelatinizing with heat, and becoming liquid as it cools.
It is considered efficacious in rheumatism and cutaneous diseases, and is exhibited in
syrups and decoctions. This plant has been already noticed in page 123, but without
reference to its medicinal properties. There is another indigenous species, which the
Singhalese call Walanghuna.

This is the wildest part of Ceylon, except the Veddah country, and the tourist is
recommended to travel only during the day, for elephants, bears, and leopards abound
throughout the district ; and, in the rainy season, the former, being driven by mosquitos
from the jungles, infest the roads and plains almost as much by day as by night.

The jungle bear ( Ursus labiatus ) is quite black, and a very awkward acquaintance,
unless one is well armed. It is much dreaded by the natives, for it will attack man,
notwithstanding that some historians aver to the contrary, because its general food
consists of fruit, honey, and insects. Would they have put their theory to the test
of experience, by trusting themselves near a hungry Ceylon bear ?

258

CEYLON BEAR— CAUTION TO THE SPORTSMAN AND NATURALIST.

This animal obtains fruit and honey without difficulty, being an excellent climber, and
devours insects, particularly white ants, with great facility, through the elongation of
the cartilaginous part of the nose, and of the extremity of the under jaw, which act
as prehensile instruments, as effectually for the purpose as the tongue of the Mania
tetradactylus, already described.

If the tourist be both a sportsman and a collector of specimens in natural his¬
tory, he has only to diverge to the right, throughout this route, to have as much
elephant, bear, deer, samver, wild hog, chetah, jackall, monkey, squirrel, and guana
shooting as he pleases, amid the extensive forests with which this part of the
country abounds ; for it is so seldom traversed by Europeans, that the fera natura
have it all their own way : — but the greatest caution is necessary, whenever, led by the
eagerness of pursuing his object, the naturalist enters a Ceylon jungle^ and one barrel
of his gun should always be kept loaded with ball, as a reserve, (I strongly recom¬
mend the American plan, of cutting a small portion of the surface of two balls flat,
and screwing them together,) for as the jungles are interspersed with small patches of
herbage, he may suddenly find himself in most unwelcome company, unless actually
in quest of elephants, upon turning the corner of a jungle clump, by being close upon
a herd of these animals. If to windward of an elephant, he will not have been allowed
to approach very near without receiving timely notice, by the animal’s trumpeting ; but
if to leeward, he may approach very close without much danger, its sense of sight '
being very inferior to that of smell.

The late William Gisborne, Esq., of the civil service, (who has immortalized his
name in Ceylon by forming the Kirime canal, which was completed under his per¬
sonal superintendence, whilst collector of Tangalle,) would approach an elephant,
to leeward, so closely as to touch it ; he would then clap his hands and shout, and, upon
the animal looking round, plant a two ounce ball in the centre of the os frontis, (where
the bone plates are extremely thin,) or immediately behind the ear ; when, within the
twinkling of an eye, the stately animal would “ lick the dust.”

It is surprising, when the great risk is considered, and the quantum of nerve re¬
quired to face an elephant within a few yards, that so few accidents occur to English
sportsmen. Major Haddock, of the 97th regiment, was the only one killed by an
elephant for many years, during my residence in the island ; but several others had
narrow escapes from the leviathan of the jungle.

In the years 1826-7, several native labourers were killed by elephants, in the Maha-
gampattoo district, whilst harmlessly going to their daily work. This generally happened
upon suddenly turning the corner of the jungle ; and two Singhalese were killed on

DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE AFRICAN AND INDIAN ELEPHANT.

259

the same morning, just after having left their own cottages ; so that I am not at all
disposed to concur in opinion with those who attribute “ generosity and magnanimity
to the elephant, in its wild state,” for I have had very many proofs of its being a
naturally vicious and destructive animal.

It is by no means uncommon for elephants to enter villages at night, remove
the thatch from houses containing a store of paddee, deliberately help themselves, and
walk off leisurely before daybreak. The damage done to paddee and other fields in
the course of a night is so great, that whenever these destructive animals are known
to be near, watchmen are stationed under a shed upon a platform fixed upon four
lofty poles, (having a rustic ladder at one side,) or against trees, commanding a view
of the whole field, to give an alarm upon their approach.

The apparently unwieldy bulk of the elephant is no bar to its activity, for its common
walk will keep a man upon the run, or native jog-trot ; and, when put to its mettle in
pursuit, very few horses will beat it in swiftness.

When elephants emerge from the jungle, they are of a dusky red color, from the
quantity of sand and red earth with which they cover their hides, as a preventive
against the jungle tick, and their much-dreaded foe, the tiny mosquito.

Gangs of elephant catchers from Bengal, under the command of a captain in the
army, are occasionally employed to procure elephants for the East India Company’s
service. The Ceylon “ Elephant Establishment ” is attached to the civil engineer and
surveyor general’s department.

The island has been famous for its elephants from time immemorial. Pliny has thus
recorded their superiority to the elephants of India, “ Elephantas ii multo majores
erant quam quos fert India and the immortal Cuvier has more recently defined the
existing difference between the African, and Ceylon (or Indian) elephant : “ Elephas
Capensis, fronte convexa, lamellis molarium rhomboidalibus.” — “ Elephas Indicus,
fronte plano-concava, lamellis molarium areuatis undatis.”

The tusks* of the male elephant (but scarcely one in a hundred has tusks exceeding
the size of the grubbers common to all) are from six to seven feet long, and those of
the female about half that length. The modus copulandi, long doubted, has ceased
to be a mystery, and is the same as that of the horse.

Ceylon ivory is considered the most valuable for all the purposes of the manufac¬
turer, being whiter, of finer grain, and retaining its whiteness much longer, than any

* Amongst the prize property captured in Kandy, in 1815, there were 289 elephants tusks, weighing

altogether 595 H lbs avoirdupois.

2 k 2

260

CEYLON IVORY— ELEPHANTS’ PETIT-TOES— AN ENIGMA.

other. There is no probability of any visible decrease in the immense herds of wild
elephants, notwithstanding the daily slaughter that takes place in the interior, (where
it is not uncommon for a single sportsman to kill several before breakfast, and some
have been known to “ bag” from forty to fifty, sometimes more, in a week,) as well
as in some districts of the maritime provinces, until cultivation shall have made
greater inroads upon their jungle rights and royalties ; for thousands of square miles
of land, equal, in point of fertility, to any in the known world, are- now occupied
solely by wild beasts ; of which, elephants are the most destructive.

An anecdote was at one time very current at Ceylon, of “ Elephants’ petit-toes ”
having been anonymously sent to the late Earl Bathurst, at that time His Majesty’s
secretary of state for the colonies, at the suggestion of the late Samuel Daniels, Esq.,
the ranger of the woods and forests ; which) from the known eccentricity of that
facetious gentleman, is far from improbable. The present was rather an extraordinary
one to a secretary of state for the colonies, not celebrated for a propensity to Apician
gormandizing. If the facts were as stated, the preparatory pickling of the <( petit-toes"
in strong toddy vinegar and cayenne pepper had failed of their usual effects in obvi¬
ating putrefaction, and that when the case was opened in his Lordship’s presence,
if all the sewers in London had been at once let loose, into what the late Lord Charles
Henry Somerset characterized as “ the grand sewer, requiring a second Hercules to
cleanse it,” the stench could not have been more intolerable or diffusive than that
emitted from the elephants’ petit-toes, and their pickle. — His Lordship’s meaning as
regards the “ grand sewer,” although quite an enigma to me, may not be difficult
of solution by those who were in his Lordship’s confidence, at the period of his return
from the Cape of Good Hope.

Elephants’ tusks are occasionally found buried in the jungle, but whether it be done
by the animals themselves, or, for concealment, by the natives, is hitherto hypothetical.
Even in districts apparently the most barren, the bones of innumerable animals (those
of the elephant in particular) meet the eye in almost every direction, rotting where
they lie, and altogether neglected, although they might be converted into valuable
manure ; and the jungles and plains are in many places strewed with the cast antlers
of deer, of which, I have had a cart-load picked up in the course of a few hours ;
but as the natives now begin to find a market for deer horns, they will soon reap the
benefit of collecting and selling them for exportation to Europe.

Of the lesser animals the most worthy of powder and shot, exclusively of those
already named, are, the Sloth ( Bradypus dactylus, L.) with two toes, as its trivial name
implies, on its fore feet ; this animal has no tail, and is much smaller than the South

WILD ANIMALS— ANECDOTE OF A CEYLON BABOON.

261

American Sloth (B. tridactylus, L.) ; — a variety of Squirrels (including the Sciurus
volans, L.), called by the general name of Dandooleyna by the Singhalese ; of which,
one large species is very beautiful, having a pink nose, a deep glossy black and bright
yellow body, the fur of which is long and silky, and may be easily tamed; — the
Maucauco ( Lemur tardigradus, L.), whose trivial name is a sad misnomer, for the little
animal is remarkably active ; it is of a pretty light brown color, inclining to that
of burnt T. Senna, has no tail, hind toes short and pointed, and the others round ; -
the Ternate Bat ( Vespertilio Vampyrus , L.), commonly called the flying fox, about
the size of our common squirrel (Sciurus vulgaris, L.), whose large black leathern
wings, which, when extended, are from four to five feet between the extremities, give
it a terrific appearance ; and, notwithstanding that its habits are well known to be
frugivorous, it would be presumptuous to doubt a positive affirmation of the celebrated
Linnaeus, that it sucks the blood of a human being, sleeping in the open air, whilst
fanning the air with its wings ; — the Racoon ( Ursus Lotov, L.) ; — the White Baboon,
called by the Singhalese Tanma or Wannia, which I have never seen, and it may be
an Albino ; but the natives relate strange stories of its lying in ambush and attacking
women and children ; — the Black Baboon, with white beard, (Simla Silenus, L., and
Macacus Silenus, C.), Wanderoo of the Singhalese ; — and the Brown Monkey, Rilawah
or Rollawai of the Singhalese.

On the homeward voyage, in the ship Princess Charlotte, in 1819, I had a Wanderoo
on board, which showed a great degree of cunning, as well as of partiality for English
cookery. His residence was under the tarpauling cover of the launch, from whence
he would keep a look-out upon the cook, whenever meat was being roasted at the
caboose fire. Jackoo usually remained very quiet, taking an occasional peep at the
spit, until the joint before the fire was nearly dressed ; and when the cook tempo¬
rarily left the caboose, the animal would jump from cover, rub his paws over the
surface of the meat, and lick them, repeating it until retreat was necessary to his own
safety, and leaving it for the cook to discover the plunderer of the fine brown surface
of the cuddy dinner, who never failed to accuse the soldiers’ children of it. But justice
determined chat Jackoo should be detected ; and having been caught in the act, tin
animal showed such dread of the consequences, both by his face and manner, and b\
scratching his side, and then extending his open paws, as if pleading, in extenuation,
that they wrere free from grease, that the cook was more mercifully disposed than one
would have expected. “ You would (said he to the culprit) speak if you could ;
but although your hands may be clean, you smack your lips, and some of the brown
is upon your whiskers, which is enough, if I had not caught you, to prove you guilt} :

262

SUMMARY OF MIGRATORY AND INDIGENOUS BIRDS.

however, as you are a black fellow, and don’t know better, I’ll lei you off this time.”
In justice to Jackoo, it must not be omitted, that he was never known to repeat his
attempt upon the cuddy dinner. He weathered the cold off the Cape of Qood Hope
very well, (from which circumstance, the crew named him “ Corporal Hardy,” and
dressed him en militaire, with a corporal’s chevron on the arm,) but died from eating
too much fruit, soon after being landed at Cape Town.

In this, and the adjoining district of the Mahagampattoo, the patches of water,
bordering upon jungle, are very well tenanted by the Black-backed Goose ( Anas
Melanotos*), Spotted-billed Duck {A. Poeeiloryncha ), Wigeon ( A . Penelope ), Pelican
(. Pelicanus Onocratolus , Lin.), white, with a bag at its throat, for carrying its finny prey ;
Common Kingfisher ( Alcedo Ispida), Violet Kingfisher (A. Coromandel), Pied Kingfisher
{A. rudis), Smyrna Kingfisher {A. Smyrnensis), Spoonbill ( Platalea Leucorodia, Lin.),
Grey Sandpiper ( Tringa Squatarola , Lin.), White-headed Ibis ( Tantalus Leucrocephalus),
Black-headed Ibis (71 melanocephalus), Curlew ( Scolopax arquata, Lin.), Snipe ( S . Gal -
linago, Lin.), and Jack Snipe (S. Gallinula, Lin.), both of whieh latter are very numer¬
ous, and equal, if not superior, to their kinds in England.

I have heard of the Woodcock ( Scolopax Rusticola, Lin.) having been killed in the
interior, but I never saw it in any part of the country where I have travelled ; never¬
theless, its presence is by no means improbable on that account, for a great variety of
migratory birds periodically visit the island ; of which, the most numerous is the Flamingo
( Pheenicopterus ruber, Lin.). These birds come in large flocks, and plant centinels to
give notice of an enemy’s approach ; hence the Dutch sportsman’s maxim, “ the
longer the gun, the better the chance of killing flamingos.” But the kingfishers,
on the contrary, appear as if they were disposed to be domesticated ; for they take
post upon the stumps of trees, close to houses, and wherever there is water, and allow
one to approach very near before they take the trouble to move off, and then to a
short distance only.

The jungles bordering upon this line of road contain many a novel and undescribed
species of the indigenous genera, worthy of the attention of the Ornothologist ; for
the birds that are named in the following catalogue, exclusively of those elsewhere
noticed in these pages, as being commonly known to have their habitat in Ceylon, form
but a small proportion of the whole : viz. —

The Malabar Hornbill ( Buceros Malabaricus), Yellow-throated Toucan ( Ramphaston

* The birds are named agreeably to Smellie's translation of Buffon's Natural History, and Latham's Indian

Ornithology, unless specified to the contrary.

SUMMARY OF INDIGENOUS BIRDS.

263

dicolorus ), Preacher Toucan (R. precatus), Indian Parrot ( Psittacus Orientalis), Ceylon
Parakeet (P. Zeylanicus), Pygmy Parakeet (P. pygmceus), Boulboul Shrike ( Lanius
Boulboul), Indian Roller ( Coracias Indica ), Grey-tailed Roller (C. vagabunda), Fairy
Roller (C. Puella), Faciated Curucui ( Trogon fasciatus), Spotted Curucui (P. macu-
latus), Indian Vulture ( Vullur Indicus), Cheela Falcon ( Falco Cheela ), Rhomboidal
Falcon (P. Rhombeus ), Black-and-white Falcon (F. melanoleucos ), Brown Hawk (F. Ba-
dius), Ceylonese Eared Owl ( Siric Ceylonensis ), Coromandel Eared Owl (S. Coromanda),
Indian Eared Owl (S. Bakkamuna), Tufted Fly-catcher ( Muscicapa Comat a), Red-vented
Fly-catcher ( M . Hcemorrhousa), Yellow-breasted Fly-catcher ( M . Melanictera), Cin¬
namon Fly-catcher ( M Cinnamomea), Malabar Lark ( Alauda Malabar ica), Cinnamon
Creeper ( Certhia Cinnamomea), Indigo Creeper (C. parietum ), Yellow-billed Creeper
(C. Lepida), Tufted Creeper (C . Erythrorynchos ), Red-crowned Barbet (Bucco rubn
capillus ), Yellow-cheeked Barbet (P. Zeylanicus), Blue Barbet (P. Gerini), Green Bar-
bet (P. viridis), Red-headed Cuckoo (Cue ulus Pyrrhocephalus), Bombay Goat-sucker
( Caprimulgus Asiaticus), Green Wagtail (Motacilla viridis), Pink Warbler (Sylvia Cary-
ophyllacea ), Green and Yellow Fig-eater (S. Zeylonica), Black-necked Warbler («$'. nign-
collis ), Tailor Warbler (S. sutoria), Gaur Bunting (Emberiza Asiatica), Olive Bunting (E.
olivacea), Red-winged Woodpecker (Picus miniatus), Malacca Woodpecker (P. Malae-
censis), Ceylon Finch (Fringilla Zeylanica), Green-rumped Finch (F. butyracea), Yellow-
crowned Thrush (Turdus Oehrocephalus ), Long-tailed Thrush (T. macrourus), Yellow
Grosbeak (Loxia jlavicaus), Yellow-rumped Grosbeak (L. Hordacea), Eastern Grosbeak
(L. undulata), Brown Grosbeak (L. fusca), Ash-headed Grosbeak (L. Indica), Malabar
Grosbeak (L. Malabanca), Dwarf Grosbeak (L. minima), Black Tanagre (Tanagra
atrata), Indian Plover ( Charadrius Indicus), Ceylon Rail (Rallus Zeylanicus), Indian
Jacana (Parra Indica), Crested Gallinule (Gallinula enstata), Common Hoepoe (Upupa
Epops), Purple-shouldered Pigeon ( Columba P hcemcoptera) , Spotted Green Pigeon
(C. maculata), Ring Dove ( C . palumbus, Lin.), Turtle Dove (C. Turtur, Lin.).

Of the genus Columba there is a great variety, from the Cinnamon Pigeon to thtj
smallest of the innumerable doves of the jungle. Some of the latter are of the most
brilliant hues, particularly the Great, and the Lesser Green or Bamboo Dove. Tht
wild Blue Pigeon is very common throughout the island, and particularly upon the
coasts of the southern and eastern provinces.

Of widow birds, (as they are called, but they probably belong to the genus Upupa ,
the two Ceylon varieties are, the rufous brown with black crest, and the white, and
black with raven black crest. The Singhalese call the former Rattoo Pili Hora, and
the latter, Sudu Pili Hora. These birds are more plentiful upon the Kalu-Ganga,

264

SINGHALESE SUMMARY OF INDIGENOUS BIRDS.

than in any other part of the island ; but there is no known instance of their having
survived twenty four hours’ confinement in a cage.

Orlotans {Ember iza Hortulana ) are abundant, particularly in the southern province ;
and the common house sparrow is as plentiful as in any part of Europe.

I wish I could offer the naturalist a more detailed list of the Ceylon Birds ; but this
will materially assist him with his native guides in collecting specimens, which can
be classed; at leisure, agreeably to the System he may prefer.

1 Monara

2 Rana Koka

3 Rajah Ali

4 Wale-Kukoola

5 Dia Kawa

6 Karawal Koka

7 Indoora Koka

8 Maha Koka

9 Koka

1 0 Kaportoo Koka

1 1 Seraa

12 Mae Seraa

13 Soemba Seraa

14 Getta Seraa

1 5 Rena Kewa

16 Dia Toedewa

1 7 Beli Kawa

1 8 Maana

19 Wattoevandewa

20 Kebbe Lita

21 Bake-moena

22 Basa

23 Metti Koroewaka

24 Korowaka

25 Kirilla

26 Koleya

27 Rena Wattoewa

28 Kobeya

29 Kas-wattoewa

30 Pili Hodoowa

31 Hella Leniya

32 Kaha Koroola

33 Battoe Goya

34 Alloo Kobeya

35 Nil Kobeya

36 Rattoo Pili-Hora

37 Sudu-Kalu Pili-Hora

38 Poto-Koroola

39 Goon Kawediva

*

40 Tootiya

41 Wie Koroola

42 Key Koroola

43 Kolowewa

44 Mae Rotorewa

45 Malletje

46 Girrawa

47 Laboo Girrawa

48 Rena Girrawa

49 Battoo Girrawa

50 Kandoo Panikia

51 Pooyoo Kandata

52 Kandata

53 Mae Kandata

54 Awetja

55 Parendella

56 Oekosoewa

57 Demeditiya

58 Weserima

59 Politija

60 Haban-Koola

61 Olema

62 Kurundu Kobeya

63 Maha-nilla-Guya

64 Iri-Kahawa

65 Gette Poli-Hoedoowa

66 Kottoreya

67 Moodoo Kirilla

68 Gaulama

69 Weggi-Lena

70 Koerool-Goya

71 Kalu Koerool-Goya

72 Mal-Koha

W. C Edwards foulp

J. W. Bennett del.

A species of Indigenous Then L.
presented by Assistant Staff Surgeon Crawford - Batticaloa.

CHAP. XXXIII.

Pensile nesls of the Yellow Grosbeak — Its partiality for the fire fly — Tailor warbler — Mode of farming its nest —
Its familiarity — Employment of a botanist skilled in practical chymislry suggested — Official employes incapable of
affording much time to philosophical researches — Route southward continued — Tricoil or Tricowille — Komarie — Face
of the country — Hints to the traveller — Patiivilla — Oohundemalle — Village of Kombookanaar — Black paddee —
Time of sowing and reaping — Devi / worshippers — Offerings at the conclusion of harvest — Kombookan- Aar—

Kombook trees — Area and population of the Eastern Province - Southern Province — Potane — Yalle — Suggestions

to the tourist, if intending to proceed to Katlregam Dewale — Total absence of splendour there — Human victims
to chetahs — National religion of the Singhalese a medley of Hindoo and Buddhist worship — The god of Kattre
gam — Dewales and Vihares — Approach to Katlregam Dewale — Head Brahmin — Confers with the Basnaike Rale
— Supposed subject of their conference — Timely suggestions — Water of the Parapa-Oya — Priestly ablutions — Chief
Brahmin s Residence — Image and slippers of a god — State chair of sacred clay, the founder's stepping block
from earth to heaven — Present from the pnests — Temple lands — Buddhist and devil priests — An easy going set of
fellows — Malay officer commanding at Katlregam — Medley of superstitions — Contrasts between the worship bf
Buddha and that of Brahma.

The very curious and pensile nests of the Yellow Grosbeak ( Loxia jiavicans ), which
is of a yellowish brown, and in some respects resembles our yellow hammer ( Emberiza
Citrinella), cannot fail to attract attention. I have counted forty three of these nests
upon one tree, all of which were suspended from the extremities of the spinous
branches of the Mimosa pennata , L., that overhung a patch of water. These exhibited
an extraordinary and beautiful appearance, when illuminated with fire flies at night,
and waved by a gentle breeze.

The Hindoos, who call it Bay a, and are adepts at taming it, describe it as being
partial to the fire fly ( Buprestis vittata ) ; and so careful is this bird of the insects which
it selects for the purpose of feeding its young, that it does not kill them in transitu
to its nest, as if it intended that they should first illuminate it, and afterwards serve
for a living prey to its young. This Grosbeak has no note beyond a chirp : it deposits
several eggs, which are as white, and almost as glossy, as pearls, and of the size of
our common sparrow’s eggs. The nest, which in shape resembles an inverted Bengal
water goglet, is about twenty six inches in length.

The next, in point of ingenuity, is the beautiful little Tailor Warbler ( Sylvia sutoria ),
which forms its nest by attaching a dead leaf of the Domba tree ( Calophyllum inop by l-
turn, L.) to a living one ; — these it sews together, by making holes in the leaves with

2 L

266

PROFESSORS OF BOTANY AND PRACTICAL CHYMISTRY.

its pointed bill, through which it passes a fibre of the plantain tree, as fine as
thread, and then lines the cavity with silky cotton and feathers, for the reception
of its tiny white eggs.

A pair of these pretty little creatures having formed their nest in a Domba tree,
within twelve or fourteen feet of my verandah, I would not allow them to be disturbed ;
and there they reared their young, until their little wings had acquired sufficient
strength to enable them to shift for themselves. They latterly became almost as
familiar as a robin red-breast in winter, seldom attempting to fly away when I ap¬
proached them, as they had done during our first acquaintance : and, by way of
protecting them by day from the attacks of the ever-vigilant and voracious jackdaws
( Corvus monedula ), I kept a gun and pellet bow in the verandah, as near the tree as
possible ; both these weapons being so well known to these audacious birds, that every
deference is paid to their presence, except by some very old ones, who are daring
enough to approach them, as if they knew that neither a gun nor a pellet bow could
do mischief of itself.

It is here that a botanist, combining the qualifications of a practical chymist, would
prove a most important acquisition to the government, and the public ; for he would
not only satisfy himself as to the abundance of the trees that produce medicinal,
elastic, and other gums, (which might have been made, for the last forty six years,
available to British commerce,) but that many a valuable production, by which the
trade of the country may hereafter be extended, and the revenue increased, now lies
hidden in the heart of the jungle, for want of energetic examination and developement.
It cannot be denied, however discreditable it be to the nation, that hitherto, “ most
of our varieties have been found out by casual emergency, and have been the works
of time and chance, rather than of philosophy.”*

It cannot be expected that official employes have sufficient leisure for acquiring any
very great knowledge of the natural productions of the island, from their own re¬
searches, even if the climate were as favorable to study and exertion as it is congenial
with indolence and relaxation ; and therefore qualified professors, who devote their
time exclusively to the pursuits of botany, or natural history in general, would be
invaluable members of society in this extensive, but little known, colony.

Much self-command and great patience is necessary in prosecuting any particular
study in a climate where one hand is constantly employed in endeavouring to keep off
the mosquitos, or to kill them as they alight upon one’s face, which often sustains a
hard slap, without the satisfaction of having “ bagged ” the winged annoyance.

* Glanville.

ROUTE SOUTHWARD CONTINUED— DEVIL WORSHIPPERS.

267

To resume our route southward ; — the next stage from Wambimodoo is to Tricoil,
or Tricowille, distant 16| miles, a small straggling village, but well populated for its
position in a part of the country but little cultivated, and that only in scanty patches,
which is also the case for a part of the way to Komarie, a further distance of 1 1 miles,
where the country begins to wear a more general appearance of cultivation ; chiefly of
black paddee ( Karpoo mllo), yams, maize, Payro , a grain sown with maize, Natcherie,
or Korakan , and other small grains.

At every bazaar along this coast, which may here be considered synonymous with
village, plenty of fish, poultry, eggs, rice, milk, common fruits, and vegetables, may be
obtained at mQderate prices. The traveller will find it very useful to have with him
some of the smallest copper coin of the country ; and, having his bed with him, and,
it is to be presumed, a supply of good brandy, as a necessary qualifier of some of the
water that he will have to drink, if he drink it at all, when he can get green coco-nuts,
any shed (where there is neither a rest-house nor Buddha temple to receive him) that
will shelter his palankin from the sun, will also afford his bearers a resting-place, and
his cook a kitchen : — but this he will have found out before he reaches Komarie.

From Komarie to Pattivilla, the distance is 9 miles ; from thence, through the small
village of Arookgam, (distant 2-f miles,) to Panoah, near which village the Arookgam-
Aar is crossed twice, 1 2 miles ; the face of the eountry continuing the same, with very
little variation, to Qohundemalle, a further distance of 8| miles, where there is a toler¬
able rest-house ; and to the village of Kombookanaar, the last stage in the Eastern
Province, 12% miles. This is just the place for an Icthyophagist, for the finest sorts
of fish, green turtle ( Testudo Mydas, L., Chelonia Mydas, C.), oysters, cray-fish,
prawns, and small but delicious crabs, are abundant and ridiculously cheap.

Black paddee is sown towards the end of October, and reaped about the middle
of April ; but the few other species of paddee cultivated here vary in the time of
attaining maturity, — that called Samba requires five months ; Chinette or Hinette eleven
or twelve weeks ; and Penanelloo is sown from the middle of January to the beginning
of May, and reaped in four months.

The inhabitants of this province are chiefly “ Devil-worshippers,” and undertake
neither sowing nor reaping, Avithout propitiating Pattine with their offerings. At
the conclusion of harvest, they form a circular road, by removing the paddee stubble
from a space about ten feet in diameter, and then making a large hole in the centre,
They fix several stakes around the opening, and decorate them with coco-nuts, areka
nuts, white olas, sheaves of paddee, and the flower spikes of the Pandanus odoratissimus .
which last are indispensable, it being supposed that their diffusive odour is a most

2 l 2

268

TERMINATION OF THE EASTERN PROVINCE— POPULATION .

acceptable perfume to the Maha Yaka ; to whom, they hold it as sacred as the Syra¬
cusans of old did the Cypress, Maiden-hair, and Narcissus to Pluto ; but more merciful
than the Syracusans, they shed no black bull’s, or other blood upon the ground, by
way of sacrifice.

After certain ceremonies, they deposit bunches of areka nuts, several small pieces
of wood, a hen’s egg, enveloped in an ola of the talipat or of the palmyra tree, and
inscribed with certain invocations by a Kappurale, or priest of the goddess Pattine,
in the hole ; and, over all, they place a stone with great ceremony.

The women, who have borne, as the poor creatures do throughout the island, the
burthen and heat of the day, then approach, bearing on their heads sheaves of paddee ;
and after having thrice walked round the stone, in solemn silence, they deposit the
sheaves upon it, as a “ first-fruit offering” of the harvest to the dreaded Maha Yaka.

This ceremony concluded, the natural loquacity of the women resumes its reign,
and amidst a confusion of tongues, which a stranger to the language can compare to
nothing less than that recorded of Babel, they collect and bring in the reaped paddee ;
and, upon that work being completed, they vociferously lay claim to a portion of the
grain, by way of “ largess,” sufficient to cover, to a certain thickness, the stone upon
which the devil offerings rest ' !

The Kombookan-Aar takes its name from the innumerable Kombook trees that
border its banks. The timber is a sort of zebra wood, which, but for its distance from
ports of export, might be turned to a good account as an article of commerce. It is
a species of Terminalia , L. ; and, from its affording a resinous juice, which makes a
superior varnish, is, probably, the Terminalia vernkv, L.

The superficies of the eastern province is 4895 square miles ; and the population,
(exclusive of the Bintenne division, where no returns had been kept, nor are likely to
be for many years to come,) agreeably to the Census taken in 1835, was 54,606,
making the average number to the square mile, 11.15 ; viz.

MALES.

FEMALES.

TOTAL.

Whites, including Military and their families .

519

1,455

Free Blacks, ditto ditto .

23,789

49,985

Slaves . .

. 12

11

23

Aliens and resident strangers . . . . . .

3,143

54,606

Of whom, there were employed in agriculture, 8930 ; in manufactures, 3017 ; and
in commerce, 1427. The marriages, in the year 1835, were 471 ; births, 1571 ; and
deaths, 1254 ; leaving a surplus in favor of the population of the province, of 317.

SOUTHERN PROVINCE— KATTREGAM DEWALE.

269

Having crossed the ferry, the traveller enters the Southern Province, which comprises
the former districts of Hambantotte, Tangalle, Matura, the dessavony of Saffragam,
and province of Lower Ouva and Wallasse ; and the Southern Circuit of the Supreme
Court of Judicature includes the district courts of Hambantotte, Tangalle, Matura,
Galle, and Ballepittye Modera.

The first stage from Kombookanaar is to Potane, distant 7f miles ; and the next,
through low jungle, filled with every description of game known to the island, to
Yalle rest-house, upon the left bank of the Manick-Ganga, (also called Parapa-Ova
and Yalle river, which takes its rise in the Ouva mountains, and flows past Kattregam
Dewale, to its emboucheure at Yalle,) 11£ miles.

If the tourist be disposed to visit Kattregam Dewale, instead of crossing the Manick-
Ganga, native guides, and a Tamatame, or Tam-a-tam beater, to scare the chetahs and
bears to a respectful distance, should be procured at Yalle to accompany him through the
jungle, to that meridian of paganism, which is situate upon the left bank of the river.

One must not expect splendour, neither “ Barbaric gold nor pearl,” at Kattregam,
notwithstanding the innumerable pilgrims who visit it from all parts of India ; very
many of whom annually leave their bones there to whiten in the sun, after having
been well picked by chetahs and jackalls ; for in the hot months of June, July, and
August, (during which period not a drop of rain falls to refresh exhausted nature, and
the periodical fever, which carries off great numbers, prevails,) the pilgrims are most
numerous, it being the time of the great festival ; as if, the more deaths that resulted
from attending it, made the Holocaust * the more acceptable to the much dreaded and
sanguinary deity. It is an almost daily occurrence for pilgrims, whilst resting them¬
selves upon the arid sandb of the desert, in which stands this curse of humanity, to
be carried off to the jungle, by chetahs, and devoured.

The national religion of the Singhalese, although said to be the exclusive worship ot
Buddha, is a medley of Buddhist and Hindoo worship. The temples of the former are
called Vihares, f and of the latter DewaUs ; of which, the most dreaded is Kattregam
Dewale, or temple of Kartikcya, son of the mountain-bom goddess, or Parvati of the

* This word is here used metaphorically, in allusion to the great heat of the sands of Kattregam, where a
body is more likely to be burnt than frozen, and where so many devils are worshipped.

f In Siam, the temples ol Soinmona-( odom, another name for Buddha, are called Pihan ; those of Buddha
in Ceylon are called Vihar, which i> Sanscrit, and written by the Bengalese Bihar. According to Ferishtah ^
History of Bengal, “ the name was given to the province of Beh&r, because it was formerly so full of Brahmin*
as to be, as it were, one great seminary of learning ; as the word imports." — Both in Siam and Ceylon, there art
two orders of Buddhist priests ; both of which are distinguished by the yellow, or saffron colored robe.

270

HINDOO TEMPLES AT KATTREGAM— CHIEF BRAHMIN.

Brahmins, who is represented riding on a peacock, and having six crowned heads,
and twelve arms ; two of which hold swards, two grasp spears, and one holds a small
punkah or fan. So that it will not be thought extraordinary that a Dewale and a Vihare
should stand contiguous, or, as it occasionally happens, under the same roof, as if by
way of compromise between Buddhists and their original Brahminical persecutors.

There are several Dewales here, besides that of the Kattregam Dewiyo ; but, when
I visited the place, in 1826, most of these buildings were in a state of decay and dilapi¬
dation, and the grand Dewale, as well as the much-neglected Vihare of Buddha in
the large square, (where the only object really worthy of admiration is a magnificent
Bogaha , or sacred fig tree,) were also much out of repair.

The former temple, which is approached by a long and spacious front and back
avenue, the one terminated by a large Dagobah, much dilapidated, and wearing all the
appearance of great antiquity, and the other by a small Hindoo temple, or Dewale,
consists of an outer and inner apartment only. The walls of the former are bedaubed
with representations of the Hindoo mythology ; amongst which, are those of Sheva,
Xata, Vishnu, and Pattine, and a Hindoo zodiac, interspersed with Lotos flowers, and
other emblems, similarly painted in water colors, for a ceiling ; but the floor is plastered
with the diluted ordure of the sacred cow. Whatever riches the Dewale may possess,
which, doubtless, are great, are carefully concealed from European eyes ; and this
ostensible appearance of poverty is probably a scheme to increase them, for it is
well known, that during the Kandyan rebellion of 1817-18, this temple was made a
deposit for the most valuable property belonging to those who had compromised
themselves with our government.

Although the commanding Malay officer had intimated, that no European was al¬
lowed to enter the inner apartment, the chief priest, (a venerable personage in point
of age and length of beard, his forehead well striped with marks of caste, habited in
i crimson robe, carelessly thrown over the left shoulder, and a waist-cloth of the same
color, over a dirty Sarong, with a long string of perfumed seeds, besides his Zennaar,
round his neck, and a similar ornament over his right arm,) appeared to confer with
the Basnaike Rale, or lay comptroller of the Dewale, (occasionally looking at “ tht
Europeans’” boots,) and then with the three Kappurales, or priests* of Pattine, of whom
twelve belong to the temple, as if expecting that Captain Dribergf and myself were
about to propose to enter the sanctum , which I really think we might have been allowed
to have done barefoot, if we had particularly desired it.

* The priestess is called Pattinee-Hame

+ At that time Commandant of Hambantutn

CURIOSITY EXCITED— SUDDEN STEP FROM EARTH TO HEAVEN! 271

I confess that my curiosity was so much excited, that I was on the point of pro¬
posing to enter without boots, not for the moment considering that by so doing, it
involved an apparent compromise of principles of a higher order, but which immedi¬
ately suggested itself to my friend, (to whom all the credit of it is due ;) and we retired,
apparently satisfied with the Basnaike Rale's assurances that the inner room contained
nothing more than the Halamba of Pattine, and similar paintings to those that deco¬
rated the outer apartment, which was separated from the former by a painted cotton
screen. It afterwards occurred to me, that the existing objections might arise from
Europeans wearing boots made of the “sacred animal’s” leather; and, upon our
arrival at Mahagam, I could not help expressing my regret, and much to my friend's
amusement, that we had not told them our boots were made of monkey leather, which
was the case, and endeavoured to see