P.A.L.
PERKINS
AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
SOUTHAMPTON
I NET.
MODERN
DAIRY-FARMING.
BY
PROFESSOR JAMES LONG
Sf
P.A.L.
AMO
THE
MILKING MAGHINE
WON ^•'2^0^® MED AL at the R.A.S.E. TRIALS
== & the SILVER MEDAL at the DAIRY SHOW.
so TBOUBLB TO WOKK.
NO TKOUBLE TO CLEAN.
EASILY OPEEATED BY
WOMEN AND LABS.
NO RUBBER TUBING.
ALFA-LAVAL
CREAM SEPARATOR.
SALES EXCEED 1,700,000.
AWARDED OVER 1,000 FIRST PRIZES.
An EXTRA PROFIT of Is. WEEKLY
on EACH COW is eiiMire I by iising the
ALIA-LAVAL SEPARATOR, which
produces more butter than any other.
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AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE
SOUTHAMPTON
lAL.
THE CREOSOTED STAVE
NORFOLK SILO
FOR THE PRESERVATION OF
FRESH GREEN FEEDING STUFF
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Profit Pro ducer.
MANUFACTURl^D BT
JEWSON & SONS,
TIMBER IMPORTERS and CREOSOTERS.
Head Office: NORWIOH.
MANUS
MILKING
MACHINES
Installed at, used and recommended by,
THE MIDLAND AGRICULTURAL
AND DAIRY COLLEGE, at
KINGSTON, DERBY,
■where it may be inspected. Agents ivanted.
Apply to—
BOVM&Co.,Ltd,
Imperial Buildings,
56, Kings way,
LONDON, W.C.
DAILY OUTPUT
OVER
250 MACHINES.
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15 2:iills. per hour ... 4 5
27 ... 6 5
50 ,, .. 11 10
82 ... 18 O
ti.
0
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Do not purctiase a Separator of any other make until
you have had a Diabolo " Separator on free trial.
:: IT WILL SPEAK FOR ITSELF. ::
No. 1 "Diabolo," '
with Stand. further x^articvJars apply io —
K. J. FBLLWOOD & BLAND, 31, BEVENDEN ST., BOXTON, LONBON, N.
ESTABLISHED 1735.
R. J. FULLWOOD & BLAND'S
WORLD RENOWNED
OLEO BUTTER COLORINE,
CHEESE RENNET, ANNATTO, &c.,
ARE USED AND RECOMMENDED AT
THE PRINCIPAL DAIRY INSTITUTES,
AND COMMAND THE LARGEST
SALE IN GREAT BRITAIN.
Write for Samples to
R. J. FULLWOOD in BLAND,
31, 33, 35, BEVENDEN STREET, HOXTON, LONDON, N.
a 2
MAKERS OF
THE MOST MODERN DAIRY UTENSILS
For CHEESE, BUTTER, and CREAM.
Surplus stock of Every Description.
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rapidly, cheaply, and conveniently through "The
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Adverts of Private Breeders, Owners and
Growers (not Dealers, or those who buy to sell
again), are inserted at 3 words Id.
Likewise, to buy any of these things consult
" The Bazaar," which puts you in touch with those
who have good Iive=stock, and high-class articles
generally, to sell.
" The Bazaar " is a responsible journal, which
does everything in its power to safeguard the
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Published on Thursday, 2d. ; and on Saturday, Id.
TO BE OBTAINED Or ALI. NEWSAGENTS.
Offices: Windsor House, Bream's Buildings, London, E.G.
REFRIGERATING MACHINES
(Carbonic Anhydride and Ammonia Systems) for
rapidly cooling milk
and cream ; also for
maintaining butter
and other dairy
produce in good
condition.
INCONVENIENCE OF ICE
AVOIDED.
For full particulars S: caialoijiic
nrritc to : —
J.&E.HiLLr
10, St. Swithin's Lane,
London, E.C. ;
and Dartford, Kent.
Ammoaiii Kefngeiatiug :.racUiiie.
Milk! Milk!! Milk
EBB
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Limited, can always entertaia offers
of reliable Dairies of Weli-cooled
E^assWtJ'd"' CHURNS PROVIOEO.
CHEQUES WEEKLY.
Call or write full particulars of Summer and Winter quaaiHies,
nearest station, &c., to the Managing Director of the Company,
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MODERN SANITARY
COW HOUSES § FITTINGS
Our Pipe Stall DIVISIONS and Steel Stanchions ensure
cleanliness and comfort for Cows. It is economy lo
keep cows in healthy and clean surroundings, as they
produce more milk and of better quality.
Write for Illustrated Catalogue, also about Silos for
economical feeding.
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Young's Cow Stalls are the only ones that will kesp your cows clean and
healthy, with less labour in cleaning cows and cowshed than at present. If
you adopt them you will have healthy animals, pure, clean milk, and a reduced
labour bill.
ADVANTAGES—
COWS STAND CLEAN.
SHED EASILY CLEANED OUT.
PURE, CLEAN MILK.
LESS LABOUR NEEDED.
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These Stalls can be readily Eixed by a local builder, or we can quote
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Young's 84-page Illustrated Catalogue is the most complete book dealing
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Complete Stalls can bs seen at the address given below.
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MODERN DAIRY-FARMING.
The Modern uairy
is Incomplete
WITHOUT A WOLSELEY
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P9
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Machine Works,
WITTON, BIRMINGHAM.
Modern
Dairy- Farming :
A Manual for all who are
engaged or about to embark
in the production, manufacture,
or sale of Dairy Produce.
BY
PROFESSOR JAMES LONG,
AUTIIOR OF " ELEMENTS OF DAIRY FARMING," " MAKING THE MOST
OF THE LAND," " THE SMALL FAHM," " THE STORY OF THE.
FARM," " THE BOOK OF THE PIG," " THE COMING ENGLISHMAN,"
AND OTHER WORKS. CONTRIBUTOR TO HARMSWORTH
" EDUCATOR," " THE BOOK OF THE FAHM," " THE CYCL0P.5:DIA
AND THE ENCYCLOP/HDIA OF AGRICULTURE." FORMERLY MEMBER
OF THE COUNCIL AND BUSINESS COMMITTEE OF THE CENTRAL.
CHAMBER OF AGRICULTURE, AND CHAIRMAN OF THE COMMITTEE
OF THE LONDON DAIRY SHOW AND OF THE ROYAL AGRICULTURAL.
COLLEGE.
ILLUSTRATED.
LONDON :
"THE BAZAAR, EXCHANGE & MART" OFFICE,
WINDSOR HOUSE, BREAM'S BUILDINGS, E.G.
Estailishecl 1889.
XHE DAIRY
AND CREAMERY JOURNAL.
Published third Saturday each month, price 3d. Circiilating
among Dairy Farmers, Creameries, Butter Factories, Cow-
keepers, Dairymen, and all connected with the Dairy Industry
and its very many allied branches throughout the world.
JEstaUisneil 1869.
THE FREEMASON
AND MASONIC ILLUSTRATED.
The Freemason is the acknowledged Organ of the
Under Patronage of the Grand Masters of England,
Ireland, Scotland, and many Foreign Grand Lodges.
Craft, and contains Eeports of Proceedings of Grand
Lodge, Grand Chapter, 'the Higher Degrees, and the
Masonic Charities, in addition to the mo.?t important
and interesting items of information relating to Free-
masonry of every degree in all quarters of the globe.
Price 3d. Weekly.
Published every Saturday morning, and sold at all Railway
Bookstalls and by all Newsagents and Booksellers.
The circulation as a purely Masonic paper is the largest in
Europe, and is therefore an excellent advertising medium for
reaching the most influential, intelligent, wealthy, and
benevolent circles in all parts of the world.
Propkietok and Editor : J. Denyee Hand.
EstaUislied 1898.
THE SEARCHLIGHT
A Montlily Journal dealing with Insurance and
Finance. Price 6d.
Peoprietok and Editor : J. Denyee Hand,
6, "Whitefkiaes Street, Fleet Street, London, B.C.
PUBLISHERS' PREFACE.
It is scarcely too mucli to say that during the last decade
Dairy-Farming in this country lias received an immense
impetus, and that in the near future it is likely to attract
still greater attention. The War has made it abundantly
clear that something ought to be done, and done quickly,
to increase materially our National Herd, as well as to
diminish our consumption of imported foodstufis, by the
better cultivation of grass and waste land and by the
production of those rich forage crops which are so
unaccountably neglected. None the less it is a question
that needs to be pressed right home in the case of thoss
who are about to embark on Dairy-Farming as a business.
One way of doing this is . by means of a cheap and an
informative literature in which both the principles and
the practice are carefully discussed. The publishers
therefore trust that by issuing the present manual, for
which Professor James Long is responsible, they will be
helping not merely the student to obtain a better know-
ledge of his subject, but also the individual actually
engaged in Dairy-Farming.
Modern Appliances
for Modern Methods.
THE LEADING FIRM OF
DAIRY EQUIPMENT
|~] Manufacturers
• -iS^f^^ and
Suppliers
IN THE
UNITED »
PERFECT C ^ \
MILK-COOLIMG KINGDOM W v_/
APPLIANCE. SANITARY STRAINER.
IS
THE PERFECT DAIRY MACHINES,
LTD.,
105, MIDDLE ABBEY STREET,
DUBLIN.
Telephone: 1720. Telegrams: "PERFECT, DUBLIN.'
CONTENTS.
Chapteb Pace
I. — Introductory . . . . . . . , i
II- — How TO Attain Success . . . . . . 11
III. — Management of the Herd 31
IV. — Housing . . .... . . . . . . 44
V. — Dairy Cattle 52
VI.— Feeding .. .. .. ... .. 60
VII.— Milk 67
VIII. — Butter and its Manufacture . . . . 82
IX. — The Principles and Practice of Cheese-
making . . . . . . . . . . 101
Index 123
THIS IS WHAT YOU WANT !
J-JERE is a complete milking outfit that will enable you to be independent
oE hired labour ; that will work steadily and consistently without skilled
attention year in and year out; that will give you clean pure n ilk; that
will increase your profits tremendously, and that cannot hurt the most
expensive cow. It is delivered ready to be wheeled into the barn and
commence milking at once. One quart oE petrol is suEEicient Eor 5 hours
continuous running, and the cost oE upkeep is practically iiil. When
milking is finished, it can be wheeled away and the engine used Eor other
work, leaving your barn exactly as it is now. There is not a single
fitting required.
HINMAN MILKERS.
Your boy can miik 15/18 cows per hour with this outfit, even
\{ he has ne^-er milked a cow before. Think what this would
mean to you in the present shortage of skilled milkers !
Practically 2 men's wages saved and no days off for illness,
etc., but always on time and always working full speed.
This portable set is jicst the The Hininan Standard
thing for a dairy of 12 to Milker for any size herd.
iS cows Delivered complete Price per unit to milk 7
for £,GO. to Q co-ais per hour, £15.
SEND FOR FREE BOOKLET.
HIXJWAIV MILKIIVG iVlACHINE CO.
2, ST. JOHN'S HOUSE, MINORIES, LONDON, E.G.
Modem Dairy- Farming,
Chapter I.
INTRODUCTORY.
It may surprise many readers of tliis book to learn that
Dairy-Farming as we know it to-day is an industry
of less than fort 7 years' growth.. At so recent a date as
1876 it was impossible to obtain a tangible answer to
questions relating to the production or manufacture of
butter or cheese — if those questions involved any reference
to scientific investigations. Butter was made by rule of
thumb, and made very badly indeed. The best makes
were not exempt from this practice, and therefore as a
matter of course they were always liable to failure. It
was well known that the work must be clean ; hence the
advice to beginners, apart from a recognition of the
ordinary routine, almost began and ended with cleanliness
of the most scrupulous character. As a rule butter
failed to keep, and we venture to say that five samples
out of six exposed in the then numerous country markets,
or dehvered to the grocer's shop in the nearest town,
to be paid for in goods, were strong in flavour, of bad
odour and equally load colour, within two or three days,
2
MODSBN DAIKY-FABMING.
although we are bound to except from this condemnation
the biitter made from the scalded cream of Devonshire,
Cornwall, and Somerset.
The Butter Industry.
During the Franco-German War the makers of
Normandy, unable to sell their produce in Paris and
elsewhere in France as heretofore, commenced to export
it to England, and from that date the brands of France
have held a prominent place on our markets. The
Normans do not send us their best, as they obtain a
much better price in Paris — a price which we have
known to reach in normal times 2s. 8d. a pound. We
have, indeed, during excursions in France, made the
acquaintance of a maker who obtained this price, and
inspected his dairy and cattle. In spite of all the work of
the past forty years, no butter is placed upon our market
which equals that supplied to the Paris consumer. In
London it is practically unknown, although there are usually
numerous exhibits by private makers at the London Dairy
Show which are quite equal to the best made in France
and much superior to the finest brands sent over from
Denmark. The best English butter is made for the tables
of those who produce it, and it is usually obtained from
the milk of the cattle of the Channel Islands.
With our increasing prosperity butter was found upon
the tables of those who in earlier days were content with
fats of a less costly character, such as dripping and lard,
or with the fat bacon which was so largely produced by
their own pigs. These sources of fat failed to meet
the demand of the working classes, with the result that
margarine — then known as butterine — was introduced
as a preparation of the fat of the bullock ; while Denmark,
and in later years Canada and the Australian Colonies,
commenced to export brands of butter which were lower
in price than our own, and which, owing to their uniform
character, soon made their way. Thus the English butter
of a past generation has been almost entirely replaced
by consignments from all parts of the world, including
Russia and Argentina,
INTROBTJCTOBY.
3
For a long period margarine, which was gradually
improved, was frequently sold as butter ; but a change
in the law — in obtaining which, by constant agitation, we
were engaged with others who were equally interested —
gradually destroyed a form of imposition and fraud, so
that the imitation has made its way upon its own
merits and now provides for an enormous population.
The war with Germany and the consequent increase in
the price of butter gave the margarine maker his
opportunity, with the result that his produce replaced
the most expensive fat on the tables of thousands of
butter consumers who could not afiord to pay the
enhanced prices or who regarded it as their duty to
economise. This increased demand was followed by an
increase in the price of margarine, which was perhaps to
some extent justified.
The quality and increased production per cow of
modern nianufactm-ed butter are the result of a long and
careful study of the subject by men in all countries.
There was not one trained and skilled teacher of butter-
making in this country when we first commenced our
investigations, nor were there means whereby a teacher
could be trained. In consequence of this great defect in
our educational system we visited France, Switzerland,
Denmark, and Sweden, in each of which countries it was
evident that much had been done on both the scientific
and practical sides of the subject. We found trained
teachers, and these were teaching others, while we had
not commenced to recognise that there was anything to
learn in the work of the dairy. On returning to this
country we were invited to address numerous meetings
in different counties, while later on we were enabled
to induce the British Dairy Farmers' Association, then a
young institution, to establish the first Dairy School,
which in a few years was removed to Reading, where it is
still doing a great work in connection with the University
College. When eventually grants were made to County
Councils for technical education butter-making took a
prominent position as a subject, and from that date it
has been taught to tens of thousands of students, altliough
4
MODERN DAIRY-FARMINa.
it is to be feared without that result which appears in other
countries than our own.
This brings us to another question. England is a
small country with a large population, and the demand for
fresh milk is consequently considerable. It has always been
contended that we cannot produce our own butter if at
the same time we produce all the milk we require. Facts
have proved this contention to be true, for our cattle
have never been sufficiently numerous. Yet, when the
whole subject is carefully investigated, it is found that
the limitation of our cattle population is owing to the
imperfect cultivation of our grassland, or indeed to the
fact that there are millions of acres which are not cultivated
at all. We have ample room for twice the number of
cows, and there is little doubt that this fact will be
recognised at the conclusion of the war, inasmuch as what
we have pointed out in season and out of season for
years has been acknowledged to be true by a committee
appointed by the Government. British dairy-farming can
never become a great industry, so far as it relates to
the manufacture of butter and cheese, until all the available
land is under thorough cultivation and stocked with
cattle as heavily as it will bear. Already we have seen
on the farms of progressive men milking cattle on the
hills, as they should be wherever grass can be grown,
just as we have seen them in Switzerland since our first
visit there forty years ago.
Let us now look at the extent of our butter industry
as we can gauge it from our imports. In 1893 the value
of imported butter was as follows — and we have placed
beside it the value of the imports of 1913, the year before
the war :
Value o£ Butter Imported into the United Kingdom.
1893. 1913.
£12,753,593 £24,083,658
In 1892 we estimated the value of the butter produced
in this country at £10,729,000. Since that date our
consumption has increased very largely, partly owing to
Introductory.
our increased population and partly because iliore butter
is consumed fer ccifita. The probability is, however,
that our home-manufactured butter has not increased
at all, but has declined. If we still assume that it
reaches 10 millions in value, we arrive at an annual
consumption valued at £34,000,000, in spite of the enormous
consumption of margarine, for which in 1913 we paid
£3,917,000 to foreign producers alone.
One of the objects of this book is to point out that a
very large proportion of the butter we consume could be
produced in this country, and, contrary to popular belief,
with advantage to the farming community. It is assumed
that owing to the market value of fresh milk, for which
the demand is always increasing, butter does not pay to
make. Yet it is obvious to all who go to the root
of the matter that if it will pay the farmers of France,
Denmark, and Sweden, all of whom have surmounted
difficulties in relation to transport and markets, it ought
to pay us. If it is argued that the conditions in their
case are superior to those which control us, the reply is
that those conditions must be changed to meet the
circumstances of the case.
In the countries we have named the land is in the
possession of smallholders, and in consequence of this fact
the prosperity of the rural population is greater than
with us. We do not desire to depreciate the importance
of large farms in this country, but what we do emphasise
is the fact that a very considerable piroportion of our farmers
occupy much more land than they are able to cultivate
to the best advantage, partly owing to want of knowledge
and partly because they possess insufficient capital. This
land in the hands of four times the number of men would
not only maintain many more people but provide a much
larger quantity of food. This fact has never been so
fully recognised, in spite of what has been so frequently
pointed out by ours;lves and others, as during the second
year of the war, and by the committee appointed to advise
on the question of our food-supply.
Under existing conditions the supreme object of the
dairy-farmer, as distinct from the producer of milk for
6
MODERN DAlRY-rAEMING.
sale fresh, stould be to make the most perfect butter and
cheese for the supply of the constantly increasing wealthy
members pf the community. The quantity of these goods
available is never adequate to the demand. The consumer
is willing to pay the best price, and in this point he never
complains if he can get what he wants. It is, however, an
unfortunate fact that a very large proportion of our
butter and cheese is of second-class quality, and it is thus
brought into competition with the imports from over the
seas. The result is that the prices paid by the trade are
so small that the returns of the maker are less than
those obtained by the seller of milk and, as a natural
consequence, he prefers to sell all he produces in its raw
condition, abandoning the manufacturing industry.
If dairy-farmers would make the most of their
opportunities by producing really fine butter and rearing
stock with the separated milk the result would be even
better than can be commanded in normal times by the
seller of milk. The demand for fine dairy stock is alwavs
increasing, and the sale of heifers at their best will
always prove remunerative. This has been frequently
demonstrated by men who made the attempt. . In a similar
way, fine cheese, which factories and retailers cannot
obtain in sufficient quantities to meet the demands of
their customers, will pay better than the summer sale
of milk, leaving the winter yield at their disposal at a time
when prices are highest.
The Milk Trade.
For some years this has been in a flourishing condition,
and fortimeshave been made by both dealers and retailers;
but since the establishment of dairy-farmers' organisations
prices have risen. Farmers have determined that the low
prices of the past shall never return, and dairymen have
sometimes been severely tested not only to cover the
cost of their working expenses but to obtain a sufficient
quantity of milk to meet the demands of tlieir customers.
The demands of the public, in addition to those of the
local authorities, require, both at the hands of the farmer
and the retailer, that care and cleanliness in the production
INTRODUCTOKY.
7
and manipulation of milk which will ensure purity — in
other words, freedom from dirt and those forms of germ-
life which are dangerous to health. In this direction
much has been done, but there is yet much to do. Milk
is not properly cooled in warm weather ; it is seldom
properly strained, and unless it is drawn by the milking-
machine it is almost invariably contaminated with dust
from the air of the cow-house or with particles of dirt
from the coats and udders of the cows. In the examinations
of milk made by the authorities of the West Eiding of
Yorkshire and in Chester it was shown that a high
percentage of the samples submitted contained particles
of manure. As the dung of the cow is partially soluble,
the quantities found represented much larger proportions
of the original introduction, some of which was thus
dissolved in the milk. It has been conclusively demon-
strated that cotton-wool strainers are the best, but they
are seldom employed. The result of the employment of
imperfect strainers may be demonstrated by the following
facts Inspecting the great dairy in Zurich, perhaps the
best of the kind in the world, under the guidance of the
Director, our late friend Dr. Nicholas Gerber, we were
shown the cotton-wool pads which were fitted in the
sample bottles of milk as they were taken daily into
the laboratory as a test of the cleanliness of the milk of
each farmer supplier. The filled bottles were inverted,
with the result that the dirt in the milk was deposited on
the pad, thus indicating its condition from this point of
view. In almost every one of the large number of pads
the stain was repulsive, suggesting as it did that the dirt
consumed in a small sample bottle of milk is of a very
tangible character, and this notwithstanding the fact that
each sample is daily submitted to four tests for its purity,
its healthy character, and its freedom from dirt.
Milk is still sold which contains less than 3 per cent,
of fat, and there are many contentions that the law should
be changed for the protection of farmers producing it.
We are not among those who would move a finger for
the purpose of reducing a standard which we fought very
hard to establish. Milk containing only 3 per cent, of
8
MODERN DAlBY-FABMllfG.
fat is as abnormal as milk containing 5 per cent, in any
sample but that produced by Channel Islands cattle, and
it ought not to be sold at full market price. Chicory in
coffee, maize starch in wheat flour, margarine in butter
all diminish the market value of the superior article and
are condemned accordingly, although in neither case does
the consumer safier from a diminished quantity of
nourishment in his food. Milk which is short of a just
quantity of fat is not only' diminished in market value,
but it produces less cheese, less butter, and provides the
consumer with less food. When butter stands at Is. 6d.
per pound, 3 per cent, milk is worth less by three-farthings
a quart than milk containing 3| per cent, of fat, and it
should never contain less. At a time when farmers are
obtaining a substantial price for all their produce it is a
duty incumbent upon them to provide a perfect article,
rich in food, clean, and well cooled. So long as they are
able to do this, without the least possible doubt they ought
to do it, and by adopting this course all fear of prosecution
and unjust punishment would vanish.
Condensed Milk.
In this we have a valuable addition to our food-supply.
It has often been a cause of condemnation in the past,
owing to the practice of some makers of removing a portion
of the cream. Since the change in the law, however, which
compels makers who adopt this practice to state the fact
upon the tins, there has been little cause for complaint,
although the practice is not entirely abandoned. The
best course to pursue in buying this food is to choose a
recognised brand, for we have reason to believe that the
best makes are not only produced from rich milk
but are unskimmed. As these brands are now more
extensively made in this country, condensed milk forms
an important item in our home dairy-farming, and so far
comes within the scope of this work.
Clieese-Making.
There is yet much to be done in relation to the
manufacture of cheese. Cheddar, Cheshire, and Stilton
INTRODUCTORY.
9
have been brought to a high state of perfection by
the best makers. These makers form a very small
percentage of the whole, and we may safely assert oiir
belief that 90 per cent, of all that is manufactured is
second-class, and thus comes into competition with the
imports. The British cheesemaker cannot compete with
the Australian and the Canadian manufacturer, whose
goods are of great value to the mass of our people. His
role is the production of the finest quality for the wealthier
consumers, as this cannot be obtained from our Colonies.
There is, however, another difficulty which needs removing.
Leicester, Derby, Gloucester, and Wensleydale cheese
is practically all of second-class quality. The art
of making the first-named is apparently lost, for there
has not been a solitary sample of the soft mellow Leicester
of the old type exhibited at the Dairy Show for many
years. Efforts have been made to revive the Wensleydale
cheese, but without any very good results. It is still
made on a perfunctory or empirical system, badly shaped,
badly finished, and badly bandaged. This variety, which
shares with Stilton the first place among the blue-veined
cheeses of the world, ought not only to be found in all
English towns, to most of which it is an entire stranger,
but with Stilton it ought to become the medium of a large
export trade to our Colonies and foreign countries. While
we are daily consuming in Gorgonzola a much inferior
cheese we are ignoring these varieties and, in a word,
assisting to build up an industry in Italy which we are
neglecting at home.
ParminE Prodxicts Tabulated.
According to the report in connection with the Census
of Production Act published in 1912 the value of the dairy
products sold by farmers in Great Britain was as follows
Milk (whole) £24,820,000
Milk (skimmed) 143,000
Cream 590,000
Butter 2,940,000
Cheese 1,400,000
£29,893,000
10
MODEKN DAIEY-PABMING.
If we accept this total as applicable to the year in
which we are writing, and add the value of the imports
of butter, cheese, and condensed milk, we shall obtain
some idea of our actual consumption. It must, however,
be pointed out that Irish produce is not included, and
further that the quantity of milk sold for consumption
by farmers is only 70 per cent, of the whole of that
produced. In regard to butter, the figures do not
include that made in factories and creameries.
Estimate of the value of the milk, cream, butter, and
cheese consumed in Great Britain : —
From the produce above £20,893,000
Add 10 per cent, of the total production
consumed by farmers in their Iiouseholds
and by dependents 3,-545,000
Imports— -'Butter 24,083,000
Cheese 7,035,000
Condensed millc 2,185,000
Milk and cream ' 77,'ooO
£06,818,000
Chapter II.
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS.
In spite ot all that has been done in the promotion of
dairy-farming, much has been neglected. We know
of no progressive country in which so little has been
accomplished as with us. The land has been almost
entirely neglected by the Government ; no bold attempt
has been made to improve the milking powers of our cattle,
whether as regards the yield of milk or the quality of
what our cows produce. There has been no increase in
the number of cows to correspond either with the increase
in our population or with the increase in our jier capita
consumption. Butter-making has been allowed to fall
out of the ranks as a national industry without any
attempt being made to revive it, while cheese-making,
which is still confined to a few counties in England and
Scotland, is practically unknown in Ireland and in Wales.
Milk is still sold with an artificial colour, and no effort
is made to ensure its cleanly character beyond that
practised by dairymen themselves. The result is that
in warm weather it keeps sweet twelve or more hours less
than milk which has been perfectly cooled or which has
been drawn imder the most hygienic conditions.
Conditions of Success.
Success on the part of the milk-selling farmer depends
upon conditions to which we propose to direct the reader's
attention.
12
MODERN DAIRY-FAEMING.
1. The cows must produce a larger yield.
2. The milk should contain a minimum of 3'5 per cent,
of fat.
3. The milk should be drawn by a milking-machine.
4. In summer the milk should be cooled to at least
50° F.
5. Forage crops should be grown on the farm to ensure
abundance of food in dry weather, and in suitable counties
maize silage for winter, this food being better than
turnips.
6. If roots form the succulent portion of the ration in
winter, the yield of mangels should not fall l)elow 35 tons
and swedes below 25 tons to the acre.
^ The Amo Milking-Machine of the Dairy Supply Company. -
7. The pasture grass should be manured with phosphatic
and nitrogenous fertilisers, and in some cases with potash,
if this is demanded and is available, in order that the yield
of grass may be increased to such an extent that more
cows can be kept on the same area of land and sufficient
allowed for October and November feeding .-in the milder
parts of the country.
These points indioate that more and be'ster milk should
be produced on the farm with the assistance of improved
cattle and more abundant and better crops.
The Yield oJ British Cows.
Variousi estimates have been made from time to
time as> to the average yield of British cows ; but it is
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS.
13
assumed in tlie Eeport on the Census o£ Production, on
tlieibasis of the work of 1907-8, that the average yield of
the cows of Great Britain is 550gal., or of tlie total
number of cows enumerated 437gal. Neither figure
is satisfactory wlien we know that there are cows in this
country which yield anything from 1,000 to 1,400 gallons
in a year, and in tlie United States very much more. The
records of the comjjetitions at the London Dairy Show,
and those of Dr. Watney, show that it is possilole to
largely increase the yield of milk and butter per cow.
and still more the yield of these materials per farm. In
the United States, published records obtained by officials
from the Agricultural Colleges show that while some cows
have produced 2,000gal. of milk, others have produced
sufficient fat to yield 9001b. of butter. In this country
Dr. Herbert Watney has obtained an average yield of
milk from his herd of Jerseys of TOlgal, from which
an average of 4151b. of butter was produced. The butter
yield in this herd has reached an average of 463Jlb., and
has exceeded 4001b. in nine out of the fourteen years of
which we have records. Many of the cows, small as they
The Hinman Self-contained Auto Milker.
14
MODERN DAIEY-FABMING.
are, have produced l.OOOgal. of milk, or from 5001b.
to 5401b. of butter. The best cows in the herd have made
the following averages : — ■
Pounds of
Red Maple II. gave in her first three years in
'"''f •■ •.• •■ , 530
hliarab gave a six years average of 542
Lady Siphon gave a nine years' average of . . . . 446
Guenons Lady Teasel gave a nine years' average
of 448
■ Guenons Lady Teasel gave a ten years' average of 497
Sunbeam II. gave an eleven years' average of . . 430
Red Maple gave a tvpelve years' average of . . . . 47]
These are marvellous figures, and they point to the
fact that, if farmers accomplished what Dr. Watney has
accomplished, the wealth of the dairy-farming community
miglit be increased threefold. It may be suggested that
m this and similarly important instances of success
wealth came to the rescue, but in our judgment the practical
farmer occupies a far more advantageous position than
a mere man of science or wealth. He can attend markets
and become acquainted with other practical men, and so
acquire cattle with which the wealthy man can never
come into contact, and for which even then he is compelled
to pay a great deal more money.
This point may be illustrated from practical experience.
On two occasions we called upon a dealer in a distant
county famous for its Dairy Shorthorns and asked
him to collect a number of cows of prime milking quality
from which eight could be selected. This task he under-
took, and on each occasion we went to his farm, examined
the cows, saw them milked, and were afforded the
opportunity of testing the milk. On the first occasion
the milk produced by the cows, which were purchased,
was employed in the manufacture of butter, with the
result that the yield reached 5 per cent, of the milk. The
price paid for the cows was, in round figures, a pound per
head more than the price in the market for cattle of similar
type. By adopting this practice a buyer can ensure
milk of high quality, and, as far as human knowledge can
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS.
15
command it, a large yield. On the other liand, neither
qualification can Be ensured by the usual system of
buying.
We quote an instance relating to the purchase of a
single cow, and this a very simple one. Discussing this
question of yield with a neighbouring landlord, who was
to some extent a practical man, we remarked that it was
an economical plan to pay an extra five pounds for a cow
which was known to be a really deep milker — i.e., a cow
yielding 800 to 1,000 gallons of milk. His reply was
immediate. He had possessed such a cow, and had sold
it to a neighbouring farmer. This farmer was called
upon, and he was willing to sell — at a price. His figure
was named; it was perfectly fair, and the purchase was
made. Had this gentleman recorded the yield of the
cows in his herd he would have probably asked a difierent
figure ; but apparently knowing no more than the fact
that the cow was an excellent ipilker he was perfectly
satisfied, although her first record exceeded l,300gal.
Building up a Herd.
In order to build up a herd of deep-milking cows close
study should be made of the system adopted by others,
and here the work of the late Mr. George Taylor will
provide a liberal help. Much depends on the bull. If he
is of an old milking family the way will be easier ; but it
is obvious that the cows should not only be heavy milkers
of rich milk, but that they should belong to good milking
families on both sides.
Milk which is rich in fat should be regarded as an
essential to success, without the least recognition for what
others have done. A standard of 4 per cent, should be
set, and set higher when it is reached, for the mixed milk
of the herd. With rich milking stock the breeder possesses
material advantages — thus :
1. He need never apprehend the possibility of
prosecution.
2. He will never find the slightest difficulty in selling
his milk at the best price.
16
MODERN DAIRY-FARMING.
3. His surplus stock will realise higher prices if it is
shown in his catalogue what percentage of fat each cow
has given.
4. In an emergency the milk can be retained at the
farm for making butter, which will be of the best type,
assuming that it is well made, because rich milk naturally
produces better butter than poor milk.
5. If cheese is produced it will be richer in quality
than cheese made from poor milk — and realise a better
price.
The MUking-Maclilne.
We now arrive at the third point in our argument :
that milking should be performed by a milking-machine.
The time is coming when much greater demands will be
made upon farmers to produce clean milk. It is almost
unthinkable that milk should be sold which, however it
looks to the eye, contains a solution of the manure of the
cows, whether it be in infinitesimally small or in tangible
quantities. Yet this is precisely what it does contain.
Milkers still dip their fingers in the pail to enable them
to draw the milk more easily with their hands. The
atmosphere of the cow-house reeks more or less with
dust, partially f 83 cal, and bacteria, the extent of which may
be revealed by a ray of the sun. The coats of the cows,
unbrushed as they are, cast particles of dirt and germ life
into the milk pail as they are rubbed by the men in the
act of milking. The udders are not often washed, or if
washed the process is perfunctory, and the inilk is
contaminated. No process of hand-milking can prevent
this contamination, although with daily care and constant
supervision it may be minimised. Nor does the straining
remove the difficulty, for however j)erfectly cotton-wool
removes tangible matter from the milk, it does not alter
the fact that it leaves the intangible or soluble matter
behind.
The milking-machine is the only source of perfect
cleanliness, because, while covering the teats only, and
therefore a very limited source of contamination, these
are not handled, and the milk is drawn out of contact
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS,
17
with the air, and does not come into contact with it again
until it is poured out of the pail. We have seen herds
of various sizes millved, or partially milked, and on no
occasion has master or man had anything but praise to
award to the machine, which they regarded as a labour-
saving boon of great value to themselves and one in which
they believe their cattle rejoice, so much easier and less
abusive is its work in comparison to that of mankind.
We are aware that there are farmers who ask for a machine
which is no trouble at all, which will act without the
control and assistance of man, even to the extent of
cleaning itself when milking has ended. And it is perfectly
true that the milking-machine has been condemned because
it required cleaning. It was not intended for this class
of farrri'er, nor were the cows that he milks with the hand.
We are acquainted with one instance in which a herd
of 100 cows is milked by three men with the assistance of
three machines, and of another in which some forty-seven
cows are milked by two men, who between them maintain
the engine in perfect order,- with a dynamo which illuminates
the cow-house— a new and splendidly constructed yet
Domed Hygienic Milking-Pail.
c
18
MODERN DAIRY-FARMING.
simple building — with electric light. It is needless to say
that the combination adds to the comfort of the cows and
the satisfaction of the men. In a third instance a farmer
has personally constructed an appliance which enables
him to work the machine and to milk the cows in the
field. In this case the cows come up to him to be milked
without being fetched, and thus add their dumb testimony
to the valuable character of the work.
Cooling the Milk.
Our fourth point deals with the cooling of the milk.
On two occasions we have had the opportunity afforded
us of witnessing the system adopted at the home farm of
Mr. Eobert Mond, near Sevenoaks. This gentleman has
long conducted a scientific investigation of the question
of tuberculosis and its possible cure by the employment
of tuberculin, and one of his herds, consisting of cured
cows, was milked in a separate building. Mr. Mond
has also been engaged in demonstrating the possibility
of milking cows without contaminating the milk with
the germs of disease. Next to the milking-machine
the system adopted claims our attention. Two old cow-
houses have been remodelled within. The cows live in
a covered yard adjoining the building, in which they are
free. The house is kept perfectly clean, flushed before
each milking from top to bottom with a hose, and the
cows are then driven in and chained in their stalls. They
are subjected to similar treatment by spraying with water,
so that all dust is at rest. The milkers next wash the
udders and their own hands, which are rinsed after each
cow has been milked, after clothing themselves with a
white overall and cap. After milking, the cows are driven
back into the covered yard, where they remain until the
next milking, when the same method is followed.
Near at hand is a small refrigerating plant, which
enables the foreman to cool and keep his milk to any
degree he requires as long as he likes. The milk is sent
to London, to the Children's Hospital, which we have also
had the advantage of inspecting, and from the records
examined both there and at the farm we ascertained
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS. 19
that it remains sweet many hours longer than fresh milk
obtained at the best dairy in.the neighbouihood.
Milk cannot be cooled sufficiently low in sunnner
with water which seldom falls below 60° F. For this
HfvU's Refrigerating Machine.
g 2
20
MODERN DAIBY-rARMING.
reason artificial cooling is almost invariably necessary
if good work is to be done, and this of necessity
involves co-operation among farmers. In those districts
where milk-selling farmers are sufficiently numerous
the best plan is to combine, construct a shed near the
station, instal a refrigerating plant, and arrange for_ the
milk from each farm to be cooled by the men as it arrives.
The expense divided among ten or twelve farmers would
amount to a very small sum as compared with the
importance of the%vork. The building could be adapted
to the storage of the milk when prices are low, for sale
when the market is better. This question will have to be
faced, for under existing conditions it is impossible to sell
a valuable article of produce because of its perishable
character without serious loss, when by its preservation
it can be sold at will. Wholesale dealers in milk and the
largest retailers are compelled to adopt this method of
preservation, without which they would be subject to
continual losses
Farmers who have refrained from spending their
capital in those forms of equipment which are essential
to success in their business are fighting against themselves.
If we carefully examine the matter we shall find that
similar objections were raised at the time of the introduction
of cotton cake as a food, nitrate of soda as a manure, the
self binder, the threshing machine, the cream separator,
the selection, preservation, and special packing of fruit,
and at the present moment of the milking-machine and
the motor plough. We are acquainted with many of the
ablest farmers in the kingdom, and have found no instance
in wliich there has been marked success where the most
modern improvements have not been employed.
It may lastly be pointed out, in dealing with the
question of cooling or refrigeration, that milk is spoiled
by the action of millions of bacteria which have been
produced by the increase in the number of those which
find their way into it from the atmosphere when it is
drawn from the udder. This increase, however, is possible
only when the conditions are normal. Thus, by cooling
the milk to 50° F, or heating it to a temperature which
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS.
21
would make it impossible to deal with it as a commercial
product there is a check to the growth of tliis form of
germ life, and the milk remains sweet. With a rise in
the temperature after cooling there is corresponding
activity in the life of che bacteria, and an increase
which reaches its- greatest point as it approaches 80° to
90° F., with the result that the milk becomes sour, and
while in this condition it is useless for selling and is unfit
for the production of sale.able butter or cheese.
22
MODERlI BAIRY-FARMIN(i.
An Abundant Pood-Siipply Necessary.
Success on the dairy farm, if not ensured, is
substantially promoted by the abundant provision of
food. In this country, however, it seldom happens that
a summer passes without sufficient very dry weather to
check the growth of grass in the pastures, and therefore
to diminish the yield of milk. So common is this '
occurrence, and sometimes so severe, that many farmers
have learnt to regard it as inevitable, and in consequence
they take no pains to prevent it, to their serious loss.
There is no cause for this attitude. There are forage
crops which can be grown with mors marked success during
great heat than during more temperate weather, while
to a large extent all the leguminous plants common to
England — sainfoin, lucerne, clover, trefoil, and vetch-
will respond when grass herbage on the pasture land is
refusing to grow owing to want of moisture within reach
of its much shorter roots.
To rely solely upon grazing on permanent grass is
to court disaster in a hot summer, unless the plants of
which it is composed have been specially grown for the
purpose of resisting drought or of furnishing a good bite
or a good cut of hay. There are two plants which can be
grown successfully for the supply of succulent food in
hot weather which are the very foundation of the crops
intended for milch cows in the United States, Argentina,
and on a large portion of the Continent of Europe. We
refer to maize and lucerne (or alfalfa), which we have
grown for years in succession, and are fully convinced
that between them the farmers of a large portion of this
country can be furnished with more food for their cows
during the months of July, August, and September
than they have been able to produce under any other
conditions. With the assistance of these plants, and of
others that have been mentioned, together with liberal
manuring, more cows can be kept, more young cattle grown,
and more food secured for the winter. Both lucerne and
maize are of great value when preserved in the silo on the
American plan, providing an agreeable, succulent food which
is much superior to roots and much cheaper to grow,.
24
MODERN DAIBY-rARMING.
There is, however, another aspect of this question
of cropping which secures an additional advantage to the
farmer. The leguminous plants — lucerne, sainfoin, clover,
and vetch — to which the American farmer adds a large
variety of cow pea, are nitrogen gatherers, producing such
large quantities of albuminoids that there is less necessity
for the purchase of cakes and pulse rich in these
materials. In a word, where abundance of nitrogenous
food is grown on the farm, as it should be, the artificial
food bill is automatically reduced. To ensure the best
results in this direction, and therefore to minimise
the cost of nitrogenous manures in the same way, it
is essential to use phosphatic manures with judicious
liberality.
Boots as Milk-producing Food.
We may now discuss the question of roots as a milk-
producing food. The turnip is not only a poor food,
however agreeable to the cows, but a poor cropper ;
although we attribute the poverty of our British yield to
the very many cases of poor farming. So long as our
average is less than 13 tons to the acre, and in some counties
occasionally 7 to 10 tons, so long will the crop be costly
to grow and ill-adapted as an economical food for milk pro-
duction. Apart, however, from the cost of cultivation and
lifting, there is the cost of clamping, carting, cleaning,
and pulping. By the time the food is in the manger the
nutritious matter of the turnip (and swedes are included
under this term) becomes one of the most costly which
is used upon the farm. There is, nevertheless, always
hope, inasmuch as skilled growers are able to obtain 25 to
40 tons of swedes to the acre, with the result that they
are not only able to feed more cattle at the farm but to
produce milk at a smaller cost per gallon.
Here, indeed, lies one of the chief elements of success
in Dairy-Farming. Efforts have been made in Scotland,
in Yorkshire, and in Kent to ascertain from the practice
of farmers what is the actual cost of producing a gallon of
milk ; but conclusions have been drawn from the results in
which the factor of yield has been ignored. It is perfectly
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS.
25
obvious tliat a farmer who produces 2 tons of meadow
liay, 30 tons of turnips, and 50 tons of mangels to the acre
is able to produce milk at a much cheaper rate than a
farmer who obtains no more than the average yield of
the country — e.g., 25cwt. of hay, 12| tons of turnips, and
19 tons of mangels. From this point of view the figures
which have been officially published, and which are
intended to show what the cost of production has been
on various farms, are erroneous, and therefore misleading,
and cannot be justified.
The results obtained in the county of Kent, for
example, were based on the fixed price of the various
foods grown upon the farm. Mangels, swedes, and cabbage
are thus valued at 10s. a ton, white turnips at 8s., chat
potatoes at 20s., meadow hay at 60s., oat, pea, and bean
straw at 40s., and barley and wheat straw at 25s. These
are empirical figures, and in all probabiUty do not apply
to any two farms. The cost of a ton of food grown upon
the farm depends not only upon the money spent in its
production, but upon its weight. Thus, if a crop of 12 tons
of swedes has cost £8 to grow, each ton has cost 13s. 4d.
If, however, the crop reaches 30 tons to the acre, and has
cost £10 to grow, each ton has cost only 6s. 8d., or precisely
one half.
In Kent the lowest cost of producing a gallon of milk
in the winter (42 weeks) of 1912-13 was 4-3d., in 1913-14
it was 4-2d., and in 1914-15 4-64d. On the other hand,
the highest cost in each of these seasons was 7-46d., 7-08d.,
and 8-18d. Taking the average cost on the farms, the
milk of the combined herds, which during the three
winters produced an average per cow of 217 gallons per
day, was 5-76d. per gallon in 1912-13, 5-4d. in 1913-14,
and 5-72d. in 1914-15 ; and it should be observed that
in the last two years war prices prevailed.
Finally, we hold the opinion that on farnis where swedes
do not produce 25 tons to the acre and mangels 35 tons
root-feeding stands in the way of success, and had better
give place to some other crop. The swede is apt to spoil
the flavour of milk unless its crown is removed, while
neither mangels, which are much better than turnips, of
26
MODEElr DAIRY-FARMING.
whatever variety, nor swedes are adapted to the production
of butter. We may go farther than this and add that
fine butter cannot be made from milk produced by their
aid. Turnips are an item of great importance on a farm,
a large portion of which is manured with the assistance of
sheep, which consume them in the fold, but on a dairy
farm they are not in their place, and we may safely conclude
that as thousands of farmers do not grow 12 tons to the
acre they are a source of serious loss.
The pastures and meadows of England do not produce
one half the grass of which they are capable, and considera-
tions of national pride must not blind us to the fact.
If we may judge by the hay crop we have still a great
deal to learn. The average yield in England, 1904-13,
on our permanent meadowland was 23-9Bcwt., in Wales
20-29cwt., in Scotland, on a very small area, 29-63cwt.,
in Great Britain 23-73cwt., and in Ireland 45-07cwt. The
humid climate and the soil of a large part of Ireland
immensely assist her result ; but while there are plenty
of farms in this country which obtain equal or still better
results, the fact remains that the vast majority fall below
the average, many of these growing no more than 15cwt.
to 20cwt. per acre.
We have travelled through numerous counties during
the past few winters and springs, and especially remarked
upon the brown tint of the herbage which covers
most of the country not under the plough ; whereas on
every well-managed farm the pastures were green. There
are whole districts in Warwickshire, Worcestershire,
Gloucestershire, Wilts, Hampshire, Sussex, Surrey, Herts,
Cambridgeshire, and East Anglia, to mention a few, in which
the grassland needs what it apparently never receives :
large dressings of mineral manures, and that care and
attention which alone will command a successful result.
Good herbage is so important to the producer of milk,
butter, or cheese that we may briefly refer to the chief
means of effecting its improvement. First comes the fact
that while dung is invaluable on arable land, its results
on permanent grass are inferior to and more costly than
those obtained with the assistance of artificial manure.
MOW TO ATTAIM SUCCESS.
27
Not only is the influence of mineral fertilisers more per-
manent, but tkey absolutely prevent that increase in the
growth of weeds which dung j)romotes. Phosphates
and potash develop the clovers and trefoils, which is a
fact of enormous importance inasmuch as these species
collect nitrogen from the atmosphere and with it enrich
the soil without cost to the grower. Thus, as these plants
are consumed by stock grazing upon them they indirectly
feed the grasses which do not possess the same faculty
of helping themselves. In a word, the dung made from
the clover which the cattle consume contains the nitrogen
which they have absorbed ; the cultivation of grass-land
is therefore trebly important. We have had the advantage
of visiting farms in various counties in which the grass
has not only been improved but reclaimed, and these
facts have convinced us that in all probability 75 per cent,
of the pastures of many English counties are practically
uncultivated, although capable of doubling their crops.
During various visits to Switzerland we have studied
the practice of the small farmers in some of the Cantons
in which heavy grass crops are grown, these sometimes
yielding 5 tons of hay to the acre in several cuts. One
or two hints derived from this source may therefore be
given. The cows are stalled during the whole of the year,
apart from the fact that one or two are daily employed in
hauling the grass to the farm in the summer and returning
with solid or liquid manure — the latter being almost daily
distributed after mowing in summer. The best grassland
is of a temporary character, the seeds including clover,
lucerne, sainfoin, rye grass, cocksfoot, timothy, and rib
grass. The herbage is mown for the cows as fast as it
grows, and the manure assists in the production of the
following cut. In this country the growth of the grasses
could be checked in dry summers by the heat of the sun
in spite of the manure ; but the Swiss plant the land with
fruit — standard aj)ples, chiefly employed in the manufac-
ture of cider, and pears — and by thus shading the grass
prevent any possible failure.
Again, we have found milking cows on the Alps at all
altitudes up to 5,000ft. ; and this fact suggests that cows
28
MODERN DAIRY-FARMING.
might be grazed on the Downs in this country with equal
success. Among the farms to which we have referred
there are some which are partially downland, and these
have in some instances besn so much improved that the
old value of 5s. to 10s. an acre has been increased to 30s.
and 40s. by the system elsewhere suggested.
More Herbage by Sowing Long-rooted Plants.
Another suggestion may be made for the assistance of
those who are in a position to improve their poor grass-
land, although it is of a more drastic character. On poor,
light land, or on hill-sides which have never produced
good herbage within the memory of man, much has been
done by ploughing it up, taking a turnip crop, and sowing
a mixture of the seeds of plants possessing long roots, in
a barley crop which is manured with artificials. The
object is simple. The old herbage, consisting solely of
plants with short roots, has never been able to reach the
food in the subsoil, which is usually rich in the essential
minerals, or to travel deep enough to find sufiicient
water to enable it to grow. The new herbage, which
includes wild clover, cocksfoot, tall fescue, tall oat grass,
chicory, burnet, rib grass, and, on light soils, kidney
vetch, consists entirely of long-rooted plants, which are
not only able to find water below but to feed on the
minerals awaiting the development of man. These they
bring up to the surface soil, which is enriched by their
roots to such an extent that when ploughed up heavy
corn, root, and potato crops can be grown in succession to
the improved grass crops which the new plants have
provided.
The principle underlying this practice is one of the
most important of all those which are applied to the
farm. What the subsoil is the surface soil was, and if
by its application the dairy-farmer can utilise the mineral
matter below, and simultaneously the nitrogen of the
atmosphere above, he may be able, and will be able in
most cases, to ensure fertility, which costs nothing but the
labour so long as he lives on his farm, and therefore to
increase his crops beyond all expectation. If he prefers
HOW TO ATTAIN SUCCESS.
29
to continue to scratch the top 4in. of arable soil, to
use manure which has lost the small value it ever
possessed by exposure and careless management, and
finally to neglect his grass-land altogether, as the majority
do, he is likely to remain unsuccessful and unsatisfied-
More Grass in Dry Summers and Early Winter.
Apart from the practice to which we have just referred,
pasture grass may be improved to such an extent that the
loss owing to drought may be much diminished, while
herbage may be provided for grazing day and night during
the last three months of the year, except on the few
severe days when the cows are kept in the stall. This is
a point of importance, for the more extensively the pastures
provide for the stock the larger the area of arable land
which will be available for corn and other saleable crops.
It has been remarked that plants with long roots, by
piercing deeper into the subsoil than most of the grasses
are able, supj)ly themselves with water even in very
dry weather. This is peculiarly the characteristic of
lucerne, sainfoin, kidney vetch, and chicory, but in a
minor degree it also applies to the clovers. Obviously, too,
the deep-feeding plants are also in a position to utilise the
latent manures of the subsoil, to produce more herbage
by their aid, and to store them in their roots, thus enriching
the surface soil when these roots decay.
When lucerne, sainfoin, vetch, and clover are growing
and feeding in this way they are also appropriating
the nitrogen of the air, and so further enriching
the soil in a way which is ini|)ossible by the action
of fertilisers, essential as these are under other
conditions. Thus it will appear that where pasture land
is rich in clover it will resist drought better than where
there are practically no clovers at all. In either case
artificial fertilisers may be used with great advantage,
for if there are no clovers phosphates will induce them
to grow ; whereas if there is a good plant, that plant can
be stimulated by the suitable food they provide to extend
their root system still deeper, and thus to obtain almost
all they require.
30
MODERN DAIRY-FARMING.
Although winter grass is not highly approved by
owners of stock it is better than roots, and will maintain
the herd up to Cliristmas in many counties without cake
or meal, but with the assiistance of hay, if it is encouraged
to grow in the manner suggested.
Chapter III.
MANAGEMENT OF THE HERD.
When a cow calves the milk in her udder, which is
abnormally rich in casein and minerals and poor in fat, is
known as beestings ; the correct term, however, is colostrum.
Fitted by nature for the benefit of the calf, this milk is
often consumed in the farmhouse, especially when the
calf is weaned at its birth. The milk of a newly calved
cow is not fit for sale until she has calved four or five days,
the latter period being frequently fixed in milk buyers'
agreements.
Aearing tlie Calves.
Unless calves are reared upon cows which are kept
for the purpose, in which case one average cow will rear
five in a season, consisting of two pairs and a single, it is
better to wean them at birth, teaching them to drink
from the pail. In this way it is much easier to regulate
the supply, and subsequently to mix separated milk with
the whole milk preparatory to weaning from milk altogether,
In the ordinary way a calf may obtain whole milk for a
month, at the expiration of which it may be reduced to
one half the quantity, which should be made up with the
separated milk, until in two or three weeks the whole
milk may be abandoned altogether in favour of an
increased cpiantity of sweet separated milk. This plan
will prove quite successful if the calf has been taught to
feed upon the best and sweetest hay at the earliest possible
day^, and subsequently upon a little linseed cake meal or
32
MODERN DAIKY-rARMING.
crushed oats. As the young animal grows the hay and
oats may form its sole food, until it is able to eat chaff
and pulped mangels, both of which may be employed
to increase the weight of its ration.
Where a calf is intended to take her place in the dairy
herd she should be fed with hberality from her birth.
A male calf should not only be fed in this way, but having
developed plenty of flesh should be put upon a finishing
ration, to fit him for slaughter at as near two years old
as possible. This finishing process is not necessary for
heifers, but they should be kept in good condition for
calving, the vitality of the calves and their future value
as milkers depending so much upon it.
It is, too, highly important that heifers should not
be allowed to suckle their calves, nor should cows ;
the practice is bad for the milking propensity. It is
necessary to add that hard udders, stoppage of a teat,
pustules, and garget seldom trouble the cow which is
suckling. This fact should induce dairy-farmers to
recognise that these complaints are chiefly owing to
carelessness on the part of the milkers.
Milking-Time.
Cows should be milked as nearly as possible every
twelve hours. There is no advantage to be gained by
milking three times a day. If the evening milking follows
nine hours after the morning milking, the milk produced
will be less and the fat percentage higher ; but the nearer
the second milking approximates to twelve hours after
that of the first the larger will be the evening yield and
the more regular the fat percentage. Thus one cause
of risk, and sometimes of prosecution, for seUing milk
below the standard (3 per cent, fat) is found in milking
too soon after the morning milking, with the result that
the milk produced in the morning, while showing a
large increase in volume over that of the evening, is
correspondingly low in its fat percentage.
All cows should be stripped after milking. The first
milk drawn contains very little fat, but it increases in
richness until the last drop, the strippings being the richest
MANAGEMENT OP THE HERD.
33
portion of any. As a rule the richest niilljers yield less
milk than producers of poor milk, yet modern breeders
have succeeded in evolving cows of the Dairy Shorthorn,
Jersey, Guernsey, Devon, and Dutch varieties which
yield very large quantities of abnormally rich milk. It is
therefore possible to obtain a Dairy Shorthorn cow pro-
ducing 6gal. a day at her best, the milk containing 4 to
5 per cent, of fat. Cows in this country have already
given l,400gal. in a year, while in the United States
there are many records of l,50Dgal. to 2,000gal., and a
yield of butter fat equivalent to from 8001b. to 9001b. of
commercial butter.
How to Milk.
While we are convinced of the value of the milking-
machine, it is important to note how a cow should be
milked by the hand. The time will come when, owing
almost entirely to the dirty habits of the majority of
milkers, who practically forbid the sale of absolutely
clean milk, hand milking will be officially abolished.
Until that period arrives the udder of the cow should be
washed and dried, the hands washed, and rinsed after
every cow has been milked, when the two hands should
grasp two of the teats. Each hand alternately loosens
its grasp, presses the udder with the thumb and forefinger,
quickly grasps the teats again, and passes down the milk.
The teats should never be wet to assist this action, as
wet milking is the most fertile cause of dirty or
contaminated milk, while to maintain it the fingers are
dipped into the pail, and thus become quickly plastered
with filth. When a pail is placed under the cow it receives
countless numbers of bacteria and particles of dirt during
the whole time it is exjDosed ; nor can this be prevented
without the milking-machine or milking in the open air,
although the latter plan is but an amelioration of the
trouble.
Meolianlcal v. Hantl Milking.
We have not only had numerous opportunities of seeing
cows milked by mechanical means since the machine was
D
34
MODERN DAIRY-r ARMING.
first introduced, but of witnessing tlie complete system of
manufacture of tlie several macliiues with wMcli we are
acquainted. The pail is completely enclosed, while above
it is a pulsator v^hich regulates the inflation and collapse
of the rubber cups which fit over the teats. ^ In various
instances known to us, either owing to visits to farms
or from letters of farmers describing their practice, large
herds are now milked by very small numbers of persons.
In one case three men milk and manage a herd of 100
cows, in another three girls milk seventy-six cows, while
in a third l,000gal. a week are drawn by one double
The lister Milldng-Machine al work.
and four single Lister machines. The points in favour of
mechanical milking are : —
Perfectly clean milk.
Large reduction in labour.
No bad udders.
Eapidity of milking.
The milk keeps longer.
The power necessary for running the machine can be
employed for electrically lighting the cow-house. Fresh
cows introduced into a herd take to machine milking
without trouble, and the men rapidly learn to manage
both engine and machine. The work should be even,
the parts requiring lubrication should be always well
MANAGEMIiNT OP 7Hi: H£BB.
35
oiled, and the machine cleaned and left in cold water
whei milking is completed. There is no evidence of
cows falling off in their yield ; on the other hand, cows
are now milking which were being milked twelve months
ago, and have never been dried.
Two features related to the new system of - milking
may be mentioned, both having come under our notice.
There is perhaps no point in relation to the housing of
cows which reflects so much on the cleanness of milk as
the absence of light during milking in winter. Cows are
still milked with -.the assistance of candles and paraffin
lamps. On one farm known to us the installation of the
machine was accompanied by the addition of a dynamo
and electric lamps sufficient in number to illupiinate the
entire collection of cows, not only with the result that the
work is all clean, but that both milkers and cows are
provided with that form of comfort which light alone
gives.
Strairing tlie Milk.
When milk has been drawn, whether for sale or the
manufacture of butter or cheese, it is essential to remove
the dirt which it contains. At the present time it is
passed through a hair or metal sieve or a piece of cheese
cloth, neither of which 'retains the minor particles, which
Prize Milk Filter. Dairy Outfit Company.
invariably pass through it. Much the best plan is to
strain through a layer of cotton-wool, so arranged that
the milk does not pass over what has abeady been retained
on the wool. Where the two systems of straining have
been compared side by side, the milk which has passed
36
m.ODU'RN DAIEY-rARMING.
ttrougt the sieve or the cloth still provides a sediment,
whereas that passed through the cotton-wool is practically
free. It must here be remarked that in both cases
the soluble portion of the dirt remains, thus indicating
that milk can be clean only when it is drawn out of contact
with the air.
Refrigerating or Cooling.
This question has already been discussed in a previous
chapter, but it is important to mention that the two
form.s of refrigerator have equally valid claims in practice.
The vertical cooler is so arranged that as the cold water
passes through the inside of the tubes from the bottom
to the top the milk passes over the outside from the top
to the bottom, as it leaves the receiving pan into which
it is poured. Thus the milk, already partially cooled, passes
over the bottom tubes in which the water is at its coldest.
Although it is properly claimed that by this process
of cooling the thin layer of milk is submitted to aeration
as it flows, it must not be forgotten that it takes a heavy
MANAGEMENT 01" THE HEBB.
37
toll of bacteria and particles of dust from tlie air at the
same time. For tliis reason milk thus cooled should be
cooled in the open air. The other form of cooler is of
lenticular form, the milk passing over the circular reservoirs
in a similar way, while the water passes through them,
built as they are one upon the other. There can, however,
be no perfect cooling without water much colder than
Milk Churn with Model Lid and Fastener, Splash, Dust, and Rain Proof.
that obtained on nineteen farms out of twenty. On a
large dairy farm the milk ought to be cooled by a real
refrigerator, and to such a degree that it can always
be dispatched at 40° F. in hot weather. With the
assistance of a refrigerating plant it could be retained
when prices are low and sold when, owing to drought
38
MOBERM DAIRY-FARMING.
or great scarcity, prices are liigli. Milk cooled in tliis
way will keep twelve to twenty-four hours longer than
is possible in the ordinary practice of the farm.
Railway MUk Churns.
Milk is sent to London in cans, improperly called
churns, which are tall, and much larger in diameter at
the bottom than at the top. Both top and bottom are
fortified with stout rims, the hd being usually fixed inside
the top rim, and sometimes also provided with a rim.
The rim of the churn does not prevent rain passing into
the milk ; but this may be prevented by a lid which
completely covers the mouth of the churn. Farmers
largely ignore these details, and are wise to look for
strength and economy in the vessels they buy. The
milk churn is gauged inside, and usually holds 17gal. —
the obsolete and illegal barn of 16gal. and sixteen
half pints, it having been the custom to require the pro-
ducer to give one half pint to every gallon to make up for
the loss in retailing. This loss, of course, never occurs, for
skilful distributors are quite able to serve their customers
and still to return with some milk, or sell it and put the
money into their pockets, as so many have done.
Buying a Cow.
No man can expect to succeed as a dairy-farmer unless
he is able to select his own stock. Large sums may be
lost in buying cows which have no value for milk. Age,
infirmity, a blind teat, a diseased udder, imperfect type,
or the propensity to milk well for a few weeks and then
to fall off — all these faults must be guarded against.
A good cow should be in her prime, having produced
two to five calves. She should possess fine horns which
are never too long, a long head with a broad muzzle,
and dew on her nose, full eyes, a fine neck and forequarter,
getting broader towards the hips, which should be wide
apart, and without those bunches of beef which are common
on the rump of so many pedigree cows of beef-making
type. The belly should be large, the udder broad, built
well forward, full between the thighs, and globular, but
MANAGEMENT Or THE HERD.
39
never pendent, provided with four medium-sized teats
placed well apart, all of which should give milk without
trouble. A good cow should breathe freely and without
efiort ; she should chew the cud when at ease, her ears
should be warm, her coat soft, and her skin mellow and
loose on the body. A cow which is short and thick in
build, with a short head and neck, and a rump which is
heavily fleshed, is seldom a milker, and should be strictly
avoided ; she should be docile, sleek, standing square on
the legs, and looking a picture of health and contentment.
A cow has no incisor teeth in the upper jaw, but eight
in the lower jaw, and thirty-two teeth in all. Although
a young cow may be recognised by her teeth, for she
has not a full mouth until she is three and a half
years old, it is more difficult to determine even
approximately the age of an old cow, and then alone by
the condition of her teeth. The central incisors appear
in a heifer at the age of about twenty-two months, the
second pair at two and a half years, the third pair at three
years, and at three and a half years her outside moisors.
Cows kept in a stall and fed on soft food may not push
their teeth through so quickly, whereas m those which
consume coarse foods the teeth may appear earher.
Although it is customary to ask for a warranty with
a horse, it is not the practice to do so with a cow, f or^ in
any case it is worthless. The purchaser of a cow which
is said to be in calf must satisfy himself, for no honourable
man can give him a guarantee, unless the calf can be felt,
as it can be about five months after service, and when felt
it will respond by its movement. Nor can a seller justly
warrant a cow to supply milk of either a given quality
or quantity. No figures should be accepted in _ this
matter, unless the yield is recorded systematically in a
book kept for the purpose, as the result of regular weighing,
not measuring.
A cow which calves in the spring produces most of
her milk in May, June, and July, usually faUing ofi as the
summer grass dries and as the grass fails. With a
diminution of the yield there is an increase m the fat
percentage, and this increase may continue until tue
40
MODERN DAIRY-rARMING.
animal is dried ofi, nine, ten, or eleven months after
calving, altliougli some cows continue to milk after a year
has expired.
Drying the Cow.
Under all circumstances six weeks should elapse between
drying and calving. The cow should be maintained in
good but not fat condition, and as far as possible she
should earn her own living by grazing on a not too rich
or luxuriant pasture. She needs the exercise which may
prevent an attack of milk fever, from which so many cows
die. ^ On the other hand, a cow which is soon due to calve,
if tied in a stall or left in a loose box and fed liberally,
may put on flesh and incur the not very unusual penalty.
A fleshy cow should receive a drench of 8oz. of Epsom
salts dissolved in two quarts of cold water two or three
times within the last four days before calving.
It should be remembered in relation to drying that
when a cow falls ofi in her yield of milk and gives no more
than two quarts it is better to dry her at once and to
deduct the meal from her ration. So small a yield is not
worth the cost of feeding and labour, while continuous
milking may do harm to the calf, which now makes a
great demand on the cow.
Importance of Grooming.
All cows should be groomed. The skin receives a
healthy tone from the friction, while the coat is soon
loaded with dirt and bacteria, which find their way into
the milk. The maintenance of the health of a herd largely
depends upon cleanliness, which is one of the first rules of
life in the domestic animal as well as in man. CleanUness
is promoted by the provision of movable tubs for the
mixed food or mangers fixed in the floor. This gives
more room for the cow and prevents her Ipng on manure,
which during winter plasters the haunches and soils the
udder and teats.
Calving.
Although it is the custom in this country to calve the
large majority of cows in the spring, it is obvious that the
MANAGEMENT OF THE HERD.
41
increased value of milk in tlie winter necessitates aiitumii
calving as well. Many farmers prefer to produce most
of their milk in the summer, owing to the diminished cost
of feeding on grass and to the fact that in cheese-making
districts it is essential to obtain all they possibly can
between April and October. It shoidd be remembered,
however, that in most years the yield falls with the hot
weather of July and August, unless provision is made
by the production of forage which is not likely to fail.
On a milk-selling farm it is quite as important to calve
cows in September and October as in March, and this is
especially the case where care is taken to preserve grass
in sufficient abundance to feed them, except upon occasional
very cold days, right up to the end of December. For
many years past milk has been so scarce in mid-winter
that prices have been exceptionally high, and farmers
who do not bind themselves by contracting have done
exceedingly well.
The average time which elapses between service and
calving is 284 days. Some cows calve earlier, while
others are delayed. The calf may be felt by gently
pressing the inside of the thumb and the forefinger on
the right side of the abdomen, between the fifth and sixth
month ; and from this time forward it usually responds.
Approaching parturition is recognised chiefly by the
expansion of the udder and the enlargement of the genital
organ. In summer the cow about to calve may still be
left on a pasture, but not kept with or near to the herd,
with the result that she will usually calve without any
help. In cold or severe weather she had better be put in
a loose box provided with very clean straw. When calving
commences the fore feet of the calf first make their
appearance, and with each throe the body comes forward,
being usually expelled without any assistance. If difficulty
arises and it appears to be certain that assistance is
required, a fine tough rope should be obtained, and a
noose passed round the fore feet. A couple of men should
then take hold of the other end and pull well, yet gently,
when the farmer gives the word, which he will with each
throe, this action ceasing at its expiration. It usually
42
MODERN DAIRY-FARMING.
happens that with patience and great care all will go well.
Should there be any other form of presentation than the
fore feet a skilled vet. should be placed in charge of the
job, which may be of a highly dangerous character to the
cow and calf.
All experienced stock-breeders are aware that the
placenta or after-birth follows the calf, although its
appearance may be delayed. Should it, however, after
abnormal delay not be expelled, or after partial expulsion
remain attached to the cow, no attempt should be made
by a non-professional man to remove it by force. As
its adherence means danger to the health of the cow, the
first course to pursue is to syringe the passage through
which it has passed with a mixture of 1 part of carbolic
acid to 50 parts of water twice in each day. Although
there are methods of removing the placenta, it is the wisest
course to place the cow in charge of a veterinary surgeon
at once.
After calving the cow may be left with her calf with
tepid water beside her to drink and a warm bran mash,
which may be followed at a normal interval with a second
mash mixed with boiled or steamed roots and some extra
good hay. Under ordinary conditions she will soon be
fit to turn out with the herd, but care must be taken in
cold, windy, or rainy weather to prevent a chill by
exposure, and to help her to recover her strength. If it
is exceptionally cold she may be protected with a rug.
A newly-born calf is soon on its legs, when it is not
long before finding its way to the udder ; and it should be
encouraged to drink, the first milk or colostrum being
exceptionally good for it. We have already discussed
the question of rearing the calf.
It will now be convenient to refer to the subject of
Abortion in the cow, which is usually caused by a micro-
organism communicated by an aifected animal. The
trouble, and it is a very serious one, is therefore contagious,
and no care should be regarded as too great to prevent
its introduction into a herd by a newly-purchased cow.
A cow usually casts her calf from this cause during the
fifth month, and if she is with the herd the chances are
MANAGEMENT OP THE HEHO.
43
that others will be attacked by the disease. The first
thing is to remove and isolate the cow, and to bury the
calf and all that has fallen with it, well covering the whole
matter with lime. The spot on which the abortion took
place, if in the field, should be well disinfected, and the
herd removed elsewhere. The next course is to provide
the following solution : — 3oz. of alcohol (specific gravity 36),
with glycerine, and 2|dr. of perchloride of mercury (a
poison) in 20 pints of pure water, and with this to wash
the tails and organs of every cow daily for some days,
fortifying them at the same time with good food and
keeping them out in the air as much as possible. If a
cow is due to calve within four months she is not likely
to be affected with the calf she carries. No cow which
has aborted should be served again until the expiration
of the nine months she ought to have gone, and then only
if she is " clean " and in robust health. Nor should a bull
be used which has been in contact with a cow which lias
aborted, unless this condition is fulfilled.
Chapter IV.
HOUSING.
The subject of housing and the equipment of the cow-
stalls might easily occupy a volume, so varied are the
materials which are employed in construction and so
numerous the methods of arranging the stalls, the mangers,
and the various other fixtures which are required for a
herd of cows. In this coimtry cows are usually stalled
in pairs with partitions between. In old buildings which
are cramped and badly adapted to the work the cubic
space per cow is usually much too small, the ventilation
bad, and the drainage worse, the floors being frequently
soaked with the accumulated manure of years. In new
buildings, which are larger, lighter, and more perfectly
ventilated, the stalls are ranged in rows, either tail
to tail with a wide passage between, and the heads of
the cows facing the walls, or head to head with a similar
passage dividing and narrower passages behind them.
In the former case the food is taken from the barrows
behind the cows to the mangers and racks, while in the
latter it is drawn down the central passage and the mangers
filled on either side at one operation. This is much the
better plan, saving time and labour, while it is more cleanly
at all times. Where, however, a building is so narrow that
three passages are impossible the tail to tail system is the
most convenient, but it is much the less economical, whether
as regards the time expended, the food provided, or the
health of the cows.
HOUSING.
45
A Model Cow-house.
A cow-house should be wide, high, well ventilated from
above, and well lit. Apart from Ught jsassing through
the windows, which should be open in summer for
ventilation, it is well to provide light in the roof by
the removal of slates and tiles and the insertion of
glass. In winter, when the building is dark from four
in the afternoon until eight on the following morning,
during which hours almost the whole of the work is
performed, artificial light is essential, and there is none
of such value as that provided by electricity. Candles are
Large Cowshed fitted with Young's Tubular Fittings and Paving.
insufficient and costly, while paraffin lamps are dangerous,
disagreeable in use, soiling the hands, occupying much time
in preparation and cleaning, and never providing sufficient
light. Where power is employed by a fixed engine used
for chaffing, pulping, and grinding, or, in a more modern
sense, for working the mechanical milker, the additional
cost of a dynamo and electric lamps is quickly paid for in
the greater comfort of the cows and the happiness and
convenience of the men, for the building can be made
almost as light as at midday.
46
MOBEBrH DAIRY-rAEMIlTG.
The floors of the passages should be well constructed
of concrete, but the kerbs of the gutters are better made
of black grooved fire-brick. The floors of the stalls,
however, open up another question. The best we have
ever seen in practice are made of beateii earth laid upon
a chalk foundation and well levelled. If chalk is kept
upon the premises the holes made by the hind feet of the
cows are easily mended. If the floor runs right up to the
front partition which separates the stall from the central
passage so much the better ; it will give the cows more
room and materially help in preventing them soiling
themselves with manure, although it may be remarked
that many practical men prefer exceptionally short stalls,
which compel the cows to drop their dung in the gutter
behind, this gutter being made shallow and wide with a
longer drop from the stall than from the passage opposite.
A long stall may be provided where there is no manger,
and after an examination of almost every system which has
been devised — and we have seen them in various countries —
we arrive at the conclusion that there is no simpler, less
costly, or more economical and handy system than that
of providing the cows with rations in well-made wooden
tubs which have been painted inside and out, and this is
the practice in some parts of Yorkshire. Bach tub is
removed after the cows are fed, conveyed to the food
preparation floor, filled, and returned at the next meal.
The additional space provided for the cows afJords
them greater ease and convenience and keeps them
cleaner. If a , manger is regarded as essential it should
be made of semicircular fireclay, and built so that it
can be flushed with water from i tap fixed at one end
and carried ofi at the other. It has long been the custom
to provide racks over the manger for the reception of hay ;
but where the tub system is employed no racks are needed,
for the hay can be placed upon the dry floor in moderate
quantities at a time, and if it is of good quality it will not
be wasted. A rack is an additional expense in construction
and maintenance and has no economical value.
The partitions between each pair of cows, usually
made of wood and built short, are now frequently
HOUSING.
47
constructed of tubular iron, galvanised or painted {see
illustration, p. 45), while a bar of the same material passes
in front of the cows in the place of a partition between
the stall and the central passage. This system is clean,
simple, substantial, and much to be commended.
The less material employed, however, in equipment
the better. In some cases water is laid on to the
manger — a small receptacle in the centre of each pair
Young's Flush Concrete Separate Mangers.
of cows being filled automatically. Although this appears
to be ideal it is not a success in practice, the water being
frequently tainted with food dropped into it, while the
mechanism gets out of order. Further, it is only needed
during the winter season. The walls of the building
should be smooth, preferably finished in Parian cement
artd limewashed, this washing being conducted a,t least
48
MODERN DAIRY-rAEMING.
twice a year, as well for the sake of purity and cleanliness
as appearance. Tlie cow-house should be ceiled in some
way ; buildings which are only covered with tiles or
slates are frec[uently the abode of cobwebs and other
accumulations, with the result that the atmosphere is
contaminated, together with the cows, the food they
consume, and the milk which is drawn into the pails. To
this end room should be made for a loft overhead, in
which hay, cake, and other foods can be stored, the ceiling
being covered with matchboard, stained and varnished.
The most common practice of tying up cows is with the
use of the chain, one end of which passes round the neck,
while the other is fastened by a ring to a vertical rod,
upon which it slides in order to give the cow more freedom.
Some farmers have introduced the American system of
looping the cow to the manger. A metal loop of tubular
iron is fixed between the travis of the manger and a narrow
beam above. This loop opens and revolves at will as the
cow moves her head, but it is unsightly and costly, while it
provides no advantage which is not supplied by the chain.
The cow should be pro^dded with a bed of wheat-straw
or peat-moss, although sawdust and even shavings are
sometimes employed instead.
The rood-Store.
Although there are many methods of communication
between the food-store, the coohng-house, and the
cow-house, it is essential that it should be convenient
and time-saving. The food should be as near the cattle
as possible, and prepared upon a clean, smooth, hard
concrete floor. It is therefore requisite that each material
used in its composition should be stored near at hand.
Thus the hay may be kept overhead, being packed in
trusses as it cornes from the rick from time to time. If a
chaff-cutter is in the same apartment, communicating with
the engine by a belt, the chafi can be cut in the loft and
passed through a trap-door on to the floor below it.
Similarly, cake can be broken on the floor itself, and roots
pulped, these being passed by the feeder from a store
close at hand direct into the hopper of the machine ready
HOUSING.
49
cleaned. We believe there is no more economical or con-
venient system, as part of the feeding process, than the
provision of a grist-mill, by means of which a farmer is
able to provide much better food than if he buys crushed
Young's Fodder Carrier on Overhead Rail.
oats, maize-meal, middlings, bran, and barley-meal from
a merchant, inasmuch as, having purchased or grown the
corn from which it is produced, he knows precisely what
he is using. Where brewers' grains are used as part of a
50
MODERN DAIRY-FAKMING.
winter ration — and it applies equally to summer — a pit
should be provided outside tlie food-store, for the simple
reason that where they are kept for any length of time
o-rains decompose and emit a disagreeable odour, which
fs somewhat' neutraUsed when they are mixed with
other food. The pit should be covered with a roof
to prevent the entrance of rain. The best method of
English Travelling Food Carrier.
conveying food to the mangers is by the assistance of a
large galvanised food-barrow. The manure dropped by
the cattle should be removed twice daily, and either shot
upon a dung-heap outside — this heap also being under
cover — or directly into a cart, and taken daily into
the fields, for in this way nothing is lost. Where the
manure is shot into the yard in the open it is washed
HOUSINO.
51
by rain and partially destroyed, or it is allowed to ferment,
with the result that in a few months it loses one-half of
its weight and almost one-half of its fertilising matter.
Although Hquid manure is of greater value per cow thau
the soUd manure, it is almost invariably wholly or partially
lost. If drained into a tank it ferments and parts with its
ammonia, which is volatile, or it is diluted with rain-water
to such an extent that it is never carried away until it is
next to worthless. This liquid should be taken to the
fields at least every second day if loss is to be prevented.
The Cooling-House.
Where milk is sold it is necessary to cool it, and each
pail is emptied by the milker into a receiving pan above
the refrigerator as fast as it is drawn. It should, however,
be passed through a strainer in the process. The cooling-
house should be constructed at a convenient spot, for if
it is at one end of the building the milkers have to walk
a considerable distance in doing their work. The cooUng-
house should be free from the contamination of the cow-
house, and should therefore not communicate directly
with it. It should be well ventilated, floored with concrete,
kept well limed, and provided with abundance of water.
The nulking-pails, railway churns, and other implements
employed in the work should be cleaned in another apart-
ment where a copper is provided, and always put out of
doors under a shed to dry in the open air.
Valiie o£ Recording-Sheets.
One of the most important features in the cattle-house
is the series of recording-sheets, which should hang upon a
board behind each cow, her name being at the top, together
with her age, the date when she calved, and when she is due
to calve again. On this sheet the weight of milk produced
morning and night should be recorded, and each sheet
handed to the employer by the foreman once a week. A
glance at this sheet will easily tell in a moment whether
anything is wrong with the cow, inasmuch as under given
conditions she immediately drops off in her yield of^ milk.
The recording system involves the practice of weighing
the milk of each cow as it is drawn.
Chapter V.
DAIRY CATTLE.
Although well acquainted with, the cattle of the European
Continent, we know of no variety — with one exception,
the Norman — which can approach the best breeds of
this country for the production of milk, butter, and cheese.
The first of British dairy cows is undoubtedly the Dairy
Shorthorn, which must not be confounded with the
Pedigree Shorthorn. Among cows of this type there are
many that produce milk at some time in their career
which contains less than 3 per cent, of fat, this being the
Government standard. On the other hand, public com-
petitions have shown that there is a still larger number
producing milk which is as rich as that of the Jersey.
Apparently, therefore, it is comparatively easy to form a
herd of Dairy Shorthorns quite ec[ual in this direction to
a heid of Jerseys. The Dairy Shorthorn is found at her
best in Cumberland and Westmorland, Lancashire, parts
of Yorkshire, Cheshire, Buckinghamshire, and contiguous
parts of neighbouring counties. She is a big-framed,
gentle beast, with a mellow skin, and colour which varies
from red or white to red-and-white and roan, or roan-
and-white. She weighs about 13501b., is easily fattened
for the butcher when her milking days are over, and
produces from 600 to 1200 gallons of milk in a year — in
some few cases slightly more. This cow is a good butter
and cheese maker and producer of milk for sale. She is
broad across the hips and wide between the buttocks,
giving ample room for the udder, which is large and
54
MODERN DAIRY-FAEMING.
broad and provided with large teats set wide aj)art No
cow possesses so large a milk mirror, or escntclieon, as
the Dairy Shorthorn.
The Devon cow is smaller than the Shorthorn, weighing
from 11501b. to 12001b., and producing from 550 to
1000 gallons of milk, which on the average is slightly
superior in quality. She is a deep rich red in colour, and
of a broader type and less meaty build than the Devon of
the show-yard, which provides such excellent beef. The
milking Devon common to the south of the county must
not be confused with the North Devon or Somerset breed.
She is responsible for a large proportion of the clotted
cream and the rich butter made in Devonshire — butter
which realises a much better average price than that made
in any other part of the kingdom, if we except that of the
Channel Islands.
The Red Poll dairy cow is again of a different type from
that of the Eed Poll which is kept for beef-production,
both strains being bred in East Anglia, although herds are
occasionally met with in other parts of the country. She
is a lighter red than the Devon, and weighs slightly less,
while her milk-yield is approximately similar. The milk
of the Devon, however, is rather richer than that of the
Red Poll, and there are more cows of the Eastern Counties
breed yielding poor milk. The Red Poll is docile, well
formed, handsome, and fairly fleshy. Her udder is not
so large as that of the Shorthorn, nor, like the Devon, is
it so well formed as it might be.
The Ayrshire cow is the native Dairy breed of Scotland,
and is chiefly bred in Ayrshire and Wigtownshire, where
large herds are kept for the manufacture of cheese. This
variety is hardy, but small, weighing about 1,0001b., and
although it is said that the Ayrshire will live and thrive on
poor pastures, it is well known that, like other varieties of
cattle, it responds to good feeding and is capable of yielding
a very large quantity of milk, and milk of rich quahty.
Ayrshire breeders by the adoption of the recording system
have considerably improved the milking character of their
stock by rejecting poor milkers and breeding from rich
ones. The data published in the transaction? of the
56
MODEKN DAIBY-rARMING.
Highland Society are most instructive and conclusive on
this point. The Ayrshire may be red, brown, yellow, or
black-and-white, white usually predominating, some cows
being almost entirely white with small spots or splashes
on the coat. The form of the horn is peculiar to this
breed, growing to some length upwards and outwards
and forwards. The fore part of the body of the Ayrshire
is slender, expanding towards the hips, which are wide
apart. The udder is wide, long, and flat, falling no lower
than the base of the abdomen, while the teats are small,
and for this reason women are chiefly employed as milkers
in the dairies of Scotland.
The Jersey is the richest milker of our native breeds,
her milk sometimes producing 7 per cent, of fat, while no
cow but the Guernsey produces milk or butter of such
rich colour. ^ The Jersey is the best butter-producer in
the world, if we regard her claims to quantity, quaUty,
and colour. She has small horns, which are fine and
black at the points, almost yellow at the base in choice
specimens, and curved inwards, the tips almost meeting.
The coat has black points, while the colour varies — from
silver-grey, mulberry, fawn, and golden to golden-fawn. The
yellow and oily nature of skin is shown within the ears, on
the tail, beneath the thighs, and sometimes upon the udder.
The form of the body is fawn-like, being extremely slender,
the face slightly dished, and the tail lying between the
two pin bones. The skin is soft, thin, and loose, and the
cow, while in the picture of health, is so thin that her
coat is apparently stretched across her body structure.
The Jersey weighs from 9001b. to 9501b —British-bred
cows being the largest — while the milk may contain
from 4 to 7 per cent, of fat, its quantity reaching from
450gal. in a poor specimen to 1200gal. in an exceptional
one.
The Guernsey cow is, as a rule, shghtly larger and
somewhat coarser in build than the Jersey, but very fine
specimens, which are rare — indeed, much rarer than in
the case of the Jersey — are of similar form and almost
equally fawn-like. The udder, too, is exceptionally good,
if not quite so globular. These cows are good milkers,
58
m:ob£rk dairy-fabming.
and in the island of Guernsey produce milk and butter of
the very finest quality. The colour of the Guernsey is
orange or orange-and-white, the shades prevailing being
a light rather than a dark orange. The Guernsey weighs
nearly 10001b. ; she produces milk of rich colour, and in
quantities varying from 500 to 1300 gallons — some
specimens, however, have produced still greater weights
than the maximum of these quantities and taken their places
amongst the finest milkers known to the dairy industry.
The Guernsey is not cultivated in this country as it
deserves. It has long been separately classified at
ezhibitions, but for some reason it has not taken hold of
the public taste so much as the Jersey, although excep-
tional specimens are perhaps more profitable animals.
A good Guernsey stands 50in. at the hi]DS and measures in
girth round the middle 90in., these figures being typical
of prize animals which we have examined at public
exhibitions.
The Kerry is usually black, with sometimes a small
splash of white on the body or, as is more usual, on the
udder. Although a very small variety on its native
mountains, where specimens are poor in the extreme, it
improves in both size and form as well as in condition
when transferred to English pastures. The improved
Kerry as we know it in this country is an excellent milker,
producing some 50 per cent, more milk than the Kerry
from the county which gives it its name. Some idea may
be gained of the local value of this beast when at Kenmare
Fair, where we have seen some two or three thousand
beasts collected, the highest price of the day, so far as could
be ascertained, was £5. A good Kerry weighs from
7001b. to 8001b., and stands 45in. high at the hips. Her
length reaches 78in., while her girth is a similar figure — ■
these measurements being also taken from prize stock.
The milk of the Kerry is much richer than an average
sample sold to the consumer, containing as it does some
3'8 per cent, of fat. The breed is therefore exceptionally
useful to small occupiers of land or small cow-keepers, who
prefer to supply their own families with dairy produce.
It makes good butter and excellent cheese. The Dexter
DAIRY CATTLE
59
Kerry is a still smaller but more compact animal, its
build resembling tbat of a diminutive Shorthorn, whereas
the modern Kerry is very symmetrical, for in form it
somewhat resembles the more delicate Bretonne of France.
The Dexter is an excellent dairy cow, and, making allowance
for its size, it also is worthy of recommendation.
The Dutch, or British Holstein, cow, to give it the name
which has been provided by the British Holstein Society,
is an old-established breed in Holland, and one which
centuries ago is believed to have influenced our early
strains of Shorthorn. This is a cow weighing some
13001b., and producing very large quantities of milk.
In the most important competition known in agricultural
history — that at St. Louis — it was a Dutch cow which
took the first prize after a test of 120 days' duration.
During this period the cow — Shadybrook Gerben —
produced 81011b. of milk, or SOOgal., containing 3 per
cent, of fat and producing by calculation 3301b. of butter,
or a fraction more than the second-prize Jersey cow in the
same competition. The Holstein cow is but one of several
native breeds of Holland, all of which are black or black-
and-white, and in many ways identical, although they are
really maintained as separate families. The head is large,
long, and somewhat ill-formed, the horns of medium size
and varying in shape ; while the body in the best specimens
is compact, level at the top, provided with well-sprung
ribs, a large abdomen, narrow forequarters, broad hips,
and strong buttocks, with a good milk- vein and an excep-
tionally large udder, which well fills up the space between
the legs. As this cow is a deep milker, although the milk
is exceptionally poor, it is acquiring favour, and will
probably be much improved within the next few years
owing to the recent introduction by the Holstein Society of
a considerable number of first-class cattle from Holland.
Chapter VI.
FEEDING.
The food supplied to the cow must be sufficient to
provide for lier maintenance, i.e., for the production of
heat, energy, and repair, and for the manufacture of
milk. Science and practice combined have enabled us
to learn with some precision the approximate cjuantity
of food to supply to a cow of given weight when she is
giving milk and when she is dry. We learn, too, from the
same sources what form that food should take, and in
what proportion we should provide the jyrotein, so essential
for the repair of the muscular system of the body and the
production of the casein of the milk, the carboJiydrates, the
main source of heat and energy, and the fat, which
plays a similar role. So far no place has been assigned
to the mineral matter in the compilation of rations, for
the possible reason that as a heavy consumer of coarse
vegetable matter the cow obtains from this source all
that she requires. We may, then, justly assume that
the dairy cow is fed with much greater care than her
owner, and that in consequence her productive powers and
her Kfe are prolonged.
Selecting the Food.
A knowledge of the requirements of the cow and of
the composition of foods materially assists the dairy-farmer
in making his selections on the market, as in growing his
TENDING.
61
crops, and therefore in feeding lier cheaply. In practice
those foods which are rich in carbohydrates — roots, straw,
hay, and oats — are grown upon the farm, while those
which are rich in protein and oil, the pulses and cakes
in particular, are purchased, farmers regarding it as more
economical to sell their own grain and pulse and to
purchase brewers' grains with cakes and cereal oiials
which have been imported. It would be still more
economical to grow forage crops rich in protein — lucerne,
clover, sainfoin, and vetches — together with maize, for
winter consumption, either as silage or hay, and to buy
less concentrated food, although for some occult reason
this most sensible plan is seldom adopted.
The ration which is prepared for a cow during winter
for consumption as she stands in the stall is probably
richer in nutrient matter, where the feeding is good, than
the grass she obtains from the pastures in summer. While,
however, grass is an ideal food, and more easily assimilated
than dry foods, it is better adapted to the production of
milk and for maintaining a cow in good health.
A Well-balanced Dietary Essential.
In order that a cow may receive food which is well
balanced, as are good pasture grass and hay, and there-
fore able to provide for her varied requirements, it is
necessary to understand what is meant by the term.
A good sample of grass contains 2-5 per cent, of digestible
albuminoids (protein), 10 per cent, of carbohydrates, and
•5 per cent, oil, while a good sample of hay contains
9-2 per cent, of albuminoids, 42 1 per cent, of carbohydrates,
and 1'5 per cent, oil, giving a ratio of albuminoids to
carbohydrates and fat of 1 to 5-1, and in the case of the
grass 1 to 44. Thus for every pound of digestible
albuminoids 4-41b. of carbohydrates and fat (or oil) are
required, the fat being estimated at 2-3 times the value of,
the carbohydrates and added to their weight.
We have next to consider what quantity of these
constituents of food are necessary for a cow of given
weight, both dry and in milk. In the various investiga-
tions which have been made to determine this point the
62
rations supplied to cows have been based upon a weight
of 10001b. Thus the total weight of a ration as well as
that of each of the food constituents is increased or
diminished in accordance with the weight of the cow—
i.e., whether she weighs more or less than 10001b.
It will now be convenient to give a brief description
of these constituents.
Food-Constituents.
Protein is a term applied to those constituents of food
which contain nitrogen. In this country the constituents
that possess nutritive value are usually described as
albuminoids, which form the chief proteid group.
Examples of albuminoids or digestible and nutritious
protein are found in the gluten of cereals, the legumen
of pulse, the casein of milk, and the albumen of egg. In
some continental countries all the albuminoids of food are
known as albumen, or as digestible protein, while crude
foods such as pulse, in which they are found in abundance,
are termed nitrogenous foods. As protein is essential in
the production of the casein of milk as well as for the
repair of the nitrogenous parts of the animal body, it
must be supplied, hence the great demand for rich cakes
and meals. The quantity needed, however, is less than
is generally supposed, and if that quantity is given in
excess money is wasted, while extra pressure is put upon
the digestion of the cow. It is true that the excess may
appear in the dung and urine ; but fertility so obtained
is costly in the extreme. As protein contains carbon,
it can be and is utilised in the animal system for the
development of energy and heat and the production of fat.
The cost of protein prohibits its economical use in the
presence of the much cheaper carbohydrates, which dairy-
farmers so liberally produce for themselves.
The carbohydrates of food include those nutritive
materials which are the most abundant of all in vegetable
life, for they are not found in animal foods, with the
exception of milk. The most important is starch, which is
the chief constituent of grain and which forms the bulk
of all forms of cereal flour. )Sugar, gum, and cellulose,
PEEDING.
63
the material of which the cells of plants are constructed,
are also carbohydrates. Although protein, fat, and the
minerals present in foods are all indispensable, starch
plays the greatest part in the feeding of stock, and for
this reason it is largely produced on the farm, protein and
oil being much more conrmonly purchased.
The role of fat and oil in food is not yet fully defined,
but while they are capable of producing 2-29 times as much
heat as starch and sugar, they are relatively more expensive
to buy. While fat will produce fat in the animal consuming
it, and while it probably directly assists in the production
of the fat in milk, it has been demonstrated that milk
can be produced equally well upon food which has been
wholly deprived of its fat. Fat or oil is not therefore
directly essential to milk production, yet the experienced
farmer is well aware of the value it confers upon cattle
consuming it, as in linseed cake. It gives mellowness _ to
the skin and brightness to the coat, and by its laxative
action confers upon the system a condition which not only
contributes to but is an indication of health.
Too little importance is bestowed upon the value of the
mineral constituents of food. If the milk supplied to
a calf were first deprived of the mineral matter it contains
the young animal would not be provided with bones, which
are chiefly constructed of phosphate of lime.
In the last analysis the health and, finally, the life of
the animal depend as much upon the mineral constituents
of food as upon the larger constituents. Fortunately,
and unlike man, who deprives so much of his food — e.g.,
the cereals by milling and vegetables by boihng— of
so large a portion of these natui-al ixunerals, and is
constantly suffering in consequence, the animal is fed
upon raw foods in which lime, iron, potash, phosphorus,
and other minerals are present, and so its health is
preserved.
The Ration Required.
The quantity and composition of the food required by
a healthy cow to enable her to maintain her weight and
condition depend upon that weight, upon the milk that
64
MOBERN DAIRY-FARMING.
she gives, the character of the food, its cost, where it is
bought, and to some extent on the season. In cold weather
a larger quantity of food is required to maintain the heat
of the body than in warm weather. When a cow is turned
out to graze she requires more food than when she is
resting in the stall, because her expenditure of energy is
greater. A large cow requires more food than a small
cow, and a cow giving 5gal. of milk demands more food
for its production than a cow giving 3gal. Some foods,
too, are more popular than others equally good, and
therefore it is that a farmer acquainted with the com-
position of foods can select them in accordance with
their price in the market.
The chief nitrogenous foods are peas, beans, almost
all cakes, clover, lucerne, sainfoin, and vetches, while
the carbonaceous foods— i.e., those rich in carbohydrates
and relatively poor in nitrogen — are the cereals, roots,
cabbage, hay, and straw. It is now generally assumed
that a cow weighing 10001b. requires 1511b. of digestible
dry matter as a purely maintenance ration. If she weighs
more the food is increased in proportion. For each
gallon of milk she produces she requires an extra pound of
this digestible dry matter, wHch may be described as
the digestible portion of the dry matter of foods wliich
remains when the water of combination has been entirely
driven ofi.
Thus a cow weighing 10001b. and givmg 4gal. of
milk should receive food which will provide her with
19ilb. of digestible dry matter. The next point to consider
is "how this ration should be composed. Practice has
confirmed the results of scientific investigation in this
matter and shown that the ration of a cow should contain
one part of digestible albuminoids to five and a half parts
of carbohydrates and fat, estimated as a carbohydrate by
multiplying by 2-29. Thus a sample of hay containing
9-2 per cent, of digestible protein, 42-8 per cent, of digestible
carboliydrates, and 1-5 per cent, of fat possesses a ratio
of 1 to 5-0 ; 42-8 + (1-5 x 2-29) = 46-2 ^ 9-2 = 5-0. If,
therefore, the ration was composed entirely of hay of
this quality it would be a little too rich in protein. But
FEEDIKa.
the error is easily rectified by the addition of a food
rich in carbohydrates or poor in protein — cereal meal on
the one hand or roots or straw on the other.
Food in its Relation to Milk Quality.
There is, however, another side to the question of
feeding which must not be overlooked. So far we have
discussed the question of food for the production of milk
without regard to the character of that milk. Where it
is employed in the manufacture of butter or cheese some
foods must be avoided, or they will either communicate
an undesirable flavour to or spoil the consistency of the
produce. Brewers' grains, tm-nips, cow cabbage, mangels
in quantities, inferior hay, linseed cake, peas, and beans
are all undesirable foods in a butter or cream dairy, in
which the closest attention must be paid to the feeding.
It should be pointed out, too, that no food is stable in
its composition — analyses are therefore always approximate,
sometimes wide. The value of hay depends first upon
the composition of the herbage and next upon how it
was saved. Hay which has been badly weathered loses
both protein and carbohydrates. One variety of mangels
contains more sugar than another ; one variety of oats may
contain 7 to 8 per cent, more waste than another which
is more popular. One pasture may be rich in clovers and
trefoils, and therefore in protein, while in a field over the
hedge there may be no clover at all These facts have
all to be estimated by the dairy-farmer in feeding his stock.
Young grass is richer than old grass, and it makes much
better hay. Grass, indeed, which has been left in
order to obtain a larger yield of hay may be no better
than straw owing to the shedding of its seed. Again,
grass which has been well manured with phosphate of
lime is richer than grass which is not manured at all ;
and this fact, combined with the larger yield which the
manure provides, is one of the most important of all the
facts which will lead to the increased prosperity of the farm.
Mangels of medium size and grown close together are richer
in food than very large mangels, while all mangels are richer
after long keeping than when they are Ufted and stored.
66
MODERN DAIBY-rABKING.
Food is improved in value by some forms of preparation.
Thus hay and straw chaffed and packed tightly in a barn
have a better and more appetising flavour than the raw
material ; vetches and all forms of green fodder are richer
and more digestible when they have lain twelve hours in the
sun ; hay improves in the rick ; while a mixture of foods —
prepared roots, chaff, and meals — are warmer and more
agreeable to the cows after heating or slight fermentation
than when the several materials are supplied raw. On
the other hand, all forms of dry food deteriorate if kept
in a damp store, and especially grain, meal, and cakes.
Brewers' grains, although pitted for winter consumption,
not only become partially putrid, emitting a strong odour
and acquiring a sour flavour, but they lose a large portion
of their nutritive value.
Cooking is not only an extravagant practice, but it
diminishes the nutritive value of food, unless the water
in which it is boiled is consumed. For all that, when
food is given hot, with the water used in its prepara-
tion, something is saved. A smaller quantity of the
carbohydrates and fat in the ration are employed in
maintaining the heat of the body, and when cows are
regularly drinking very cold water this fact cannot be
dismissed.
Chapter Vll.
MILK.
Milk is an opaque fluid containing the solid materials
fat, sugar, casein, with numerous minerals, all of which
are either dissolved or suspended in water, the quantity of
water in an average sample reaching 87|^ per cent.
Composition.
The fat of milk, which forms 88 per cent, of a good
sample of butter, exists in the form of globules which are
suspended in the milk and give it its colour. When
the fat has been removed from milk in the form of cream
the fluid remaining is known as skimmed or separated
milk, the term depending upon whether the cream ^ is
removed by hand or by mechanical separation. Skim
milk is white, and this is due to the presence of the
casein, part of which is suspended and part dissolved.
When both the fat and the casein have been removed
— and this is the case in the manufacture of cheese —
the fluid remaining is of a greenish-yellow colour, owing
to the presence of the sugar and the minerals. This
fluid is known as whey. Milk varies in composition, that
represented by the figures of the table on page 68 being
examples of the milk of a poor milker and of a rich
milker respectively, together with an average sample as
taken from a mixed herd of cows.
F 3
68
MODERN DAIRY-FARMING.
Composition of Milk.
Average qntility.
Low quality.
High quality.
3-55
2-61
5-29
3-45 ■)
4-83 [
8-39
9-25
Mineral mat tor
•72 )
83-46
87-4o
89-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
The examples showing high quality and low quality
respectively are taken from two cows which competed
in the milking trials at the London Dairy Show in 1912.
Quality.
The quality of milk varies with the age of the cow,
with the time which has elapsed since she calved, with the
hour of milking, and with the breed. Thus, a mature cow
produces richer milk than a heifer or a young cow. V/hen
a cow has calved several months, and has therefore
advanced in her period of lactation, she has fallen off in
her yield, and her milk is richer in proportion ; and so as
lactation proceeds there is a gradual increase in the fat
percentage. Again, when cows are milked at unequal
periods in the day the milk is poorer in the morning than
in the evening. This is the case, for example, when the
morning milking is at six o'clock and the evening milking
at four o'clock. But when milking is conducted at equi-
distant periods— t'.e., twelve hours apart — the quality is
almost identical in each case. The -r.rst milk drawn
from the udder, too, contains scarcely any fat, whereas the
last is extremely rich, and may contain iO per cent. This
accounts for the importance of stripping the cows after
milking. Cows of the Channel Islands and Devon breeds
produce richer milk than other breeds employed by the
dairy-fariuer ; but in all varieties of dairy cattle there are
both rich and poor milkers, and it is not difficult, if
the trouble is taken, to select a herd composed entirely
of rich milkers. Most herds, however, consist of cows
which produce between 3 and 4 per cent, of fat. If we
may suppose the existence of a herd of twenty-one cows
MILK.
69
of average type, the milk of each of which is tested when
it is normal, and the figures placed in the form of a table in
order of precedence — the best milker standing at the top —
we shall usually find that the eleventh cow in the column
will represent the average quality of the milk of the herd.
This fact equally applies to the quantity of milk supplied
by each cow ; and so it is that in each herd, whether it be
large or small, the cows which stand below the middle cow
are usually unprofitable servants, inasmuch as they not only
yield poorer milk than the average, but often less than
average quantity. This is one of the secrets of the
importance of the recording system, although so far few
farmers have cared either to try it or, having tried it, to
abide by its natural teaching — that is, the early disposal
of the offending unprofitable cows. Where this practice
is rigidly followed there is not the slightest difficulty in
gradually levelling up the character of the herd, for where
an improvement is effected both in the quality and quantity
of the milk produced the returns are increased accordingly.
Food Influences.
It is generally supposed that the food consumed by the
cow influences the quality of her milk. It certainly does
influence the colour, and this may be observed by the
richer tint of butter produced when cows are feeding upon
grass. But by no process of feeding can we increase the fat
percentage ; that is an inherent property which can only
be improved by breeding. If a cow is properly fed, or,
in other words, if she is receiving all she can assimilate,
no addition to her food can improve the quality of her
milk. On the same principle the employment of special
foods has sometimes been condemned, although with no just
cause. A cow, for example, has been supplied with all
the food she can utilise. To this food has been added a
particular cake or meal ; but no result has been observed.
Nor can it be, for the reason which has already been
advanced. The following facts will afford us some idea of
what a cow is able to perform.
In the great American contest between Shorthorn,
Jersey, Dutch, and Swiss cattle at St. Louis, in the conduct
70
MODERN DAIRY-PABMING.
of which £40,030' was expended, partly by the American
Government, the winning cow of the Dutch breed produced
milk containing 3-5 per cent, of fat, and in the course of
ninety days gave a total yield of 232 Ub. of crude fat,
equal to 3301b. of butter. It was calculated that this cow
secreted 136,000,000 fat globules per second, and that her
production of milk was equal to 2flb. per hour day and
night throughout the whole period. During the com-
petition this cow produced 9031b. of milk solids, or at the
rate of 7|lb. per twenty-four hours. This feat, too, was
accompanied by a gain in weight of 541b. The produce of
the second prize cow — a Jersey — was almost equal to that
to which reference has been made.
The health and condition of a cow practically governs
her powers of production, but it may be observed that
disposition or temperament plays an important pari:. A
contented, placid, docile cow is invariably the best milker.
On the other hand, where the cow is frightened by any
occurrence, or where she stands in fear of the man who
milks her, she is liable to fall ofi in her milk yield, and not
to return to her condition as a milker until the trouble is
removed.
Test for Piirlty.
The purity of milk is usually tested in the first place
by its specific gravity or density. As distilled water at a
temperature of 60 degrees, the barometer standing ^ at
30, weighs 101b. to the gallon, so milk under similar
conditions weighs, to give the two extremes, from
10-27lb. to 10-341b. per gallon. Employing these figures in
another way, the specific gravity of milk is therefore placed
at from 1-027 to 1-034. Milk of average quality, however,
almost invariably has a specific gravity of 1-023 to 1-032.
The variation of these figures is owing to a variation in the
composition of the milk. Thus, where a sample is rich in
fat, the other constituents remaining similar to those of
average milk, the specific gravity is lighter, because fat
is hghter than water. If, therefore, the fat is extracted
from milk the specifio gravity is increased, because we
have removed from it its lightest constituent. AVhere milk
71
possesses a specific gravity of less than 1-029 or where
it is more than 1-032 it may be suspected. Some persons
combine the specific gravity test with the cream test. In
adopting the latter method milk is poured into a narrow
tube without regard to temperature, and the depth of
the cream is noted by the gauge upon the glass. If
the cream is apparently deep, forming perhaps 15 to
2 ) per cent, of the whole, it is regarded as satisfactory.
Milk cannot be tested in this wa)', nor is the cream
tester reliable under any conditions. It is, however,
approximately reliable when, instead of a tube, a burette
is employed, this standing on a foot and reaching a
height of lOin, and being 2in. in diameter. If any
practitioner will test this question for himself he will
sometimes find that a cow which is known to be a rich
milker will produce milk which throws up a poor volume
of cream, whereas a cow which is a poor milker produces
a milk which throws up a large volume of cream. The
apparent inconsistency is found in the fact that in one
case the cream is extremely thick and in the other it
contains a large proportion of water. The best method
of testing milk is referred to in a later chapter. It
is important in all cases in ascertaining the specific
gravity or density of milk to see that the temperature
is at 60 degrees before the lactometer, or specific gravity
instrument, is used. The reason is that milk expands
or contracts in accordance with the temperature, and
therefore its density varies.
Cause of Souring.
The fermentation, or souring, of milk is caused by the
presence of bacteria, whicli are more active in warm milk
-and in warm weather than in cool milk or in cool weather.
Although milk has been drawn from the udder in a sterile
condition, and so kept for a long period, it is iindoubtedly
true that under normal conditions the milk which is drawn
is contaminated by the bacteria which exist in the passage
of the teat of the cow. Some milkers are instructed to
draw the first milk upon the floor of the cow-house— an
improper proceeding— with the object of maintaining the
MODERN DAIBy-tAKMINfl.
purity of the fluid, but bacteria are still found in the sample
afterwards drawn. The bacteria common to milk cannot
be excluded, nor is it desirable that they should be. They
are practically essential in the manufacture of butter and
cheese. The danger hes in the entrance of disease-
producing, or pathogenic, bacteria into milk, hence the
enormous importance of maintaining perfect conditions
of cleanliness. The first thing is to provide for a healthy
environment, and the second is to perfectly cool the milk.
In some cases the milk contains a very small number of
bacteria; in others the number is so prodigious that it
becomes practically unfit for sale and rapidly ferments
and spoils. There are no conditions so perfect as those
provided by the milking-machine, which enables the farnier
to draw milk from the cows entirely out of contact with
the air in which bacteria float with myriads of particles
of dust and dirt. Apart from this excellent contrivance,
the best method is to milk the cows in the field, taking
care to maintain their coats and udders in a high condition
of cleanliness. As already shown, the milkmg-machme
is now actually working in the fields in the summer season,
so that a double efiort is made to maintain the purity of
the milk. Where, however, the cow-house is small, the
ventilation bad, the stalls unclean, and the cows never
groomed it is practically impossible to prevent the milk
drawn in open pails from becoming highly contaminated.
Clean milk which has been cooled down to 40° F. will
keep twenty-four hours longer than the average nulk
produced upon the farm and cooled only to 60° F.— a
figure which presents with a high degree of accuracy the
temperature of the water which is employed in the process
of refrigeration.
When milk is pasteurised at 170° F. the bacteria
it contains— and this refers to all species— are destroyed,
but the spores remain unharmed. It has been assumed
that when milk is boiled to 212° F. it is sterilised ;
but this is not the case. Simply boiling has practically
no more effect than pasteurisation, for it fails to destroy
the spores. When milk is placed in bottles with the
stoppers open and heated to 212° F. for half an hoiu?,
73
the stopioers being fixed in their places by a gloved hand
in the live steam, the milk will keep for a considerable
time, but it is not sterile. If, however, this process is
followed on three occasions, with intervals between, the
spores will be destroyed as they develop, and then
sterilisation is complete. Much greater care is now taken
by farmers and dairymen in the manipulation of milk
than was the case a few years ago, when outbreaks of
disease were somewhat frequent, owing to the contami-
nation of the milk by milkers and others who had been
suffering from some contagious dis3ase or who had been
in contact with such a sufierer. It was shown in these
cases that a large number of persons were attacked with
dangerous diseases owing to this practice. The importance
of this question warrants our referring to it in these remarks,
for under no conditions should a member of a household
in which there is any person suffering from a contagious
disease be allowed to milk the cows, to groom them, or to
cleanse the vessels in which the milk is drawn or trans-
ported. Such a person should, indeed, be kept entirely
off the farm until the danger has passed.
When milk, as in hot weather, is suspected, or is in
danger of developing acidity, it should not be " preserved "
with boracic acid, carbonate of soda, or any other drug.
Not only is the practice in opposition to the law, but^it
is one of danger to the pocket of the dairyman and to the
health of the consumer. The first essential in the keeping
character of the milk is, as already observed, milking with
the milking-machine, or in the open air, and coohng to a
temperature which should not be higher than 45° F.
Where milk is employed in factories it is a common
practice to pasteurise it, and then if it is required for
distribution suddenly to cool it. This method will enable
it to keep for a considerably longer time than is possible
under any conditions short of actual sterihsation.
Pat Globules.
The fat of milk is present in globules which are so minute
that in rich milk they average about -j-Jq^ of an inch m
diameter. They can be easily recognised by the use of a
74
MODERN DAIRY-rAEiatNG.
moderately powerful microscope — one magnifying 180
diameters. These globules are suspended in tlie milk,
and they vary in size, those produced by cows of the
Channel Islands being larger than those produced by cows
of other varieties ; but while these breeds stand easily ahead
in this matter, individual cows of any breed may produce
globules of fat which are larger or smaller than the average
produce of that breed. The globules in the milk first
drawn from the cow are smaller as well as less numerous
than those found in the last drawn milk when the udder
is emptied. The globule consists of several fats, the
chief being olein, a fluid, which is present in much
larger quantity than the stearin or the palmitin,
two solid fats, and which constitute so large a pro-
portion, with the olein, of the vegetable oils and fats
of animals. These are all known as insoluble fats.
Milk fat contains soluble or volatile fats, which include
hutyrin, ca-proin, and caprylin, although the latter are
present in insignificant quantities. The fat which gives
the consistence to butter is the olein . This, however, varies
in quantity in the milk of different animals, as well as
in accordance with the season. Thus, it is more abiuidant
in summer than in winter, whereas the sohd fats, stearin
and ■palmitin, are more abundant in the winter season
than in the summer. Although oleiji is tasteless, colourless,
and without odour, it becomes disagreeable when exposed
to the air, owing to the absorption of oxygen, and at the
same time it becomes yellow. The fat of milk when
exposed to air and light and when it comes into contact
with water gradually decomposes until it becomes rancid.
Casein.
The casein of milk, which is its only albuminous con-
stituent, so far as is known, is therefore the only material
which contains nitrogen. In this material there are
small proportions of sulphur and phosphorus. Casein is
coagulated by rennet and certain acids, among which
lactic acid is the most prominent. It is for this reason
that milk in the process of decomposi 1 ion and the consequent
production of lactic acid so easily coagulates. The casein
75
of milk should not find its way into butter, which it assists
in the process of decomposition, but should be carefully
washed out in the churn. It is, however, one of the
two food constituents of cheese, of which it forms about
one-third, fat being the other.
Iiactose.
The sugar of milk (lactose) is less sweet than the sugar
employed in the household. It has a specific gcavity of
1-52, and although it is not present in butter or_ cheese,
finding its way into the whey, it exerts considerable
influence in the manufacture of both, owing to the fact
that in the process of decomposition it is converted into
lactic acid, and it is lactic acid which plays so important
a part in the production of the flavour of both these foods.
Mineral Constituents.
The minerals of milk are of the highest importance
to young animals, for which they are naturally produced.
Thus, if these materials were extracted from milk the
young animal, like the young child, could produce no
bones or teeth, while the blood and the muscular system
would be deficient in one of its most important con-
stituents. The minerals of milk are therefore vital to the
life of the animal or child consuming it. They chiefly
consist of phosphate of lime, iron, and potash, these materials
being supplemented by magnesia, soda, and chlorine.
Although the minerals of milk vary slightly in quantity,
•7 per cent, constitutes the average of a large number of
samples. Where milk is sold from the farm the fertility
of the soil is to some extent removed, or, in other words,
the soil is impoverished owing to the large quantities of
phosphate of hme and potash which are removed by a herd.
Thus, a cow producing 750ga]. of milk in the year provides
about 151b. each of phosphoric acid and potash. If we
multiply this figure by the number of head in the herd of
cows it will be seen what a large quantity of mineral
fertilising matter is represented, and that a considerable
sum would be required to replace it in the form of artificial
fertilisers. Farmers, however, are in the habit of providing
76
MOBERIT BAlBY-FAEMIlIG.
their cows with, cake and com of various kinds, thereby
replacing the minerals which the milk has removed. If a
cow consumes 15001b. of cotton cake in the course of a
year she will practically return to the soil as much mineral
matter as her owner has removed from the farm in selling
his milk. This matter, however, can be provided in the
form of potash salts, or an equivalent in the form of wood
ashes, and by using superphosphate, bone manure, or basic
slag, so long as it contains the requisite amount of phosphate
of lime. It is important to recognise that milk-selling
does impoverish the land if it is not accompanied by high
feeding or by the employment of mineral fertilisers. In
the manufacture of butter there is no mineral matter
removed from the milk ; it remains in the skimmed or
separated milk, and if this is consumed upon the farm
there is practically no loss of fertility. On the other
hand, if cheese is made and sold there is a marked
quantity of phosphate of lime removed. Thus it is that
cheese-makers in counties like Cheshire are wise enough
to employ large quantities of bone manure.
Tainting Milk— How to Avoid.
Milk should not be touched by the hand, nor should
it be placed in any position or apartment which is con-
tiguous to a bad smell, which it readily absorbs. It is for
this reason that milk sold by general shopkeepers in the
poorer districts of large cities is so frequently tainted —
the shop containing perhaps candles, firewood, and many
other articles which possess an odour of their own. Milk
takes up the blend, and this fact, combined with its changa
of colour when exposed to the Ught, should induce sellers
of milk to take particular care as to the spot in which
their milk is to be kept. For a similar reason neither
milk nor butter should be placed in a larder or a pantry
or in any other apartment where it is near to foods, so
many of which emit odours ; and yet this is quite a
common practice on many farms where there is no milk-
room or dairy. It follows that if milk is so susceptible to
contamination the floors of milk-rooms should be of
impermeable concrete or stone, not laid in earth, but
MILK.
77
grouted in tlie floor witli cement. Brick is not exempt
from tlie trouble whioli is so common to wood. Tire
shelves on which milk vessels are placed should not be of
wood, however frequently it is scrubbed, but of slate,
concrete, or stone, the first named being the best. If
wood is employed it should be painted, and ^ if the
work is well done the wood will not absorb the milk spilt
upon it.
How to Treat.
When milk is intended for separation it should be
taken direct to the machine after straining. If it is to be
us3d for setting in a shallow pan for skimming later on
it should be poured into the vessel while still warm from
the cow. Again, if it is intended for cheese-making it
should be strained directly into the cheese vat or tub. A
word with regard to the reason why milk used for
the manufacture of butter should be set warm will bo
useful. The quantity of butter produced depends upon
the perfect rising of the cream. Skimming is at the best
an imperfect system, but if the whole of the cream does
not rise it cannot be removed. Eising, however, depends
upon temperature. Thus^ if milk is set cold the cream
will rise very slowly and never perfectly. If it is
set at 90° F., or thereabouts, in a dairy which should
be as near 60° F. as possible in spring, summer, and
autumn, it will have to fall through 30 degrees before
it reaches the temperature of the apartment. The
fat of milk— i.e., the milk globules— has a lower
specifio gravity, or weight, than the fluid in which it is
suspended. If the milk is cold the margin between
the density of the fat and of this fluid is narrowed until
they become almost aUke in weight. If, on the other hand,
tlie milk is warm and the apartment cooled so that there
is a sudden serious change of temperature, the margin
between the density of the two materials is widened, with
the result that the fat globules rise more quickly as cream.
The reason is that the fat feels the change of temperature
much less quickly than the milk, inasmuch as it is a non-
conductor of heat, while by comparison the milk fluid is
78
MODERN DAIRY-rARMING.
a conductor of heat, and therefore feels the change of
temperature in the dairy immediately.
Cream.
This varies considerably in both quantity and con-
sistence. It may be almost as thin as rich milk, or it
may be nearly solid, like the clotted cream of Devonshire
and Cornwall. If cream is raised upon the system of cold-
setting, which is now obsolete, it is invariably thin, and
The Perfect Separator of the Dairy Machines Company.
larger in volume. If it is raised at 60° P. it should
be rich and thick, whereas if it is removed from the milk by
tlie mechanical separator it may be made thin or thick at
will. A rich-milking cow does not of necessity produce
thick cream, while a poor-milking cow may, and "frequently
does, produce thick cream. Milk is placed in a burette,
or test-tube, in order to ascertain its richness in cream—
a desire which is never satisfied because the system is
79
inaccurate. It is quite possible for tte millv of a poor-
millcing cow to throw up a small volume of thick cream
and for the milk of a cow yielding rich milk to throw up
a large volume of thin cream. The volume of cream varies
with the cow and with the season. It should be sufficient
to say that the obj ect of the dairy-farmer in making butter
should be to obtain all the fat from the milk, whether he
skims the cream from a shallow pan or removes it with
the separator. When cream is left in contact with the
air at a temperature of above 65° F. it rapidly changes,
decomposes, and becomes acid and thick in consistence,
the thickness being due to the influence of the acid upon
the casein, which it coagulates. The specific gravity of
cream varies between 1-000 and 1-016. It is therefore
lighter than milk and usually heavier than water. From
what we have said it will be understood that the quality
of cream varies considerably. It may in fact contain
only 25 per cent, of fat, or it may contain 60 per cent.
Hence, in buying a sample of sweet cream the consumer
should beware of the consistence.
Skimmed Milk.
This is not precisely identical with separated milk. The
latter should be absolutely sweet, and taken immediately
after milking. It also contains less fat than skimmed
milk, for however perfectly the cream may have risen to
the surface it cannot all be removed by hand. Skimmed
milk, too, is usually more or less acid, and on that account
less fit for human consumption. The artificial process to
which cream is subjected after separation in order to
produce ripeness or acidity is not equal to the natural
ripeness which follows the rising of the cream in a shallow
pan. In this case the cream rises in a thin layer, and is
aU exposed to the air, and therefore becomes thoroughly
oxidised, this fact accounting for the perfect flavour of the
butter which is produced from it. On the other hand,
when cream is removed by separation the milk is usually
kept in volume, the surface of which alone comes in contact
with the air, however much it is stirred. In spite of the
addition of a " starter," which assists in the cultivation
80
MODEBN DAIRY-rARMING.
of bacteria, we liave never found the same results in the
butter produced by this metliod as in that produced by a
first-class system of shallow setting. Skimmed milk
contains about 10 per cent, of solid matter, consisting
of sugar, casein, and minerals. It is an excellent food,
and worth more money than is usually paid for it ; but the
milk which is the residue left in the churn after the removal
of the butter is strongly acid, sometimes sour, while
it contains 9 per cent, of solid matter. Contrary to
common behef, it is in consequence inferior as a food to
skimmed milk.
Whey.
Whey is the liquid remaining after the removal of the
curd in the process of cheese-making. It contains almost
the whole of the sugar of the milk and a large proportion
of the minerals, together with some fat and traces of
casein which the cheese-maker has failed to remove.
Practically speaking, the only value of the whey is in the
sugar and the minerals, for it is the custom of the cheese-
maker to set the whey for skimming, removing such fat
as remains when it has risen to the surface, and with this
he makes butter.
Testing.
Adulteration is much less rampant than it used to be
when water was unblushingly added by large numbers of
dairymen. The punishment to which the offenders are
now subjected by legal tribunals and the certainty with
which adulteration can be detected have long since purified
the vocation of the milk retailer. In the early days of
the change in legislation sweet separated milk was added
to new milk as an adulterant instead of water. This
practice, too, has considerably diminished, and the necessity
for testing milk is much less than it was. Before the
invention of the Gerber and Babcock testing machine
milk was examined by various methods. It was set in
test-tubes, with no tangible result, and its specific gravity
was obtained by the aid of the lactometer, which was only
a partial guide, while other instruments were employed
MIIiK.
81
with but uncertain results. There are now two systems
which call be described as accurate, or approximately
accurate and satisfactory. One of these can be used
upon the farm with considerable ease and at little cost —
we refer to the centrifugal machine on the Gerber system —
while the other is the chemical test made by the analj'st
in his laboratory. The Gerber system is now very
frequently employed, and can be easily learnt froni
instructions which are supplied by the manufacturers of
dairy implements. Small quantities of milk are measured
and poured into test-bottles and subjected to centrifugal
force, when, with the assistance of a solution which is added
to the milk, the fat is driven into the neck of the bottle
and its proportion read oft by the scale at the side. When
milk is to be sampled in this way it should be taken from a
churn or churns representing the milk of the whole herd,
which has been well stirred. If, for example, a sample
is taken from a dairyman's delivery can in the street,
a perfect sample is impossible if it is taken from the top
or the bottom. In spite of the shaking to which the milk
has been subjected, some of the fat will rise to the top,
therefore the quality at this point will be richer than that
at the bottom, where the milk is frequently drawn from
a tap.
Chapter VIII.
BUTTER AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
Butter, the most popular of all edible fats, oontaius
approximately 87^ per cent, of the fat of milk, 12 per cent,
of water, and small but varying quantities of sugar,
casein, and mineral matter, chiefly salt, where salt is
added in the process of manufacture.
Constituents.
Imperfectly made butter may contain more water, and
consequently less fat, or it may contain more casein and
sugar, and where butter is salted for keeping the proportion
of mineral matter is correspondingly increased. A good
sample of butter should be a rich primrose in colour, so
tough that when a roll is bent it will not break in halves,
but fracture, and thus show a grain which resembles that
of cast steel. If, however, the butter has been overworked
in the effort to remove the superfluous water the grain
may be partially destroyed, and with it the texture of the
sample. Butter may contain a larger proportion of water
than the average, but owing to the fineness of ils division
it may not be seen so well as a sample of butter containing
a smaller proportion of water, which is present in drops or
droplets. Thus, when a sample of butter is cut or broken
these droplets may be revealed, and suggest that the water
present is excessive. The object in removing the water
from butter during manufacture is to enable it to keep
better and to produce a higher quality, for highly-watered
BUTTEE AND ITS MANUrACTURE.
83
butter means a diminution in the proportion of fat, as
well as inferior flavour, and sometimes of colour also. If
butter is wasted in a churn too freely water may be
imparted to it, and in addition its colour may be reduced.
Washing to be effective should take place only when the
grains of butter have been brought to the right size.
Colour.
The colour of butter depends chiefly upon the breed
of the cattle which have produced it. Thus, the milk,
the cream, and the butter of the Jersey and the Guernsey
are of richer colour than those of almost every other
known variety, not excepting the Devon, which probably
takes the third place. The colour of milk is in the fat, for
when this is removed the skimmed milk of Channel Islands
cattle resembles that produced by cows of other varieties.
Colour, however, is improved or diminished by the food
consumed, hence butter from cows fed upon grass in
summer is superior to that produced by the same cattle
fed in the stalls in winter upon hay, roots, and concentrated
foods. In some instances butter produced in winter upon
these rations is almost as pale as lard, and in consequence
manufacturers have long since adopted the practice of
colouring it with annatto, a harmless material, although
it is one which gives butter a value wliich it does not
otherwise possess, for pale or white butter is not so fine in
flavour as butter which is naturally rich in colour.
Flavour.
The flavour of butter depends partially upon the breed
and partially upon the food. That food exerts an influence
is demonstrated by the fact that where cows are fed upon
turnips or swedes, especially when the crown of the
bulb is not removed, an ill-flavour is imparted to it.
Cow-cabbage, brewers' grains, distillers' grains, barley-
meal, maize-meal, inferior hay, or turnips and mangels
when given in large quantities, should be avoided as food
for cows kept in a butter dairy. The best foods are fine
fragrant hay, crushed oats, a very small quantity of decorti-
cated cotton-cake, the white hearts of savoy cabbage, with
G 2
84
MODERN DAIBY-rARMING.
carrots and parsnips in small quantities, and of course
grass. Linseed-cake, common cotton-cake, beans, peas,
and large quantities of green leguminous forage crops
influence the flavour and texture of butter. This is
especially marked where cows receive a good deal of linseed-
cake, in which case the butter is usually oilier and
consequently of bad texture. The immediate cause of
fine flavour in butter, assuming that no deleterious foods
have been supplied and that the milk is absolutely clean
and kept in an apartment in which the atmosphere is pure,
is in the perfect oxidation of the cream. This also influences
the aroma of butter, which many dealers accept as a guide
to its quahty. Imported butter is frequently coloured to
a uniform shade, and, produced as it is in factories or
creameries, its flavour and aroma are the residt of ripening
with the assistance of an artificial " starter." In other
words, the cream is pasteurised by heat to from 150° to
170° F., thus causing the destruction of the bacteria,
and subsequently inoculated with a pure culture, which
is the direct cause of the ripening process that follows,
and therefore of the flavour which results.
When butter is newly made it is comparatively insipid,
for its flavour has not developed. If a samjDle made in
the ring at the London Dairy Show by the competitors for
prizes in churning is compared with the first prize sample
in one of the butter classes, a lesson will be conveyed
which would be impossible under any conditions of a
different character. The prize samples which we have
examined for very many years in succession are
invariably firm, of beautiful texture, perfect in colour, and
deliciously nutty in flavour ; so good are they as a rule
that it would be impossible to obtain a sample of a similar
quality from any merchant in London, or to excel it in
any part of the world. This butter is immensely superior
^ to the samples made in the show-yard, partly owing to
the conditions of manufacture, which are most imperfect,
and partly to its age. If, however, a fine sample of butter
of this^ type is examined on the last evening of the show,
when it is four days older than when it was judged, it
will be found that on the outside the colour has changed,
BTITTER AND ITS MANUrACTrRE.
85
while the flavour of the same part of the sample has been
destroyed, for the butter has absorbed the various odours
in which it is environed. This fact teaches us that for
the production of both colour and flavour butter should be
kept out of sunUght as well as out of the reach of smells.
Keeping Properties.
These depend very largely upon the removal of the
casein, the sugar, and all other impurities which are liable
to set up fermentation and rancidity. Much, however,
depends upon the temperature of the atmosphere, for
fermentation is more rapid in warm than in cold
weather. Impurities may be introduced into butter in
salt, hence the importance of using salt which is of the
purest type and which has been baked in an oven to
perfect dryness after it has been ground as finely as possible.
Butter should never be treated with coarse salt ; a sample
thus salted when cut will reveal a mottled appearance,
which is caused by the attraction and absorption of water
by the salt. Salt should be almost as fine as flour, and it
should be distributed with a fine dredger. It is employed
partly to retard decomposition and partly to satisfy the
demand of consumers, so many of whom curiously prefer
a slight salt flavour to the delicious nuttiness of a good
sample of butter, which is not revealed, as they suppose,
by the salt, but partially hidden or neutralised.
Qxiantlty Produced.
The quantity of butter which can be produced from a
given quantity of milk depends upon the quality of that
milk. If it contains 4 per cent, of fat, and allowance is
made for the loss of fat in the process of skimming or
separating, and finally of churning, 1001b. of 4 per cent,
milk should make about i^lh. of butter, the increase being
due to the incorporation of water.
Butter-making Systems Considered.
In past days butter was frequently made directly
from milk which was churned in large barrels and frequently
by horse power. It was customary to allow the milk to
86
MODERN DAiEY-r ARMING.
" lapper " — in other words, the milk was ripened until
it was so acid tliat it coagulated when it was ready for
churning. Milk too was then set in shallow leads, round
shallow pans, and deep oval or circular tins. Deep setting
resulted in the production of a large volume of thin cream,
for the cans were immersed in very cold water. That
process is practically dead, although it reigns in a modified
form in Normandy and Brittany, where the best butter
is equal to the finest in the world. During our last visit
to these provinces the separator had still failed to take
the place of the prevailing system. The milk is set in
conical eartliemvare vessels about 15in. deep and Min. to
15in. in diameter at the top. These pans are placed in
a broad gutter through which cold water is flowing at
the foot, around the walls of the dairy, and on the floor.
The cream having risen to the surface, hot air is turned
into the dairy, the milk and cream coagulate, and the
cream is then skimmed for churning, the separated milk
being taken in the pans just as it is to the calves, which
are fatted upon it for the Paris market, getting no other
food. The butter made in this way obtains a higher
price than any made in Europe or America. We have
seen it sold in the wholesale Paris markets at 2s. Id. per
pound to dealers, and we are acquainted with one farmer
who has realised 2s. 8d. The second and third qualities
of butter thus made are purchased by the owners of large
blending-houses for dispatch to this country. We have
inspected some of these factories, and have been the means
of introducing to two of them, those of Le Petit and
Bretel, the whole conference party of the British Dairy
Farmers' Association during its visit to France.
No butter can be obtained which excels that produced
either by this Norman system or by our own old system
of shallow setting in round pans, which on the whole is
perhaps the best known when it is properly conducted.
The reason is this : the flavour of cream depends upon
its perfect oxidation, but this is impossible unless the
conditions are perfect. When the milk drawn from suitable,
properly-fed cows is clean and pure it is brought to the
dairy and strained into the pans at once. Its temperature
Sutter and its MAifuFAcTURE.
87
jhould then be 90° F., while that of the dairy should
be 60° F. It will be observed that before the milk
reaches the temperature of the dairy it must fall through
30 degrees of heat. The result, as we have explained
in a previous chapter, is that the rising of the cream is
accelerated. In the process of rising the fat globules
which form the cream, and which are spread in a thin
layer over a large surface of milk, come into contact
with the air, and if this is pure they are perfectly
oxidised in consequence. Where milk is set in a deep
vessel, or where the cream after mechanical separation
is placed in a large volume, oxidation is impossible,
however well the cream may be stirred. Where the dairy
is kept at varying temperatures — cold in winter and
too warm in summer — where the milk is retained before
it is placed in the pans, or where the temperature of the
dairy varies between morning and night to any marked
extent, perfect rising of the cream is impossible, and
therefore perfect oxidation. This, too, is impaired where
the dairy is unclean, where articles of food or strong-
smelling materials are placed near at hand, or odours
reach it from the farmyard. It is the want of management
in these directions which has given the separator its high
position, for while it increases the yield of butter it
diminishes the labour involved in its production.
Milk-setting pans may be either of metal, such as tinned
iron, earthenware, or glass, but it is obvious where these
vessels are used and the cream is removed by hand skimming
there must be a loss, for by no process can all the cream
be taken of! the milk. When cream is skimmed by hand
and the conditions are approximately exact it should be
mellow, thick, rich in colour, and very slightly acid, so
that it will be fit for churning in twelve to twenty-four
hours. It is customary, however, to place it after skimming
into a cream pan, and to add the cream of one, two, or
even three days to this until churning day arrives. It
is this practice which prevents fine butter being produced.
Where cream consists of several lots of various ages its
condition can never be perfect — in summer it may be
over-ripe, and in winter under-ripe.
88
MODERN DAIEY-rARMING.
In DevonsMre it is the custom to produce butter from
scalded cream. The mills is placed in round pans about
7in. in depth, and when the cream has risen perfectly
each pan is taken to a stove constructed for the purpose,
and the whole volume is brought to a temperature of about
170° P., care being taken to prevent it boiHng. It is
then returned to the dairy and allowed to stand until it has
cooled, when it will be covered with a skin which is the
result of the oxidation of the casein. It is then skimmed,
and ready for conversion into butter. This form of cream
is sweet, hke the milk from which it is removed. Formerly
this cream was worked into butter with the hand, but the
practice is an improper one, and it is now churned in the
usual way.
Pasteurising Milk.
In dealing with milk intended for butter-making on
a large scale, it may be pasteurised at 145° F. for half
an hour, or at 165° to 175° F. for a very short time.
At 170° F., for example, the milk may be passed
through the pasteuriser as fast as it will flow. Here it is
kept in motion, and on passing out of the machine it is
quickly cooled down to as near 40° F. as possible.
Milk is not sterilised in this way, for the spores of the
bacteria remain, ready to emerge into active life immediately
the conditions permit. Milk, like cream, heated and then
rapidly cooled in this way is ready for skimming for
inoculating with a pure culture of bacteria, without which
good butter could not be made. No process of this kind
has so far enabled the manufacturer to produce as fine
a sample as can be made in the imvate dairy. Where
milk is set for cream to rise upon it it should never
be cold, nor indeed should it ever lose its heat, for it must
not be reheated. The more heat the milk loses the less
cream will it throw up.
Separation.
Milk is deprived of its cream by mechanical separation.
We were the first from England to observe this process
conducted in competition in Denmark in 1883, when the
BUTTER AND ITS MANUrACTURE.
89
Laval machine acliieved sucli great distinction. When
the milk passes into the separator, which revolves at high
speed, tha fat, which is its lightest constituent, is thrown
to the centre of the bowl by the centrifugal force
exerted. The skimmed milk, on the other hand, is thrown
to the wall or periphery. Suitable apertures being made
in the bowl, the cream and the milk respectively are
forced out by the continued inflow of fresh milk.
Separation is accelerated by heat and by the employment
The Sharpies Sepc*rator.
of discs which, placed horizontally in the centre of the
bowl, divide the milk into layers. In this process all dirt
is removed from the milk, which a,dheres to the walls of
the bowl, and is therefore easily extracted. By this means
almost all the fat is removed from the milk, while the
cream can be made thin or thick at will. The separated
milk is sweet enough for immediate sale and consumption,
which is seldom the case with skimmed milk ; and where a
full plant is employed the milk can be pasteurised as it
passes into or out of the machine, and immediately cooled,
90
JVIODEKN DAIKY-iFARMliNG.
as is the case with the separated milk. Thus a completely
economical result follows. An improvement has been
made, too, in another point b)' the use of a Regenerative
Heater, which employs the already heated milk which is
ready for cooling in heating the cold milk.
Chtirning.
When cream has been ripened it is ready for churning.
Churns not only vary in size, but in form and construction.
There are fixed churns with internal beaters, and there
are revolving chrirns, both with and without beaters.
New Wolseley Ideal Separator with Self-balancing Bowl.
The former type is exemplified in the Holstein churn of
Denmark and the latter by the English end-over-end
barrel and the ordinary barrel churn with fixed and movable
beaters. The size of a churn influences the speed at
which butter is brought as well as the quantity of butter
produced. If a churn is too small in size, or is filled
too full of cream, churning will be protracted, while the
butter obtained will be too small in quantity. It is
therefore much better to use a large churn for a small
quantity of cream than a small churn for a large quantity.
When the cream is ripe it should be passed into the churn
SUTTEE And its MANUrACTTJBE.
91
through a strainer, but it should be of a temiserature varying
from 56° to 63° E., in accordance with the season of the
year. Thus, in hot summer it should not exceed 56° F.,
and in the depth of winter, when the temperature .is very
low, not less than 63° F. Cream which is churned in a
sweet condition, while producing very finely-flavoured
butter, will yield less, while sour cream produces butter
of a fuller flavour and a larger quantity. If cream is
over-ripe or practically sour, rather than agreeably acid,
it will give an ill-flavoured butter. Perfect work,
however, is done only when the condition of the cream is
good, when its temperature is exact, and when the churn
itself and the apartment in which the work takes place
are all maintained at the same degree. If cream at
63° F. is put into a cold churn its temperature will fall,
and the result will be loss. If it becomes essential to
warm the cream for churning, this should be done by
placing it in an apartment at the required temperature,
or approximately at that temperature, for several hours
before it is required. Hot water must not be added to
it to raise its heat, nor is it a wise jjlan to stand a jar of
cream in hot water unless it is immediately and continually
stirred.
When butter is bad in flavour and odour after churning,
and when this fault is constant, there is only one course to
pursue, unless the trouble can be traced to any particular
cause. The dairy must be emptied, the floors, benches,
and walls scrubbed or washed, the ceiling Umed or whitened
afresh, and the churn, butter-worker, and all other utensils
submitted to a process of cleansing with boiling water,
with which neither soap nor soda should be used. Open
windows and thorough ventilation will assist in the purifi-
cation of the apartment. The next milk should be drawn
from the cows in the cleanest possible manner, strained,
and brought to the dairy, where it should be separated
or poured into setting-pans, as already described. When
the cream has been skimmed it should be inoculated with
from a pint to a quart of butter-milk, which should be
obtained from a dairy where very prime butter is made.
It may be pointed out that the flavour of butter depends
92
MODERN DAIBY-rAEMING.
almost entirely upon the presence of a suitable species of
bacteria. This exists in abundance in perfect milk or
cream, and therefore in the butter-milk obtained after
churning. On the other hand, the bad flavour and odour
of milk and cream, and therefore of butter, is usually
caused by abnormal or unfriendly bacteria. Thus, if
there is no opportunity for these germs to enter the milk —
and there will not be if the conditions described are
thoroughly carried out — the inoculation with butter-milk
obtained under the best conditions will ensure more, if not
absolutely, perfect work.
When cream is skimmed from day to day, and kept
for churning, it is obvious that if some days elapse it will
consist of a mixture of cream of various ages. This
difficulty will not be overcome by simply stirring and
mixing ; but where it is impossible to avoid the practice
the cream should be added and stirred for the admixture
of air, and not churned until twelve hours have elapsed
after the last cream was poured into the pan. It has
been found that where sweet cream is mixed with acid
or ripe cream of similar quality and then churned the
result is not so satisfactory as where the whole cream
was similarly ripe. It is always desirable to churn cream
immediately it is mature; but where a volume of cream
consists of several skimmings, that which was skimmed
first will pr ibabl^ be too old, while that which was
skimmed last will be immature in spite of the fact that
the various lots have been mixed.
As cream must be brought to a given temperature for
successful churning various expedients have been adopted
in order to arrive at the proper degree as quickly as
possible. Hot water must never be added to cause a rise
of tempsrature, nor ice to cause a fall. Apart from the
fact that both may introduce impurities, the mechanical
condition of the cream is altered, and bad work is the
result. The cream should be placed where it will gradually
rise to the required temperature. There will as a rule
be no difficulty in summer, except in very hot weather,
when churning is best in the early morning or late in the
evening — the coolest parts of the day. If sufficiently
BUTTER AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
93
cool water is unobtainable, ice must be employed in order
to reduce the cream to the required degree, the ice being
placed in a tub of cold water in which the cream pan may
be stood. In the winter, when the temperatm-e of the
cream for churning should be from 62° to 63° F., the
cream pan, covered with a hd or cloth, may be placed
within reach of the heat of the kitchen fire, or in any apart-
ment the temperature of which exceeds that which the
Listers* End-over-end Churn.
cream is to reach. If, however, this is impossible the
cream pan may be stood in a tub of warm water, which
should not be higher than 70° to 80° F., but in this case
it should be frequently stirred.
Before commencing to chiu-n the cream into butter
the churn should be brought to the required temperature,
which may be one or two degrees above or below that of
the cream. If possible, too, the dairy should be at the
94
MODERN DAIRY-rARMING.
same temperature as the cliurii. Thus, in winter, if the
cream registers 63° F. on the thermometer, and the
dairy stands at 50° F., with the churn at the same figure,
the temperature of the cream will fall immediately it is
poured into it, and churning may therefore be long and
difficult. Again, if the churn is brought to the required
degree, and the dairy is still cold, its temperature will
fall before churning is completed, in spite of the fact that
the wood of which the churn is made is a non-conductor
of heat. Fine butter is only made when the conditions
are perfect. When the temperatures are correct, therefore,
the cream may be poured into the churn through a strainer,
the lid closed, and the work commenced.
There are many types of churn, although the principles
upon which they are constructed are few in number. It
was estimated some years ago that there were at least
150 makes of churn, some of which revolve. Revolving
churns sometimes have beaters or dashers, and sometimes
they have neither. In other cases churns are worked by
beaters revolving within them. A good churn should be
made of seasoned, tough wood, such as oak ; its construction
should be perfect ; it should work easily, for churning is
frequently performed by girls. Further, a glass window
should be provided so that the cream may be seen in the
process of churning, a vent for the expulsion of air or gas,
a tap or vent for passing out the butter-milk, and a Ud
which can be easily and quickly closed, and through which
it will be impossible for the cream to pass as working
proceeds. One of the most popular churns is the end-over-
end barrel, which has no beaters, but which has long been
provided with a lid of a most troublesome character.
Where it is necessary to turn several screws to open a
churn, and to screw them down again in order to proceed
with the work, and when at the same time a large lid
of this type permits of the escape of cream, fault is naturally
found.
A mistake is often made in buying too small a churn.
In practice it is assumed that a churn may be filled to
two-thirds of its space, but this is not so. It should not
be fiUed more than half full, otherwise there will at some
BUTTER AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
95
time be a serious loss. It is much better to buy a cburn
one or two sizes larger than is required, in spite of the extra
expense which is involved, for the reason that, while it is
most difficult to churn too much cream in a small churn,
it is easy to churn a small quantity in a large churn.
Therefore, as no trouble arises when a chm'n is too large
for the cream, unless we go to extremes, it is safer and
more economical to buy a large churn than a small one,
which will always cause trouble if the cream to be churned
is too large in volume. A new churn should have been
well prepared by the maker before it is sold, otherwise
it should be filled with very hot water and used on^ several
occasions before cream is put into it. The one difficulty
about ordinary barrel churns is that there is no room for
the hands to enter, either for the removal of the butter
or for cleaning. The most popular churn in the Scandi-
navian countries is the Holstein, which is a tub larger in
diameter at the bottom than at the top. A beater revolves
within it as it stands erect by turning a handle at the side
of the frame in which the churn is fixed. This churn will
tip both for cleaning and emptying, and is in all respects
an excellent implement.
The time occupied in churning butter should not exceed
forty minutes. Churns have been produced in which
butter has been brought in from five to ten minutes by
very rapid work, but we have yet to see the implement
which produces fine butter under these conditions. Where
the time of churning is protracted — and this is sometimes
the case in winter, when the cream develops a disagreeable
odour and fiavour which passes into the butter as it
comes— attention must be given to the question or loss
will be emphasised. We have never known this trouble
to occur in either spring, summer, or autumn. It is not
owing to the practice of feeding the cows with roots or
cakes, as some people suppose, for it is found where neither
of these foods is employed. It is probably owing to the
presence in the milk of an organism, and therefore this
point must be fully considered. In the first place the
churn should never be too full. When the trouble is
suspected a small quantity of cream should be churned
96
MODERN DAIRY-rARmiNG.
at a time, for it usually becomes larger in volume and
froths. The first thing to do is to adopt the plan which
has already been described, by cleansing the dairy, taking
care to ensure perfectly clean milk, and then inoculating
the cream with butter-milk obtained elsewhere. Until
this practice is carried out the milk should be set in pans,
and when the cream has risen to the surface at the end of
twenty-four hours scalded on a hotplate on the stove
for the destruction of the germs within it, whatever their
species. When cooled the cream may then be churned
in the usual way, for, being clotted on the Devonshire
principle, it will not need to be ripened, and may therefore
be churned sweet.
Towards the end of the churning process, and just
before the cream breaks, it will be found to adhere to the
glass window in a different form. In the earher part of
the process the window will be clear, but when this change
takes place it will be dotted with tiny grains of fat, and
then in a few moments the dull thud of the cream as the
churn revolves will be changed into a distinct splash,
indicating that the thick cream has been replaced in part
by thin butter-milk. When the grains of butter on the
glass are more prominent the lid may be opened, and a
quart or two of cold water, as the case may be, this depend-
ing upon the quantity of cream employed, poured into the
churn, partly with the object of reducing the temperature
and hardening the butter-grains. When the lid is closed
again a few revolutions may be given at a low speed, until,
indeed, the grains of butter are larger, as shown upon
the glass.
When butter has fully come, and the grains are as large
as buckwheat or small rice, and crisp as they should be,
the churning may be stopped and the butter-milk drawn
of? through a sieve in order to catch any butter which may
pass out of the churn. In summer cold water may be
again needed, for in very hot weather the grains of butter
are apt, by their extreme softness, to unite rather than to
separate. In this case water is cjuicldy blended with the
butter, and is subsequently difficult to remove, while
working may be impossible, In my case two or three
BUTTER AND ITS MANUrACTUBE.
97
wasliings may be given in a similar way, the churn being
rocked instead of turned. The object of this washing
is to remove every trace of butter-milk, the solid matter
of which consists of sugar and casein, which materially
assists in turning butter rancid if it remains in it. Obviously,
the butter can only be washed when it is in the gra,in.
If it is brought in a few large lumps washing becomes
impossible, for water will not enter into the solid fat. The
last washing should be with brine, prepared by adding
salt to the water, and when the water runs from the churn
perfectly pure — i.e., with no indication of milkiness — the
butter may be removed with the Scotch hands on to a
butter-worker, or preferably on to a butter-trough, if
the time permits, for it to remain and drain there for an
hour or two.
Butter-workers.
There are two forms of butter-worker commonly used.
C)ne a long rectangular table, sometimes flat, sometimes
slightly convex, upon which a roller revolves. This roller
is fluted or ringed, so that as it passes over the butter it
squeezes out the water without smearing or pressing it.
The other form of butter-worker is circular, and is made
in very large sizes for factory work and for butter-blending.
On the larger machines there are two rollers, beneath
which the butter passes, these being worked by machinery.
When the butter is placed upon the table of the butter-
worker, which may be either concave or convex when it
is round, it is in the grain, but gradually it becomes
homogeneous as it is pressed and the water is removed.
Care must be taken never to overwork it or to smear it,
by which the grain is spoilt. When butter is salted for
keeping — for very fine butter intended for immediate use
should never be salted — the salt employed should be at
the rate of ^oz. to |oz. to the pound. This salt must be
the finest obtainable. It should be ground in a mill
made for the purpose to almost as fine a consistency as
flour, and then dried in the oven for the removal of its
water. The salt should be distributed over the butter
as it lies upon the table with a flour-dredger to ensure
98
MODERN DAIRY-rARMING.
even salting. Where tlie salt used is coarse it will be
found that upon cutting a pound of butter in halves the
grains have attracted moisture, and that it is mottled in
consequence, showing two colours, and therefore spoiled
for sale. The subsequent process of making up into rolls
or pats can only be learnt by experience. It is important
to observe that the butter-worker must be prepared before
A Good Type of Butler-Worker. R. A. Lister and Co., Ltd.
it is used, otherwise the butter will adhere to it. The
usual practice is to scald it, to scrub it with salt, and then
to cool it with cold water. When work is proceeding, the
water which is squeezed out of the butter must be mopped
up with a butter-cloth from time to time, or it may be
reintroduced into the butter. In winter difficulty may be
experienced in working the butter if it has become hard,
BUTTER AND ITS MANUFACTURE.
99
hence the importance of care in the employment of the
cold water, which should not be at too low a temperature,
while in summer the temperature of the atmosphere is such
that it may sometimes be impossible to work the butter
at all unless every feature to which we have referred has
been observed. Although butter is sometimes coloured
with annatto, the practice is a bad one, for the simple
reason that it is not absolutely honest. If butter is so
white that it needs artificial colouring to make it saleable
it is not worth the price charged for it under these
conditions.
Churning milk.
Although milk is now very seldom churned, the practice
must be referred to. In earlier days milk was churned
in very large churns with the assistance of a horse, the
labour being too considerable for men or women. There
is no doubt that more butter is obtained by this jwactice
than by churning cream. On the other hand, there are
many objections to the practice. It entails enormous
labour ; churning must be conducted daily ; the butter-milk
cannot be sold like separated milk is now sold, for it must
be lappered or soured before it can be churned, and the
sourness is very emphatic. On some occasions milk sent
to a dairy is returned because it is sour. Under these
conditions it may be churned whole, for it cannot be
properly skimmed. When milk is churned it is brought
to a temperature of 66° F., except in the heat of summer.
We have obtained 4J per cent, of butter from milk churned
in this way, and subsequently 5 per cent. ; but when similar
milk was churned in its sweet condition it returned only
3 per cent, of butter, while the work was much more
laborious.
Preserving Butter.
In preserving butter without the employment of
boracic acid the very best work must be carried out, for
no butter will keep unless it is thoroughly cleaned by
washing. As keeping butter is usually made in summer
it should be churned at 56 to 57 degrees, drained in a
100
MODERN DAIBY-rABMING.
trough at a still lower temperature after washing, and
then hardened in a hardening-box, for which purpose
ice is employed if this is necessary when the weather is
unusually warm. When upon the butter-worker the
butter should be salted with |oz. of salt to the pound.
After working it should be rolled out like paste and placed
in layers in the tub or pan in which it is to be kept, each
layer being pressed at the bottom and sides of the vessel
with the hand to keep out the air. When the layers are
sufficiently numerous to fill the pan, it should be smoothed
over the top with a wooden butter-knife and covered with
a thin layer of salt, upon which a piece of butter-muslin
should be laid, with another layer of salt on the top of it.
If a wooden vessel is employed for keeping the butter
it should be lined with grease-proof paper. In all cases
it should be remembered that the more perfectly it is
sealed — if hermetically so much the better — the longer the
butter will keep. Low temperature, but not less than
35° E., immensely assists in the preservation of butter.
Chapter IX.
THE PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE OF
CHEESE-MAKING.
The object of the cheese-maker is to obtain as much
cheese of the finest quality as he can from the milk at
his disposal. It was long assumed, and to some extent it
is still assumed, that good cheese cannot be made from
rich milk. There is no greater mistake — the better the
milk the richer the cheese and the greater the weight
produced. This being the case, the cheese-maker is well
advised to make every effort to improve not only the
quantity of milk supplied by his cows, but its quality.
Where it is possible to make cheese from milk containing
4 per cent, of fat the return per cow is much greater than
when the milk contains only 3 to 3-5 per cent, of fat.
The reason is not only because of the increase of weight of
cheese manufactured, but because of the improvement in
its quality, always supposing that the maker is sufficiently
expert to do the best work. Eule of thumb has no place
in the manufacture of cheese, for cheese-making is really an
art, in which science also plays a considerable part. Good
cheese cannot be made from unclean milk.
Importance of Cleanliness.
Cleanliness is the first condition of success ; then comes
the practice of feeding, which exerts a marked influence
both upon the weight and the quality of the cheese. One
pasture may contain plants which another does not, and
MODERN DAIRY-iTARMINfl.
which ponvey a bad fl.avour to the cheese. It is, h'owever,
now thoroughly understood by experts that there is no
reason why fine cheese cannot be made in one county as
well as in another. It was formerly supposed that Cheddar
cheese could not be made out of Somerset, but this was
dispelled by the farmers of Wigtownshire, in Scotland,
and it has since been dispelled by many others. Stilton
cheese can be made equally as well in the south or north
of England as in Leicestershire, while the Brie and the
Coulommiers of France have been made equally as well in
our own dairy as in Normandy or the Department of the
Seine.
When the cheese-maker is placed in the possession of
rich clean milk produced from sound food he has only to
look to his appliances and himself to ensure success. The
cheese-making plant must be complete, simple, well
designed, and well constructed. This will be referred
to later on.
Varieties of Cheese.
The principal varieties of cheese known in this country,
and indeed the best-known makes in the world, are
Cheddar, Cheshire, Leicester, Gloucester, Derby, and
Lancashire, among English pressed cheese ; Stilton and
Wcnsleydale, our two blue-veined varieties ; Caerphilly,
a small variety popular in a part of South Wales ; and
ordinary Curd or Cream cheese, which has neither name
nor significance in this country. The popular cheeses
of France are Gruyere, Eoquefort, formerly made
of sheep's milk; Gerome, Gex, Brie, Camembert,
Coulommiers, Pont I'Eveque, Gournay, Livarot, a
skimnaed-milk cheese, and Port du Salut. All these French
varieties, with the exception of Gruyere and Roquefort,
can be made equally as well in England ; but, in spite of
many years of teaching at our dairy schools and of incite-
ment to produce them, dairy-farmers in this country will
have nothing to do with the varieties made elsewhere.
They prefer the public to buy them from the importer,
in spite of the fact that the profits realised are larger
than those realised by the manufacture of British cheese.
Principles or cheese-making.
103
Holland makes two popular varieties of cheese, the round
Dutch, or Edam, and the flat Gou.da. Italy makes two
varieties, the blue-veined Gorgonzola, which is sold so
largely in this country, where Stilton should take its place
as a native variety, and the Parmesan, which is a partially
skimmed-milk cheese. The one variety common to
Switzerland is the Gruycre, which is identical with that
made in France. There are practically no other important
cheeses made in any other part of the world, for the
Scandinavian countries, like Russia and Germany, adhere
chiefly to butter. It is a curious fact that there is no
national cheese made in either Ireland, Scotland, or WalcL,
although at one time a type of cheese known as the Dunlop
was made north of the Tweed.
Milk to Use.
Cheese may be made of whole or new milk, or partly
of new milk and partly of skimmed milk, but the richer
the milk the more profitable the cheese — hence the
employment of skimmed milk is never advisable.
Cheese in the Making.
In making cheese milk is coagulated with rennet,
assisted by heat and acid, the last being developed with
the assistance of heat, which incites the decomposition
of the sugar. In making pressed cheese the milk is set
near the temperature at which it comes into the dairy
from the cows, but in actual practice the temperature at
which the rennet is added varies from 65 degrees in making
some varieties of soft cheese which are long in coagulating
to 92 degrees in making certain hard or pressed cheeses.
The time of coagulation may vary from sixty hours in the
first case to a few minutes. Where a firm or tough curd
is required the temperature is comparatively high, and the
quantity of rennet larger than where the curd to be brought
must be tender and less elastic. Cheese is pressed either
heavily or lightly, or it is not pressed at all, as in the
case of Stilton, Gorgonzola, and the soft cheeses of France.
For making soft cheese, however, the curd may be either
brisk, lively, or elastic, or it may be extremely tender.
104
MODERN DAiBY-rARMING.
The finer curd is cut after it lias coagulated the quicker
and more perfect the drainage, for there is a larger area
exposed from which the whey may exude. Thus, in
making Stilton the curd is removed from the vat in which
it was formed in large sUces into a draining-cloth, while
in making Cheddar or Cheshire cheese it is cut into small
cubes about the size of dice, and these, heated in the whey,
quickly part with the fluid within them, and shrink. If
some of the cubes are too large when the smaller ones have
parted with all the whey that it is desirable to remove
they will contain some fluid, which if not expelled later
will pass into the cheese and cause the production of gas,
and consequent damage. Soft curd will not bear much
manipulation, but the firm curd, such as is cut as suggested,
bears much manipulation, frequent and lengthy stirring
following the cutting process. When the curd is too
tender in making firm cheese, it can be improved later
by a rise in the temperature of the whey. Too high a
temperature, however, like too much rennet, makes the
curd too firm, so that when it is cut it parts with the
whey too rapidly, and the cheese becomes dry in
consequence, and of much less value in the market. For
this reason too much whey must not be expelled. These
facts suggest the high importance of exactness in main-
taining the temperature adopted and the quantity of
rennet used, as well as in the time of cutting.
In practice in British dairies acid is developed in the
evening's^ milk with the assistance of temperature, so that
f7hen it is mixed with the morning's milk twelve hours
afterwards its maturity contributes to the success of the
future cheese. The larger the quantity of milk used in
bulk the less the loss of heat, and therefore the greater the
exactness. The higher the temperature employed in
setting the smaller the quantity of rennet required. As
there is a loss of heat involved in the setting of small
quantities of milk it is usual to increase the quantity of
rennet used.
A standard rennet is that of which one volume
coagulates 10,000 volumes of milk in forty minutes, when
the milk stands at 95° F. As 1000 cubic centimetres of milk
PRINCIPLES or CHEESE-MAKING.
105
are equal to one litre, it follows that one cubic centimetre
of rennet should coagulate this milk in four minutes at
the same temperature, for the quantity of rennet used
is in an inverse ratio to the time occupied in coagulation.
Rennet is the active principle of the mucous membrane
lining the fourth stomach of the milk-fed calf. There is
ao other material known in practice or science which
exerts the same influence on milk. It possesses no flavour,
although it contributes so materially to the manufacture
and flavour of cheese. Cheese-makers have been accus-
tomed in the past to prepare their own rennet, but the
practice is uncertain and unsatisfactory, resulting in
unequal quahty, and consequently in unequal work.
Rennet can be obtained in liquid, tablet, and powdered
form, and a brand once adopted and found satisfactory
should never be changed. Rennet should be kept in a
cool, dark place that its strength may remain constant,
for loss of strength means probable spoliation of cheese.
The influence of rennet is exerted only at given temperature.
Thus, while it is most active at from 100° to 108° F.,
there is no normal coagulation below 50° F., and very
Kttle below 66° F. On the other hand, above 108° F.
its influence diminishes, until at 150° F. it has ceased
altogether. The activity of rennet is considerable between
85° and 95° F., which almost represent the extremes
of temperature adopted in pressed-cheese making. Rennet
should be mixed with at least four volumes of cold water
before adding to milk, inasmuch as it is more easily mixed
or spread through the volume of milk, but it should be
measured with extreme care, either in a graduated tube or
a measuring-glass. In making soft cheese so little rennet
is used that it may be necessary to count it in drops. As
milk varies in quality between richness and poverty the
rennet must be varied too, each cheese-maker learning
precisely what quantity of rennet is required to obtain
coagulation in a given time.
The time occupied in the coagulation of milk varies
with the season, and therefore with the temperature of the
air. If it were possible to control the temperature of the
dairy this might not be the case. Again, where milk cools
i06
iMODERN DAIEY-FAEMING.
before renneting, and it becomes necessary to reheat it,
more rennet may be required, but the result is never so
satisfactory. When the curd is perfect it is cut in order
to assist in the drainage of tlie whey. If it is cut too soon,
the curd being too tender, fat leaves the curd and passes
into the whey, and it is not recovered in the process of
cheese-making. The condition of cm-d for cutting may
be tested with a glass thermometer, which, dipped into
it diagonally and the bulb elevated through the cui-d,
will fracture it. If the fracture is clean it is fit. If, on
the other hand, it is so soft that there is no clean cut made
by the instrument, it must be left until it is ready. Where
curd when tested in this way is so firm that the fracture
at once fills up with whey it is over -ripe, and the curd
should be cut larger in consequence. In practice curd is
now cut with a pair of knives with numerous blades,
which in one case are vertical and in the other horizontal.
Thus where a dairy is equipped, as it should be, with
a jacketed rectangular vat standing upon wheels, the
vertical-bladed knife, drawn very gently and very patiently
from one end to the other through the curd, leaves strips
of curd throughout which are square at the top, the knife
having been drawn across the first cut. In other, words,
it is drawn first from end to end of the vat and then from
side to side. The knife with the horizontal blades is now
introduced, so that each strip or column of curds is cut
into cubes.
In making pressed cheese acid is developed first in the
evening's milk, which, poured into the vat as it comes from
the cows, gradually falls to from 68° to 72° F. by the
morning ; by subsequent heating in the vat ; by stirring ;
and later by the piling of the curd, as we shall see. More
acid is required in handling rich milk than poor milk.
The role of acid is to give mellowness, flavour, and texture
to the cheese. In the manufacture of Stilton the slices
of curd remain for some time in the whey which drains
from them. In making soft cheese the curd is removed
direct from the vat in which it has coagulated into metal
moulds or cylinders, from which the whey gradually
leaves it by gravitation, sufficient remaining to set up
PRINCIPLES OP CHEESE-MAKING.
lo?'
fermentation, which assists in the production of flavour
and quality. Some makers of pressed cheese add sour
whey to the milk before coagulation commences, this
inoculating the milk with bacteria of a desirable character
when it is the b)^-product of good cheese made the day
before. On the other hand, the addition of whey from
imperfect milk may introduce noxious bacteria, and so
destroy the cheese.
It may be useful to point out at this stage how in
soft-cheese making raw curd is converted into the delicious
food which is provided by such varieties as Camembert
and Brie. When the curd in the cylinder has sufficiently
parted with its whey to leave a firm residue the cylinder
is removed, and the young cheese is placed upon a straw
mat and occasionally turned. When sufficiently dry it is
salted on its coat, and then in a day or two it is gradually
covered with a white velvety fungus or mould, which is
followed by a similar covering of blue mould, the same
species as that which grows upon stale bread. This fungus
is provided with mycelium, which we may perhaps
not inappropriately compare to the roots of a flowering
plant. As the cheese is at this stage acid, and in this
condition imperfect, its characteristic is changed by the
action of the fungus, the mycelium of which, gradually
piercing the flesh of the cheese, neutralises the acid, and by
partially liberating the nitrogen of the casein of the curd
produces ammonia, and consequently an alkaline reaction
follows. Thus it is essential that the curd should neither
be too soft nor too dry. To this end it must have been
set at the right temperature. If the dairy is too warm
the whey will leave the curd in the cylinders too
rapidly, and the cheese will be too dry, so dry that the
fungus will not grow normally upon it. If, on the other
hand, the dairy is too cool the whey will not leave the curd
108
MODURN DAtRY-FARMINO.
rapidly euough ; it will be impossible to handle it, and it
will never make a cheese. The perfect drainage of whey
from curd therefore depends upon temperature. ^
■ In making pressed cheese sour whey assists in the
development of acid. Where sour whey is not employed
in the process of manufacture acidity is more fully
developed in the evening's milk. If this comes from the
cows at 90° F., and is passed into the cheese vat through
a strainer, the dairy being warm enough, it will have
retained sufficient heat by the morning — i.e., 68° to 72° F. —
to have developed sufficient acid for the perfect continuance
of the process. This development is essentially important
in cold weather, when the milk set in a cold dairy would
fall within two or three degrees of the temperature of the
dairy, while if it fell below 65° F. the process would
have to be modified. Many expert makers test the milk
in order to ascertain its percentage of acid, not only at
this point or when the rennet is added, but when the
wliey is drained from the cheese vat.
The ripening of cheese may be described as the first
stage in the process of putrefaction, which is the result
of the action of the bacteria in milk. If these organisms
were destroyed, as they can be by heat, cheese as we
know it could not be made. Moulds or fungi also exert
an influence upon the character of milk used for cheese-
making, as we have seen in reference to the manufacture
of soft cheese. The spores or seeds of these tiny plants
are distributed in the air, and, faUing into the milk, change
it either for evil or for good. Their growth depends
not only upon the air itself, but upon temperature and
humidity. The growth of the blue mould in the veins
of a Stilton, Gorgonzola, Roquefort, or Wensleydale
cheese is facilitated by the process of manufacture. Thus
they are unable to grow in the Cheddar or Cheshire, as
in all pressed cheeses, because of the exclusion of air and
moisture by the press. In the vein cheese, however, there
is no pressure exerted; the curd, being put together in
cylinders in a comparatively loose condition, leaves
interstices which retain air, and thus enable the fungus to
grow, as it will at a low temperature.
PRINCIPLES or CHEESE-MAKING.
109
The weight of cheese depends chiefly upon two factors,
the fat and the casein. It has been shown by repeated
and extensive experiments that the casein in large volumes
of average milk represents two-thirds of the fat of that
milk, while, as lactation increases the proportion of both,
the casein increases in larger proportion than the fat.
Rich milk makes more cheese than poor milk, because
of the extra fat and casein which it contains ; but it is a
curious fact that this weight is also influenced by the
increase in the water which is incorporated with the cheese.
Thus for every pound of fat present in milk there is a
corresponding increase of -Bib. of casein and lib. of water.
Another point of importance is that in making cheese from
rich milk there is a smaller loss of solids which pass into
the whey than when poor milk is used.
Cheddar Cheese.
The most important type of cheese made in this country
is known as Cheddar, which practically represents the
system of cheese manufacture in Canada and in our
AustraUan Colonies. Cheddar is perhaps the most typical
and popular cheese made in the world, but a fine sample
is comparatively rare, and we have never seen one imported.
The nutty flavour of this cheese is curiously characteristic of
the very finest Gruyere and Gouda. In making Cheddar
cheese the evening's milk is strained into the cheese vat
as it comes from the cows, and is left there until the following
morning. Care is taken to prevent the rising of the cream,
but as some cream does rise this is skimmed in the morning,
added to a portion of the milk, in which it is stirred and
returned to the vat. The new milk of the morning is then
added, and heat being raised, the warm jacket increases
the temperature of the mixture to the required degree,
which we may assume to be 85° F., perhaps the most
commonly adopted in practice.
As we have seen, the evening's milk should be ripe in
the morning — that is, it should contain acid. If it is not
ripe enough the maker has the option of adding sourwliey,
or increasing the temperature for renneting, of scalding
once or even twice later on, or of prolonged stirring to
110
MODERir DAIRY-rARMING.
give time for its development. When the required
temperature has been reached, and is constant, the rennet
is^ measured, mixed with water, distributed over and
stirred into the milk. It is important that the quantity
of milk should be gauged, measured, and recorded, together
with the subsequent weight of the cheese and all details
connected with its manufacture. Where the rectangular
jacketed vat is used there will be no difficulty about
heating or scalding, but as round tubs are still employed
by many manufacturers it will be necessary to describe
how the required temperature should be reached. The
quantity of milk being ascertained, a portion is removed
into a small vat and heated to such a temperature that
when it is poured back into the tub the mixture will be
the exact temperature required. The rule of procedure
may be succinctly described in the following way : Tlie
number of gallons of milk in the tub are multiplied by
the number of degrees through which they have to be
raised or reduced, the figures obtained being divided
by the number of gallons of milk in the small vat or warmer.
The result of this calculation will give the number of degrees
above or below the temperature to which tlie milk in the
small vessel must be brought.
Supposing, for example, we have 45gal. in the cheese
tub and^ 15gal. in the warmer at a temperature of 80° F.,
and it is necessary to heat the whole volume to 85° F.,
we have to raise the smaller volume of milk through
300 degrees of heat, i.e., 45 plus 15 multipUed by 5. If
we divide the figure 300 by 15 we get 20 degrees as a
result, and this added to the temperature 80 degrees
brings us to 100° F., which represents the temperature
to which the 15gal. must be brought. This temperature,
however, would be too high, and it is for this reason that
we have adopted it, for it is not desirable to heat the milk
much above 90° F., and therefore we have to make
a fresh calculation, when we find that in order to bring the
whole volume to 85° F. one half the milk must be
heated to 90° F. >'■ In all these proceedings it is important
to prevent heat being lost. Thus, when a small volume of
milk is to be used for cheese-making it should be put into
Ill
a wooden tub, which is a non-conductor, and even then
it should be covered with a blanket to prevent the escape
of heat.
If sour whey is to be employed, as it sometimes is
with the object of assisting in the formation of acid, it
must be raised to the temperature of the milk in the vat,
and in medium quantity. This whey should be the
by-product of a previous making, and one which can be
thoroughly rehed upon. Although the exact quality of
the cheese cannot be tested until it is ripe, a skilled maker
is practically able to determine as the result of his day's
work whether he has succeeded or not in making a first-
class article. If the whey is obtained from an inferior
day's work it may communicate its inferiority to the
cheese which it assists in producing, and so from day to
day, as the whey is carried forward for mixing with the
next day's milk, that inferiority may be perpetuated.
Curd Knife.
Sour whey should never be added to milk which is extra
acid in consequence of high temperature. If sour whey
is not to be used in cheese-making, it is essential that the
evening's milk should be ripe in the morning before it is
added to the morning's milk, and that ripeness is only
obtained by an increase in the temperature at which the
milk has been kept. It should, in a word, be kept
sufficiently warm to assure a temperature of from 62° to
68° F., and on no occasion less than 62° F.
A rise in the temperature is followed by an increase
in the number of bacteria, and with this increased number
there is increased decomposition of the sugar and a conse-
quent production of lactic acid. If sour whey is used in
the process of manufacture a temperature of 63° to 64° F.
will be sufficient for the evening's milk when morning
arrives. The production of acid is not only caused by
112
mODUnN DAIRY-rARMING.
the temperature at which the evening's milk is liept through
the night and by the addition of sour whey, but also by
the fact that the curd and whey are scalded, and sometimes
scalded twice, in the subsequent process.
The curd forms and is fit to cut in forty to fifty minutes
after the rennet has been added to the milk. In making
Cheddar it is cut in cubes, as we have already described
in the previous chapter, but care must be taken neither
to drag it with the knives as they are drawn from one end
to the other nor to bruise it, and so to cause a loss of fat
in the whey. After cutting and resting the curd gradually
falls, leaving the clear greenish whey above it. It may
then be covered for a quarter of an hour, during which
time whey will still further be expelled from the cubes,
which have now shrivelled into small shapeless lumps.
Curd Knife.
This expulsion depends as much upon the acidity produced
as upon the heat which has caused it. If too much whey
is expelled in the process the work is quicker, but the cheese
may sufiev in consequence. It is essential that some whey
should be left in the curd, inasmuch as it contains the
sugar of the milk, and this is the material which, decom-
posing with the assistance of bacteria, produces the acid
which plays so great a part in the subsequent character
and flavour of the cheese.
When the urd has fallen to the bottom of the vat
stirring and breaking commences, this being performed
with a special implement. This process still further
assists in the expulsion of the whey and in the reduction
of the size of the pieces of curd. It must be gently done,
and from time to time the workman should examine the
curd in order to see whether the pieces vary in size and
PRINCIPLES OF CHEESE-MAKING.
113
whether they are progressing towards the perfect form
which they should take before the process is complete.
Stirring and breaking should now be continued until the
highest temperature which is produced by the hot jacket
of the vat has been reached. Some makers stir longer
before heating commences, others stir while heating
progresses, and others again after the curd has reached
its highest point, in order that when touching the sides
of the vat, which are the hottest, it may not be damaged.
When stirring is complete the vat is covered with its lid,
when the curd settles at the bottom.
In ^ the process of scalding, which further develops
the acid and improves the condition of the curd, the whole
volume of curd and whey is heated to 87° F. up to
94° P., varying with the season and the practice of the
maker. Some manufacturers scald a second time, the
second scald being at a higher temperature than the
first. In some cases the scald is restricted to a degree
between 94° and 98° P., while in others it may reach
104° P. at the outside. The first process of scalding,
like the second scald, depends upon the temperature at
which the milk was kept through the night, upon the
temperature of renneting, and the employment or non-
employment of sour whey. Just as stirring must be continued
after the first scald, so it must be followed after the second
scald. This process completed, the curd falls to the bottom of
the vat, and when the whey has been drained off, as it must
be, it mats or coalesces, forming practically one solid
block. It is important at this stage to ascertain the
condition of the curd, whether or not it is sufficiently
mature. Some makers test it by its smell and its taste,
others employ the hot iron, ascertaining how long an elastic
string can be drawn when a piece of curd is attached to the
iron and gently pulled. These, Uke many other points
in the process of making cheese, are better learnt in practice.
One week over the cheese vat with an experienced maker
on a farm or in a dairy school will do more than volumes
written upon the -subject.
^ Assunaing that the curd is now fit for further treatment,
it is cut into blocks of about 6in. square and piled upon
I
MODERN DAIRY-r ARMING.
the rack at the bottom of the vat. The object is to develop
acid, and this will follow the aeration of the curd while
maintaining its warmth, which is not difficult, considering
that the vat is still warm and that the curd after cutting is
covered with one or more cloths to prevent the escape of
Pond's Curd-Mill.
heat. In a short time the cloths are removed, and the
curd which has adhered is again cut into blocks and turned
and placed in a new position that the inside pieces may
become aerated as well as those which were outside.
During this entire portion of the process the one object'
FBINCIFIiES OF CHESSE-MAKIKG.
115
is to obtain fine, mellow, silky curd before it is ground,
salted, and placed within the press. When cutting and
aeration have been sufficiently protracted the blocks are
broken up with the hand, placed in cloths, tied up, and
pressed upon the rack, the weight of the pressure depending
upon the weight of the curd. It is important at this stage
that the curd should have maintained a temperature of
90° F. After pressing the curd will have once more
become a solid mass, when it is cut and turned again, and
left sufficiently long to ripen for grinding.
The curd-mill should be a simple, well-constructed
implement, designed to prevent squeezing or crushing
Cheese-Mould. W, Pond and Son.
the pieces, and so causing a loss of fat in the whey. It
sometimes happens that a further development of acid
may be necessary after grinding, but this is seldom the
case if the work has been well performed throughout. We
cannot, however, omit to impress upon the reader the
importance of acid in the curd, as all depends upon its
presence in sufficient quantity to produce a mellow cheese.
The ground curd is now salted at the rate of 2|lb. of finely
ground and dried salt per 1121b. of curd. When an early
ripening form of cheese is made, as it is in Cheshire, 21b.
is sufficient, for it must be remembered that to some extent
I 2
116
MODKRN DAIRY-r ARMING.
salt prevents decomposition, witliout wHch there can be
no perfect cheese. All salt should be dried, ground as
finely as possible, and dried again until its weight is fairly
constant. There is considerable, dif!erence in the influence
of salt as between that prepared in this way and the raw
material as it is purchased. There should therefore be
Cheese-Press.
no variation in the practice by using dried fine salt upon
one day and coarse moist salt upon another. After
grinding and salting, which must be carefully perfornied,
the curd is ready for the round mould or vat which gives
the cheese its shape and enables it to be pressed. The vat
PRINCIPLES OP CHEESE-MAKING.
117
is therefore lined with a cheese-cloth so arranged that it
will cause no wrinkles or creases upon the crust of the
cheese. The temperature of the curd should now be
70° F. If it is higher there is a danger of fat being
pressed out of it in the whey when it is in the cheese-press.
In our early days the presses employed by cheese-
makers were of a very primitive character. Now,
however, the press is an implement which enables the
maker to do perfect work with very little trouble. When
the cheese is placed in the press, pressure should be
put upon it until the whey commences to run, and then it
must be increased gradually for an hour or two and left
until the following morning. It is then removed from
the press, taken out of the mould, enveloped in a clean
cloth, turned, and pressed again. This practice is con-
Moulds for Cream Cheese. Dairy Supply Company.
tinned for three days, at the end -of which the cheese is
perfectly firm, when it is covered with incipient crust.
It is then placed upon a stage or cheese-table and
covered with a bandage which is marked or labelled
with the date and weight. The whole of this portion of
the process should bo learnt in the dairy itself ; it cannot
be adequately described.
Cheddar cheese is not coloured artificially, as is the
case with Cheshire and sometimes with Gloucester and
Leicester, as well as with some Colonial cheese. No cheese
is naturally yellow, the colour being conveyed solely
by the annatto, to which reference has already been made.
The newly bandaged cheese is removed to the ripening
room, and placed either upon the floor or upon a wooden
shelf, where it is examined and turned daily, and where
it gradually acquires its crust or coat. The cheese-room
118
MODEBM SAIKY-rAEMING.
above all things stould be dry, and maintained at a
temperature which varies from 60° to 68° F. Where
many cheeses are made the cheese-room is artificially
heated with hot-water pipes, stoves and fires being partial
in their power and leaving the room with an uneven
temperature. The cheese-room must be well ventilated.
If shelves are employed the cheeses should be changed
from shelf to shelf day by day, those upon the top shelf
being placed below and finally at the bottom, and vice versa.
The texture of a cheese, and consequently its solubility,
depends largely upon the percentage of the fat of the milk
from which it was made. The casein of milk is an
insoluble substance, but in the process of ripening in a
cheese it becomes perfectly soluble, its solubility being
Mould for Curd Chees;. Dairy Supply Company.
helped by the fat with which it is combined, and the
greater the quantity of fat the more rapid and perfect the
solubility. High-priced cheese is always mellow, soluble
on the tongue, mild in flavour, and essentially nutty.
One pound of Cheddar cheese is, on the average of the
season, made from 101b. of milk, but where rich milk is
employed lib. may be made from 81b. of milk, or, on the
other hand, where the milk is poor in quality it may take
more than lUb. to make lib. of cheese. It is a striking
and yet curious fact that while large cheeses are made
from comparatively small quantities of milk, the solid
matter in that cheese represents only half the solids which
the milk contains. Thus the average weight of solid
matter in the whey which has been drained from the
iPKINOlPLES OF CHEESE-MAKING.
119
clieese-vat is equal to the solid matter in the cheese which,
as curd, was removed from it. In the cheese the solid
matter consists almost entirely of casein and fat, while
in whey it consists almost entirely of sugar and mineral
matter. It is true that very small quantities of casein
and fat find their way into the whey, while still smaller
portions of minerals find their way into the cheese.
While the description of the process of the manufacture
of Cheddar cheese is closely followed wherever that cheese
is produced, it is an indication of the processes which
are similarly followed in the manufacture of every other
type of hard or pressed cheese, whether we refer to the
Gruyere of France and Switzerland, the Parmesan of
Italy, or the Dutch cheeses of Holland. If we were to
describe the complete process of manufacture of either of
these varieties, or of our own Cheshire, Derby, or Leicester,
we should find that all were identical in one respect,
inasmuch as the principles involved are precisely the same
in each case. It is in the variation of the process not in
the principles that we find the cause of difference of
texture, of flavour, of form, and of size. Like Gruyere
and the finest Gouda, Cheddar cheese stands higher than
other varieties because of its flavour, a flavour which
attaches to the two varieties just named, but which is
not found in any other British cheese. The flavour of the
filbert nut is almost unknown to any type of cheese
but those to which we have referred. There is practically
no flavour but a " cheesy " one present in any British
cheese apart from the Cheddar variety, and it is for this
Straw Mat. Dairy SiippV Company.
120
MODERN DAIRY-PARMING.
.reason that tkey do not possess tlie character of the prime
cheeses of the world. We may compare them to imported
butter, which is as unUke a fine nutty brand of British-
made private dairy butter of the first rank as it can possibly
.be. The public at large are unacquainted with this
flavour, whether it be in butter or in cheese, and therefore
they do not miss it ; but it is precisely this flavour which,
when combined with texture, ensures the highest price in
the market, and if cheese manufacturers would insist on
obtaining it they would realise much more for their produet,
as much indeed as the few who always ensure it. If we
inspect the cheese at the London Dairy Show we find
numbers of samples of the very best type, but much
•larger numbers which possess no such flavour, and seldom
such texture. It is not so much a recognition of an
empirical method of manufacture as in the principles
involved, and it is therefore by a study of the influence
of acid, of the exact proportion of acid present in the
curd in the different stages of manufacture, and how to
produce acid and to control it that the maker is helped
to make the perfect cheese.
Veined CJieese.
Although space prevents our describing the method
of producing Stilton, Wensleydale, or Gorgonzola cheese,
it is important that a few words should be said about these
blue or veined varieties, which owe their description to
the presence of the fungus or mould which grows within
them. A veined cheese is not a pressed cheese. In making
Stilton the whey is removed from it by drainage or
gravitation, and partially by evaporation as it is ripening.
The curd is removed from the tub into cloths placed within
a sink or draining-table ; the whey immediately commences
to run, and in due course the corners of the cloth are
tied together, giving sUght pressure to the curd, and thus
assisting it to part with its whey. When the curd has
become sufficiently solid and acid as it lies in the whey,
which some makers keep in the sink for some time, it is
removed into coolers or trays to aerate, to dry, and to.
mature. Supposing this curd to have been produced
PRINCIPLES OP CHEESE-MAKIlfG.
121
from milk of tte morning, the milk of the evening being
treated in the same way, there will be two lots of curd
upon the following morning, one nearly twelve hours older
than the other. Their difference in age will have caused
a difierence in their texture and condition, and when, after
the proper stage is reached, they are broken up by hand
in a tinned-iron mould, they are mixed together intimately,
the mould being filled and left for further manipulation,
until finally, after repeated tmms, the metal mould is
removed and the cheese is enveloped in a bandage which
helps it to sitnd alone. The bandage is changed every day,
the cheese manipulated to maintain its form and character,
when it is gradually covered with a crust until it looks
like a Stilton.
Camembsrt Mould. Dairy Supply Company.
It may now be observed that, owing to the difference
in the condition of the two curds which were mixed together
in the metal mould, they have failed to coalesce or unite
into one solid mass as if they had been pressed, with the
result that there are interstices in which the air remains,
and which permit of the growth of the fungus from
the spores which found their way into the curd
from the air. As the cheese ripens these spores mature
and the young plants commence to develop. There
is, however, no possibility of their normal growth unless
the conditions which are essential are maintained. These
conditions involve sufficient moisture and warmth. Thus,
if the temperature is too low they remain dormant.
On the other hand, if the temperature is too high the
cheese becomes so dry that they fail to grow from want
of moisture. In the process of manufacture, too, all
122
depends upon the quantity of rennet used and the
temperature at which the work was performed, or whether,
owing to the excess of either, the curd becomes too dry
and it cannot mature, for the reasons already given.
In practice there are always failures, but while the
skilled manufacturer makes few faulty cheeses, the
unskilled makes many ; and so it is that Stilton cheese is
frequently sold to dealers at 6d. a pound in normal times,
whereas the skilled maker is able to obtain from Is. to
Is. 3d. It should be observed that Stilton cheese is not
made from cream or cream and milk, but from new milk
alone, and that its creamy consistency is due to the milk,
although its texture is improved where rich milk is used.
The manufacture of Gorgonzola is neither so perfect
nor so clean nor made from such sound milk as Stilton,
and knowing as we do, having visited Italy to gather
information, how faulty and objectionable that process is,
we are the more amazed that English people should exhibit
so great a preference for a material which no one who
knows anything about its production could possibly
recommend, particularly in face of a much superior home-
made article.
Soft Cheese.
Soft-cheese making is well known in the dairy schools
of this country, and to some extent to those who have
passed through them. The process of manufacturing
matured or ripened soft cheese was introduced into
this country by ourselves over thirty years ago, but
Coulommlers Mould. Dairy Supply Company.
PRINCIPLES OF CHEESE-MAKINQ.
123
partly owing to the preference shown for established
institutions, partly to the absence of markets which exist
in France for the sale of these types of cheese, and partly
to the difference in the type of farm occupied by French
makers, soft-cheese making, in spite of its superior profits,
is not acceptable to the English dairy-farmer. There is,
however, no reason why it should not be exploited, and
once one or two men build up a solid business with a
variety like the Camembert, the Brie, or the Coulommiers
there will be many followers. The producer of a Cheddar
weighing 1001b. is able to sell it to a dealer without the
slightest trouble, but there is practically no available
deed Mould for Making Lightly-pressed Soft Cheesca
Dairy SuppV Company.
dealer in soft cheese on the market, except the two or
three individuals who import it from France, and who are
not likely to be gainers by transferring their custom from
experienced manufacturers to those who are to some
extent inexperienced.
In making a soft cheese the average maker employs a
small quantity of milk, and in order to retain its temperature
after renneting it is placed in a wooden tub which can be
covered with a lid, and if necessary, as in colder weather,
with a blanket to prevent loss of heat. The curd mus-t be
sufficiently brisk or elastic to be removed in thin slices,
and placed in tinned-iron moulds, which are usually
round or cylindrical, sometimes perforated and sometimeu
124
MODERN DAIRY-PAEMING.
not. A cheese like the Cameinbert or Coulommiers is
made from the milk of the morning and the milk of the
evening. ^ Thus the cylinder is filled with fresh curd in
the morning, and this having parted with most of its whey
by the evening and sunk halfway down to the table, is
filled again with the evening's curd, and on the following
morning turned upon it's mat, a fresh one being supplied
at each turning, until it has become solid and will stand
without its mould or cylinder enveloping it. The newly-
made cheese is subsequently removed and placed upon
straw or rush-mats on a shelf, where it is daily turned
upon a clean mat, subsequently salted one side at a time,
and then removed to the first curing-room. Here it is
daily turned until it is covered with a white velvety mould
or fungus, which in course of time is in its turn covered
with a blue fungas ; and then it is taken to a second
curing-room for the completion of the process. It may
be pointed out here that when the white mould has grown
the cheese is at its best for eating, for it is then mellow
and rich on the palate.
The process of ripening or maturing commences from
the outside, the half-ripe cheese being creamy and soluble
near its coat, but still firm and insoluble in its interior.
The perfect growth of the mould, exactness in temperature,
and perfect ventilation are all essential to successful
ripening. The cheese must not be too dry nor too moist.
In the latter case it commences to run, and spoils, while
in the former, whether owing to too high a temperature
in the first process or to the use of too much rennet,
the whey drains too freely, the mould fails to grow, and
in consequence the cheese remains insoluble. It is
not until, with the assistance of the mould, the casein;
which is a nitrogenous substance, has decomposed and
assisted in the formation of ammonia ^hat the acid cheese
becomes neutral and subsequently alkaline, and that in
consequence the bacteria within it become active and
transform the neutral curd into one which is highly
flavoured and mellow.
There are no more perfect cheeses in the dairy world
than the Brie, the Camembert, and the Coulommiers.
FBIirCIFI.i:S OF CHEESS-MAKIITG.
125
Tliey provide a much greater weight for a given sum of
money than a pressed cheese. They are not only a delicious
luxury, but highly nutritious, and adapted, whether in
their green or ripe state, to the digestion of the most
susceptible. Many persons who cannot consume pressed
cheese, like Cheddar or Cheshire, Stilton or Gruyere,
can eat a mild Brie or Coulommiers, and at each meal.
Thus, too, a given weight of milk produces a greater
weight of cheese of this type than of any type of hard
cheese. If those who feel no interest, or only a half-
hearted interest, in this industry were to visit the markets
of Lisieux, Bayeux, or Caen, in Normandy, "or the great
cheese market at the Paris Halles, and realise how
enormous is the number of cheeses produced for the public,
they could scarcely fail to lament the fact that there is no
corresponding industry of the kind in this country on
even a small scale.
Soft-cheese making in France is essentially a small-
holders' industry, although there are many large makers,
one with whom we are acquainted having usually 10,000
Camembert in his dairy at one time. The work, too, is
chiefly performed by women, and especially by old women,
whose thought and care are so essential, and who are much
more reliable than women who are younger. Among
other varieties of cheese made in France three or four
may be mentioned : Pont I'Eveque, which obtains its
name from a small village near Havre well known
to ourselves ; Gournay ; Bondon, a tiny loaf cheese made
by peasant farmers ; Neufchatel, which is a ripened and
sometimes blue-veined Bondon ; and, lastly, the Gervais
or Pommel, made by manufacturers of these names at
Gournay, to both of whom we have paid a visit. The
last two varieties, which are composed of a mixture of
cream and milk, are enveloped in jackets made of blotting-
paper, and closely resemble a cream cheese, although
they cost about half the money. These are as well made
in this country as in France. In most instances the cheeses
to which reference has been made are manufactured in
our best dairy schools, so that the process can be learnt at
a comparatively small cost.
INDEX.
A.
Abortion, 42
Age of cows, determining, 39
Albuminoids in food, 63
Alfalfa, value of, 22
Amo milking-machine, 12
Australian cheese, 109
Ayrshire breed, 54, 55
B.
Babcock milk-tester, 80
Bedding, 48
Beestings, 31
Bondon cheese, 125
Breeds of cattle, 52 See Cows
Bretonne breed, 59
Brewers' grains, 49
Brie cheese, 102, 107, 123
British cows, yield of, 12
Holsteiu, 59
Brittany bubter, 85
Buildings, 44
Burette, 71, 78
Butter, 82
analysis of, 82
Argentine, 2
best English, 2
Brittany, 86
churning, 90
colour of, 83
constituents of, 82
consumption of, 4, 9, 10
Danish, 2
defective, 91, 95
Butter, Devonshire, 88
does it pay to make ? 5
flavour of, 83
■foods, effect of, on, 83
French, 2
grains of, 96
imported, 84
imports, value of, 4
keeping qualities of, 86
newly-made, 84
Normandy, 2, 86
old metihods of making, 85
preserving, 99
.products, value of, 9
quantity produced from given
amount of milk, 85
Russian, 2
salting, 85, 97, 100
systems of making, 85
temperatures, 87-100
washing, 96, 97
water in, 82
worlters, 97, 98
yields, 12, 13
Butterine, 2
Buying cows, 38
C.
Caerphilly cheese, 102
Cake foods, 76
Calves, rearing, 31
Calving, 40
malpresentation in, 42
period between service and, 41
season for, 40
INDEX.
127
Camembert cheese, 102, 107, 123
mould, 121
Canadian cheese, 109
Carbohj'drates in food, 60, 62
Casein, 74, 118
Cattle, breeds of, 52
Cheddar cheese, 109
Cheese, 101. See also Curd and
specific names.
acid, role of, 106
Australian, 109
blue mould in, 108
Canadian, 109
Cheddar, 109
cleanliness in making, import-
ance of, 101
colouring, 117
consumption, 9, 10
cream, 102
Dutch, 103
English, 102
French, 102
fungi in, 108, 120, 121
Italian, 103
kinds of, 102
locality, importance of, over-
estimated, 102
making, 103
mat for, 119
milk to use for, 103
mould in, 108, 120, 121
moulds for, 115, 117, 118, 121-
123
object of the maker of, 101
pressed, making, 103
presses, 116, 117
pressing, 103
products, value of, 9
quantity produced from given
amount of milk, 118
renneting, 103-125
ripening of, 108
ripening so-ft, 124
room, 118
saiting, 115
sscond-class, large proportion
of, 9
sheep's milk, 102
soft, 122
soft, moulds for, 123
Cheese, Swiss, 103
temperatures for, 103, 110, 113
texture of, 118
varieties of, 102
vat, 106
veined, 120
weight of, 109
weights of, per milk used, 118
whey, addition of sour, to,
108, 111
Cheshire dieese, 102, 104, 108,
115, 117
Churning cream, 90
milk, 99
protracted, 95
temperature for, 92
time occupied in, 95
when to stop, 95, 96
Churns, butter-making. 90
for transit of milk, 37, 38
Lister's end-over-end, 93
sizes of, 94
types of, 94
Cleanliness, importance of, 33, 101
Colostrum, 31
Condensed milk, 8
milk, consumption of, 10
Consumption of dairy products,
British, 10
Cooking of cattle food extrava-
gant and useless, 65
Cooling-house, 51
Cooling milk, 18, 36, 51
Cost of foods, 25
of producing milk, 24
Coulommiers cheese, 102, 123
mould, 122
Cow-house, bedding in, 48
flooring of, 46
foodstoi-e, 48
hay-racks in, 45
light in, 45
manger, 46
manure, removal of, 50
model, 45
partitions, 46
walls, 47
water-supjjly, 47
with Young's tubular fittings
and paving, 45
128
INDEX.
Cows, abortion in, 42
age of, determining, 39
Ayrshire, 54, 55
breeds of, 52
Bretonne, 59
British Holstein, 59
buying, 38
calving, 40
Dairy Shorthorn, 52
Devon, 54
drying, 40
Dutch, 59
Guernsey, 56
Holstein, 59
housing, 44
Jersey, 55, 57
Kerry, 58
Normandy, 52, 86
points of good, 38
purchasing, 38
records of, 51
Red Poll, 53, 54
Shorthorn, Dairy, 52
stalls for, 44
teeth of, 39
tying up, 48
varieties of, 52
yield of British, 12
Cream, 78
cheeses, 102
churning, 90
clotted, 78
consumption of, 10
mixing, 92
products, value of, 9
rising of, 77
skimming, 92
specific gravity of, 79
testing, 71
variation in, 78
Crops for milk production, 22
Curd. See also Cheese.
breaker, 107
cheeses, 102
coagulating, 103
cutting, 104, 106, 112
knives, 111, 112
mill, 114, 115
salting, 115
scalding, 113
Curd, stirring and breaking, 112
testing, 103
D.
Dairy Shorthorn, 52
Danish butter, 2
Derby cheese, 102
Devon breed, 54
Devonshire butter, 88
cream, 78
Drench when drying cow, 40
Drying the cow, 40
Dunlop c.leese, 103
Dutch cheese, 103, 119
E.
Edam cheese, 103
English cheeses, 102
Escutcheon, 54
Evening milking, 32, 68
F. -
Fat in cajttle food, 60, 63
of milk, 7, 33, 67, 73
Feeding, 60. See also Foods.
albuminoids, 63
calves, 31
carbohydrates, 60, 62
cows. 12, 22
fat, 60, 63
grass, analyses of, 61
mineral matter, 50, 63
nitrogenous, 63, 64
protein, 60, 62
ration required, 63
well-balanced dietary essential,
61
Fermentation of milk, 71
Fertilisers, 27
Filter, milk, 35
Flooring of cow-houses, 46
Fodder-carrier, Young's, 49
Foods, 60. See also Feeding.
analyses of, 54, 55
cake, 76
INDEX.
129:
Foods, carriers for, 49, 50
composition of, 60, 62, 63,
cooking of, extravagant and
useless, 55
cost of, 25
effects of, on batter, 83
for calves, 31
for cows,. 12, 22
liay, analysis of," 64
influences of, on milk, 69.
preparation of, 66 : .
relation of, to milk quality,. 65.
selection of, 60
store for, 48
supply of, abundant, an
essential to success, 22
French butter, 2
cheeses, 102
Fungi, 108, 120, 121
G.\.
Gerber, Dr. Nicholas, and im-;
pure milk, 7
tester, 80
Gerome cheese, 102
Gervais cheese, 125
Gestation, period of, 41
Gex cheese, 102
Gloucester cheese, 102, 117
Gorgonzola cheese. 9. 103, 108,
120, 122
Gouda cheese, 102, 103. 119
Gournay cheese, 102. 125
Government neglect. 11
Grains, brewers'. 49
Grass, analyses of, 61
impro\'ing, 28
more, in dry summers and
early winter, 29 ■
yield of, 26 . '
Grazing not to be relied on
solelv, 22
Grist-mifl, 49
Grooming, importance of, 40
Gruyere cheese, 102. 103, 119
Guernsey breed, 56
H.
Hay, analysis of, 54 •■ .
racks for, 46
i Herbage, improving. 28
yield of, 26
Herd. See Cows
building up, 15
management of, 31 • . .
Hinman Auto-milker, 13
Holstein, British, 59
Housing, 44
I.
Italian cheeses, 103
J. ■
•Jersey breed, 55, 57
yields, 13, 14 ' -
K.
Kerry cow, 58
Lactose, 75
Lancashire cheese, 102
" Lappering " of milk, 86
Leicester cheese, 9, 102, 117
Light in cowsheds, 45
Livarot cheese, 102
Long-rooted plants, improving
herbage by sowing, 28
Lucerne, value of, 22
M.
Maize, value of, as fodder, 22 .
Management of the herd, 31
Mangels, 25
Mangers, 46
Young's flush concrete, 47
Manure, removing from cow-
shed, 50
Manuring pastures, 26. 27
Margarine, 2, 3
Meadows, improving. 28
yield of , 26
Milk, 67 ; .
adulteration of, 80
analysis of, 68
casein of, 74, 118
churning, 99
K
130
INDEX.
Milk churns, railway, 37, 38
composition of, 67
condensed, 8, 10
consumption of, 9, 10
coiita,mination of, 7, 15
cooling, 18, 36, 51
cost of producing, 24
crops for producing, 22
demand for, 4
fat of, 7, 33, 67, 73
fat percentage greater in last-
drawn, 32
fermentation of, 71
filter for, 35
food influences on, 69
foods for producing, 22
for cheese-making, 103, 110,
113
impurities in, 6
lactose of, 75
lappering of, 86
mineral constituents of, 75
mirror, 54
pasteurising, 88
preservatives illegal, 73
prices, 6
l^roduction, value of, 9
purity of, testing, 70
quality of, 68
quality of, food in relation to,
65
railway transit of, 38
records, 13, 51
refrigeration of, 18, 36
refrigerator, Dairy Outfit
Co.'s, 36
renneting, 103
roots for producing, 24
separated, 67
separating, 88
setting-pans for, 87
skimmed, 79
souring of, 71
specific gravity of, 70
sterilising, 72
straining, 35
sugar of, 75
tainted, how to avoid, 76
testing purity of, 80
trade, the, 6
Milk, treatment of, for various
purposes, 77
yields, 12, 33, 52, 59
Milking, 32
cleanliness in, 7, 15
hand v. machine, 15, 33
method of, 33
stripping, importance of, 32
time, 32
" wet," contamination caused
by, 33
Milking-machine, 16
advantages of, 16, 72
Amo, 12
Hinman Auto, 13
Lister, 34
points in favour of, 34
Milking-pail, domed hygienic, 17
Mineral matters in food, 60, 63
Mond's (Mr. Robert) method of
milking, 18
Morning milking, 32, 68
Mould in cheese, 108, 120, 121
N.
Neufchatel cheese, 125
Nitrogenous foods, 63, 64
Normandy breed, 52, 85
butter, 2, 86
P.
Pail, domed hygienic, 17
Parmesan cheese, 103, 119
Partitions in cow-house, 45
Parturition, 40
Pasteurising milk, 88
Pastures, improving, 28
yield of, 26
Points of a good cow, 38
Pommel cheese, 125
Pont I'Eveque cheese, 102, 125
Port du Salut cheese, 102
Preservatives in milk illegal, 73
Preserving butter, 99
Productions, value of, 9
Protein in food, 60, 62
Purchasing cows, 38
R.
Eations, 60. See Feeding and
Foods
Reading school, 3
Rearing calves, 31
Recording system, 51
Red Poll breed, 53, 54
Refrigerating, 19, 36
Rennet, home-made, unsatis-
factory, 105
standard, 104
Renneting, 103-125
Roots as milk-producing foods,
24
Roquefort cheese, 102, 108
S.
St. Louis milking contest, 70
Salting butter, 85, 97, 100
School, first dairy, 3
Separated milk, 67
Separating milk, 88
Separator, Laval, 89
Perfect, 78
Sharpies, 89
Wolseley Ideal, 90
Service and calving, time
between, 41
Setting-pans for milk, 87
Sheep's-milk cheese, 102
Shorthorn, Dairy, 52
yields, 14
Silo, 22
Jewson and Sons' model, 23
Skimmed milk, 79
Skimming cream, 92
Smallholders, prosperity of. 5
Souring of milk, 71
Stalls, 44
Sterilising milk, 72
Stilton chee.se, 102, 103, 106
108, 120
Straining milk, 35
Stripping, importance of. 32, 68
Success, conditions of, 11
131
j Sugar of milk, 75
I Swedes, 24
j Swiss cheese, 103
grass crops, heavy, 27
T.
Taylor, Mr. George, on building
up a herd, 15
Teats, 38
Teeth of cows, 39
Temperatures for butter-
making, 87-100
for clieese-making, 103, 110,
Testing cream, 71
milk, 80
Time for milking, 32
Turnips, 24
Tying up cows, 48
U.
Udder, 38
V.
Varieties of butter. 85
of cattle, 52
of cheese, 102
W.
Walls of cow-house, 47
Water-supply in cow-house, 47
Watney's (Dr. Herbert) Jersey
I yields, 13, 14
I Wensleydale cheese, 9, 102, 108,
120
" Wet " milking, contamination
caused by, 33
Whey, 80
sour, use of, in cheese-making,
108, 111
Y.
Yield of grass, 26
Yields, milk, 12, 33, 52-59
"THE BAZAAR" FARM LIBRARY.
The Book of the Pig.
A complete and authoritative work on tlie Varieties, Selection, Breodifl"
vlli'^ifA '^t'^ Management of tlie Pig. Witli numerous illustrations." Bv
Professor James Long. Second edition, revised throughout; large nost 8vo
in waterproof material, gilt, price 7/6, by post 7/11.
Profitable Pig Breeding and Feeding.
A really- practical and clearly written book on the turning of Pio-s
to prohtable account By Thomas Allen; with a chapter on Diseases bv
Harold Leeney, M.R.C.V.S. Well illustrated. In waterproof material "iit
price 3/6, by post 3/11. ' " '.
Practical Pig-Keeping.
A naanuaj^ for Amateurs, based on personal experience. By R. D GfAHitAn
I'hird edition, revised; in paper, price 1/-, by post 1/2.
The Sniall-Holder's Handbook.
A concise but complete and clear work on the management of Farm and
pf'w ^f^PI- "^""y Cattle, Sheep, Pigs, Poultry, Bees, .Sic., for profit
By W. M. Elkington, assisted by Specialists. Fully illustrated. La.r=-e
post 8vo, in waterproof material, price 3/6, by post 3/11.
The Book of the Goat.
The recognised standard book on the subject, by H. S. Holmes Peglee, Hon
Secretary of the British Goat Society. Well illustrated. Fourth edition
completely revised; in waterproof material, price 6/-, by post 6/5.
Goat-Keeping for Amateurs.
Describing the Selection Breeding, and Practical Management of Goats for'
Milking Purposes. By H. S. Holmes Peglee, Hon. Sec. B.G.S. Illustrated
Second edition; in paper, price 1/-, by post 1/2.
The Book of Bee-Keeping.
A very practical, clear, and complete manual, especially written for
Beginners and Amateurs who have but a few Hives. By W. B. Webster
First Class Expert BB.K.A. Well illustrated. Fourth edition, revised'
in paper, price 1/-, by post 1/2; in cloth gilt, price 1/6, by post 1/8. *
Practical Poiiltry-Parming.
A thoroughly reliable guide for the Farmer, Small-holder, and Poultry-
keeper. By J. Stephen Hicks, Vice-President of the Poultry Club In
paper, price 1/-, by post 1/2. . ' ' -
Incubators and their Management.
A very practical book, brought right up to date. Bv J H STiTrnppij
(Author of '. Profitable Poultry-Faraing." i-c). Thoroughly iilustra"ed
Seyenth edition, completely revised; in paper, price 1/-, . by post 1/2.
London :
"THE BAZAAR, EXCHANGE AND, MART," ■
Windsor House, Bream's Buildings, E.C. "
PEIi-TED BY THE FIELD & QUIDEN (HORACE COX) LTD., WINDSOR HOUSE
bream's buildings, E.C,
A REVOLUTION sU'Ss
Dairy DuTFii C? I.
Kmcs Gross Loudon.
The mew " Tubular " has no
limit of capacity. The faster
you turn the faster it separates.
Yoa turn the handle
faster and get the job
done quicker.
It snicks up the milk as it can
deal with it. Perfect Sieoararion
at any speed yielding Oream of
uniform quality.
Greater capacity,
15 per cent, more cream
than any other separator. Stands
on the floor. Feed pan waist
high. One piece in bowl to wash.
Euns easily and silently.
The " STANDARD "mIZIVIILK FILTER
REMOVES ALL DUST AND SEDIMENT.
TO STAND OVER MILK COOI.Ell.
THE ''DOMED"
HYGIENfiG MILKING
PAIL.
Absolutely Necessary
for Clean Milk.
Keeps out Dirt.
Easy to use.
Easy to clean.
Easy to carry.
Strongly made
of tinned steel.
WRITE FOR CATALOaUE;
DAIRY OUTFIT CO. LTD.,
KING'S CROSS, LONEON.
R. A. LISTER & CO., LTD.,
DURSLEY, GLOS. Established 1867.
Manufacturers ot"
HIGH-GLASS FARM & DAIRY MAGHINERY
THE LISTER SEPARATOR.
THE LISTER PETROL AND
OIL ENGINES.
THE LISTER CHURN.
1:
THE LISTER BUTTER WORKER.
THE LISTER MILKING MACHINE.
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THE LIBRARY -9.MAY1R62
This book is to be returned to the Library on or before the
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