of Theology at Cla
“Th ۳ iit
Theology Library
SCHOOL OF THEOLOGY سو
AT CLAREMONT 9
California
From the library of
Wilson ۳1 Hume
TRUBNER’S COLLECTION
OF
SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS
OF THE PRINCIPAL
ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES,
EDITED BY Dr. R. ROST.
LIBRARIAN CF THE INDIA OFFICE LIBRARY.
IINDUSTANI, PERSIAN AND ARABIC,
LY E. H. PALMER, M.A,
فچی90++.ْ-:.
۱ SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR
| ۹3 OF
3
MOG
HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN
AND
ARABIC.
XN yp Vv BY
x
ible pies
E. H. PALMER, ۲۸. |5 70 -| 6 سے م
اا
LATE LORD ALMONER’S PROFESSOR OF ARABIC IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMRRINGS,
AND EXAMINER IN HINDUSTANI TO 11, M. CIVIL SERVICE: COMMISSION,
SECOND EDITION
LONDON
KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH, TRUBNER & Co., سآ
DrypEN House, GERRARD STREET, W.
1906
00٦ | پا+وماز
0۶ ۳۵ 580100
ate لت اھ
عق
PREFACE.
THE object of this Collection of Grammars is to provide
the learner with a concise but practical introduction to
the various languages, and at the same time to furnish
students of comparative philology with a clear and com-
prehensive view of their structure. The attempt to adapt
the somewhat cumbrous grammatical system of the Greek
and Latin to every other tongue has introduced a great
deal of unnecessary difficulty into the study of languages.
Instead of analyzing existing locutions and enleavoaring
to discover the principles which regulate them, writers
of grammars have for the most part constructed a frame-
work of rules on the old lines and tried to make the
language of which they were creating fit into it. Where
this proves impossible the difficulty is met by lists of
exceptions and irregular forms, thus burdening the
pupil’s mind with a mass of details of which he can
make no practical use.
In these grammars the subject is viewed from a dif-
ferent standpoint: the structure of each language is
vi PREFACE.
carefully examined, and the principles which underlie
it are carefully explained; while apparent discrepancies
and so-called irregularities are shown to be only natural
euphonic end other changes. All technical terms are
excluded unless thuis meaning and application is self-
evident; no arbitrary rules are admitted; the old classi-
fication into declensions, conjugations, etc., and even the
usual paradigms and tables, are omitted. Thus reduced
to the simplest principles, the Accidence and Syntax
can be thoroughly comprehended by the student on one
perusal, and a few hours diligent study will enable him
to analyze any sentence in the language.
The present volume is specially adapted for the require-
ments of Candidates for the Indian Civil Service and
for the various Military and Civil Examinations in India.
It will also be found an indispensable help to all who
are commencing the study of Oriental languages,
It forms the first of a collection of Simplified Grammars,
each containing cither one or a group of two or three
‘cognate languages, according to circumstances. . The
first volume consists of Hindustani, Persian and Arabic,
the latter, though not belonging to the same family as
the other two, is included because of the numerous
words and locutions which these borrow from it. This
PREFACE. Vil
volume will be followed by. Grammars of the Keltic
-and Slavonic languages and dialects, also of Modern
Greek, of Sanscrit, Pali, Burmese, Siamese, Malay.
Chinese, and Japanese,—likewise of Grammars of the
most important vernaculars of Modern India. The Keltic
section will contain Welsh, Gaelic, Irish, and Breton;
the Slavonic scction will comprise Russian, Polish,
Bohemian, Bulgarian; and the Scandinavian section
{celandic, Danish, Swedish, and Norwegian. A volume
on Anglo-Saxon is also in course of preparation. The
Kditor and Publishers, by the selection of the most com-
petent scholars for the work, and by the greatest care
in the production, hope to render this scries of the
utmost practical utility both to linguistic students and
comparative philologists,
للا H. ۰
2.0200 (۲6۳۱/75 188].
HINDUSTANI,
PERSIAN, AND ARABIC GRAMMAR
SIMPLIFIED.
HINDUSTANT.
‘THE ALPHABET,
The Persian-Hindistani alphabet is a modification of the
Arabic. It is written from right to left.
NAME. EQUIVALENT. PRONUNCIATION, ۱
أ Alf, 4 زه 4, ۵۵0۲۷ This is the spiritus lenis of the Greek, a
mere prop to rest an initial vowel on.
م 0 Le, ب
As in English. 1
Pe, P کپ
ee 0, 4 A soft dental 1 like the Italian.
Ta, t A hard palatal ¢. تا
Se, 8 انث
Jim, 7 As in English. سے
Che, 4 کچ
c 77, h An aspirate strongly breathed out from
the chest.
Fa Khe, kh Like cz in Welsh or Gaelic, or the German
ch as pronouuced in Switzerland.
1
+0
HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
EQUIVALENT. PRONUNCIATION,
A soft dental d as in Italian.
” A hard palatal d.
As in English. _ ;
A 507 تھ" Pe.
A-hard palatal ۰
As و in English.
Like the French j in jour, or our s in
pleasure,
As in English. -
As gin English.
Properly pronounced with the tongue full
against the front part of the palate, but
ordinarily pronounced like ات 2007 .
A guttural sound only heard in Arabie :
in India it is not often pronounced.
A guttural sound something like the
French r grasseyé.
As in English.
A very guttural رم like ck in theck, only
much stronger.
۳ in English, but g is always hard be-
fore all vowels, as کے gi, pronounced
| ghee, not jee
/
20
1
3
7
r
%
zh
8
sh
5
2
1
2
a, ete.
‘gh
7
4
0
NAME.
Dal, د
Dal, 5
Zal, د
y Re,
Re 3
4 ز
Zhe, ژ
Sin, س
Shin, ش
Sad, ضص
24 ض
Toe, ط
Loe, ظ
Ain, ۹
Ghain, ¢
Le, ف
0
کت Kaf,
گی Gaf,
2 Lam,
Dim,
٦
THE ALPHABET. ~ 3
NAME. RQUIVALENT. PRONUNCIATION.
w Wan, ۶ Asin English, but sometimes nasal at the
end of a syllable, when it sounds like
the French in bon; before 0 or f it
is sounded as m.
w Nearly as in English, but a little in- ت77 و
clined to ۰
80۳00 ۰ | | :
As in English.
us Ye 1
These are joined to the preceding letter by prefixing a small
turve or stroke, and to the following letter by removing the
eurve with which they all but ۵7 end: thus 0
DETACHED. INITIAL. MEDIAL. FINALe
ow J 2
ی نا 3 a Oo هی
ح 7 ۳
عہ یہ
t عع ی
ge 0 ces
كك 4 5 کت
1 ل ای سڈ
م 5 Re ¢
5 0 مت الل 2 ھ
if deprived of the curve would become unrecognizable; دور
hence they do not join to the left.
The above letters are all consonants.
ات
4 HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
The vowels are ۶ w (as in bull), and > a (pronounced like 4
in but), both written above the letter and 7 % written below .
the letter. uh Saas
Combined with } a, و0 و and ey, these become \ aa (a),
3 mw (a), ی ty (2), و 0 (pronounced as ow in cow), ی at (like
; in fine). ۱
No word can commence with a vowel in the Arabic character :
if it does the vowel is introduced by alif \.
When a syllable begins with a vowel, the mark = hamzeh is
used to introduce it.
But this hamzeh being written above the line requires a prop:
this in the case of ۵ is رأ in the case of ه it is رو and in the
case of 7 it is ری only that in the initial form this last is dis-
tinguished from the ordinary y by losing its dots: e.g. شهار
85-41, جع pie,” جاون ja-an, “I go,” کر 20-7, “any,” “some,”
فائدہ fa-ida, “advantage.”
” Tashdid doubles the letter it is placed over.
> Sulkin shows that the letter it is placed over has no
vowel.
= Waslah is only used over an initial اه in an Arabic
word, or over the Arabic article ال al, and shows that it
is elided.
~ Maddah is placed over an initial ey and shows that_ it
should be pronounced long, as آنا dna, “to come.”
If the first letter of an Arabic word be a sibilant or liquid
مات
THE ACCIDENCE, . ١ 5
the article ال is elided before it and the consonant itself doubled,
as عوام كاسن wwammu-nnas, “ common people,” ai) OL£
ubdu-llah, “ Abdullah” (the servant of Allah),
YHE ACCIDENCE.
_. Accidence teaches us the modifications of which words are
capable in order to express the various accidental cireumstances
of person, gender, number, time and place. Such modifications
-are called inflections, and extend to verbs and nouns alike,
INFLECTION,
The following are the only inflections used :
\ 5 at the end of a word shows that it is masculine.
feminine, 35 = 3 ی
| 2 when further inflected becomes ی é.
The affixes ی ۶ in nouns and ین é in verbs express the
masculine plurcl; when they are further inflected they become
۰ ون
express the feminine plural. ره an or we 3
cae kutté ka, of a dog. کا 2s kuttd, a dog.
kutton kd, of dogs. کت كا 7 cos kutté, dogs.
a girl. wh Si larkiyan, girls. رت بآ ou 3
larkiyon ka, of girls. لڑکیون کا
Where words end in a consonant the change of ۱ to ی and
ہے اا كا نع كار Se ae ا
کا یف et ا
6 HINDUSTANI’ GRAMMAR.
cs cannot take place, for the simple reason that there is no ۱ to
change.
But they can and do add ز ورن -as
mardon kd, of men. مردون mard, man or men. is سرك
7
Cases or Nouns.
The eases of nouns are’made by adding the following سی
called post-positions : :
کا ka expressing genitive case or a dependent relation.
کو ko for the objective case.
نی ne for the agent.
These will be explained later on in the syntax.
مه سی for the instrumental or ablative case.
21 ti 66s 95
ہیں men 1009301۷060 0
وو 0
on. 7 ۷ در
tak | Bp te”? تکٹ
ai for the vocative. أى and the prefix
PRONOUNS.
The pronouns are $
ہیں main, I. تو 28 or تیں tain, thou.
ee ham, we. تم tum, you.
In these هارا ara or ara is substituted for كا ka to express
the genitive; as
میرا mérd == mai(n)ard, of me.
tai(n)ara, of thee. = 14 تیرا
نح حار Tee يسك ور کیل و مار
PRONOUNS. 7
hamara, of us. همارا
of you ,10/01۲ رن 2
tujh in their in- عچهء en mujh and 0 تين and مین and
flected forms.
The other pronouns are formed as follows :
‘The syllable» ytat the beginning expresses the near demonstrative. ١
35 و 2 7 remote 7
5 5 عر ١
7 رو رح is relative. ۳
t وو is correlative.
Thus,
یہہ yth, و۵ wuh, . ا کون kaun, جون Jaun, تون taun,
this that who ? who, which that same
wh? yahan, وهان wahan, us kahan, جبان jahan, تبان tahan,
here there where wherever there
pol idhar, ادهر udhar, تدھر ,100 جد هر ,1:00/017 كدهر tidhar,
hither thither whither whither thither
يون yin, وون WM, گیون kyin, جمون J yin, تيون 20000
thus 80 how as 80
اننا dima, اتنا wena, کتنا Kitna, حننا jitna, تتنا titna,
this (so) many, that (so) many, how many, "as many, or so many, or
or much or much or much much as much
tab, تب jab, حب us-wakt, ) ۶2 kab, اسوقت) ,7 اب
now that time when when ~ then
taisd, تيسا kaisa, a aes كمسا wats, ويسا aisa, ایسا
(like this) so (like that) how (like what) as (like which) so (like the same) مع
8 HINDUSTANE GRAMMAR
In their formatives, ۰ the form assumed ‘by them before a
post-position, -4) yih, ول wuh, کون 5210۸, become أس 48, owl us,
کس: kis. “So, t00, خو jo, he who, and ps s0, its correlative,
make jis and ۰ ۳ ۱
The reflexive proncuns are: cot ap اینا) genitive apna,
objective کو wt dp ko, etc.), ”نآ“ and تمین tain, '' self,”
undeclined. آب) ap somet_mes means “your honour ;” its
genitive is then أنب كا dp ha).
7087-2081171078:
The relation which is expressed in other languages by a prepo-
sition, “‘ putting something before a word,” is in Hindistani
expressed by a post-position, “putting something after it.”
These are first the signs of the cases already given, the rest
are merely nouns of time or place in their inflected form with-
out اس وقستا 9۰ء : میں 0۲ کو us wakt, “ That time” =‘ then ;”
مرد کی جهت. mard ki jihat, “Tn the direction of the man.”
Jthat being feminine, the kd becomes 42 to agree with it. This
concord is always observed.
235 3 | GENDER.’
Words necessarily implying females are feminine. We
have seen that a feminine is made from a masculine in @ by
turning it intoz(p. 5). Other feminine terminations are ٴش 2 ish,
ہا ت 2» hat. OF course there are exceptions, and these are
mostly foreign words, where. the letter which would otherwise
<١ 9 > -.3728ج:20711
show the word to be feminine belongs to the root, as the Arabic
وشست wakt, “ time,’ which is masculine. ~ 5
All Arabic words of the form راهم تفعیل are feminine.
Some words are arbitrary in their gender, just as in English a
ship is feminine. These must be learnt by practice. Words not
included in the above categories are masculine.
000 77+
‘This is made by putting the noun with which comparison is
‘made in the ablative or instrumental case with سے se, and
leaving the adjective unchanged; as پہہ لڑکا اس سے اجها هی
yth larka us se achchha hat, “This boy is better than that.”
Sometimes, for greater clearness, the word زیادہ 206
“more,” is ”دہ or the Persian comparative, as بچهشر bth-tar,
“better,” may be introduced.
The superlative is made by adding سمب sab, “all,” as
سب لڑکوں سے اجھا sab larkon se achchha, “Best of all the
boys.” 1 ۱
NUMERALS.
۴۳۰۴09۷۸9
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0
from left to right as with us, and are combined in the same way
The numerical figures are They are written
as our own; 6.7, ۱۸۸۴۶ ۰
The Numerals in Hindistani are not easy to learn, as they
seem to have a different form for each number up to a hundred.
This difference is, however, only apparent, as in their original
1 See the Section on Arabic Grammar,
اوم ع ا ا سوس
i ی
10 HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
form they are as regular as our own. Without, however, going
into the philological question, I will show how they may be
وت ranged like the English numerals. ۱
First we have the digits 1 to 10, closely resembling those of
other Aryan languages. ;
Then the “teens,” represented by dra.
Then the “tys,” represented by is.
At 40 the ا۷٢۰ become irregular, and we must learn more,
namely, اس as for the “ty” of 50, .gi\ ath for that of 60, اتر
attar for that of 70, اسی asst for that of 80, and نوی nave ۰
for that of 90. ۱
19, 29, etc., up to 79, are expressed by 20 ,1ج 80—1, and
80 on.
teen arah
2
اگارہ 7
1 7و 5 ایکت 4 + os
كيارة gtyarah.
2 دو do 12 باره barah, 0۵-0۵ (be,
ef. Latin 25٠
لمن ۰ 13 Syed ۰
4 جار chair. 14 جودر* ۰
5 پاچ panch. 15 37::م تو پندرہ 0+
6 > ۰ Lor سوله solah.
7. كاحت p 7 سترة 6
8 ۸0۶1ھ اتهاره 18 :0 اي
9 انیس ۳19 ۰ و unis, one from (5)is.
10 دس das. ۰20 ہیس bis =bé-is =twain-ty.
ول" رٹ اود se و سا yi انين
NUMERALS, 11
ty وت ty 7s
0000 41 اأالكتاله 6.
رد ےر 9
“ 8 42 ببالئيس be-alis.
.8 تینتالیس 43
chau-dlis. حوالیس 44
.8 پینتالیس 45
09-۰ جهیالیس 46
۰ سینت لیس 47
artalis. اڑتالیس 7
.0 انهتا لیس
49 انواس unchds, one from
chas (5 ty).
50 ۰ Cues? ۰
)5(1 alternative awan
51 ایکاون ehawan.
' .20000 باون 52
۰ تر oe 53
< ۰ ین 54
9۰ کجہں 55
56 wea chhappan.
57 ستاون satawan.
58 اتهاون 00
59 a land | unsath, one from
6 (ty).
60 ile sath.
.8 بائیس 22
.10-8 تیلیس 23
8۰ جوبیس 24
pags? ۰ 25
.8 چھبیس 26
satd-is. ستائیس 27
atha-is. اٹھائیس 28
29 أنتيس untis, one from
tas.
30 ٹیس tis=t+is=
three-ty:
.6 أيكتيس 31
۶۰ بتیمس. ۰ 32
.۰ تمنتیس 83
,8 چونٹیس 34
۰ بینتیس 85
.8 چھتیس 86
۰ سینٹیس 87
.۰ اآنهنیس
artis. اتيس 0
.2 انتالیس (
.0 ا اہ
موی چالیس 40
ty. 4=
ast
9/031.
6-053.
10۳085 —
07101165,
pachast,
chhe-Gsi.
satast.
athést.
nawast,
11000100,
nawe
6:61:42.
۸37و٥0۰ ۔_.
tiradnawe.
chaurdnawe.
panchanawe.
pachanawe.
chhe-dnawe.
satdnawe.
athanawe.
nandnawe.
nawanawe.
sau.
800.
p. 14.
GRAMMAE.
(8)ty
أيكاسى 81
بیاسی 82
اتن دم
جوراسى 84
چچاسی 85
چهیاسی 86
ستاسى 87
اهاسی 88
نوأسى 89
نوی 90
90
ایکانیی 91
پبانوی 92
گنوی 98
چورانوی 94
پاچانوی 95
بچا نوی
چھیانوی 96
ستأنوی 97
ائهانوی 98
ننانوی | 59
نوانوی
ee )100
oem
HINDUSTANI
(6)ty sath
ایکسئ. ehsath. .
ial basath. —
ترسٹھ ۰
حونستم, chaunsath.
auras 00344 .
حهیاسته chhe-dsath.
0۰ سرسٹھہ۔
arsath. ازسته
sing’ \ athsath.
unhattar, one انہتر
from hattar (7) ty.
ype sattar. -
(1)ty ۰ hattar =sattar }
eu \ ekhattar,
gd 0,
0۰ تبتر
0۰ چرھتر
FES, pachhattar.
۰ چھہنر
۰ ستہتر
athattar. الهتر
undst, one from اناسی
asst.
asst. سی
1 The s and % being interchangeable, see
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
کر ری
VERBS, 13
The ordinal numbers are: 7
Ist يبلا 48
2nd دوسرا disra
8rd ٹیسرا 19۳3
4th تھا > chautha
and the rest by adding ون WAN, 0.8. بيسوأن 081 “twentieth.”
The termination wis wan, when inflected, becomes وین wen.
Fractions are:
1. SuBSTANTIVES. 2. ADJECTIVES.
را pa-o لور paun |
١ Au a quarter. َك 1 one quarter less.
بونی ۱ 8 جو تهائی 6
تاذ 1173-8, a third. . ساڈھے sdrhe, one half more.
لا فى
ادها adhd, a half (also used \ سوا sad, 8 quarter more.
as an adjective). ڈرژہ derh, one and a half.
arha-2, two and a half. اڑھائی | one & a quarter. ر60006-5 سو ای
VERBS.
Verbs only consist of a root which is combined with various
participial affixes and the auxiliary verb Zo be.
The simplest form of the auxiliary verb is that which ex-
presses “being” for each of the persons. This is generally
2 ۰
known as the substantive verb.”
SuBsTanTIve VERB.
The following comparative table shows the forms assumed by
this verb in the principal Aryan languages:
مت سر ee کت ا ان ین اک reid و اتا وت
Se هد و ۳ 1 5
14 HINDUSTANI: GRAMMAR.
PERSIAN. ZEND. Sanskrit. PRAXKRIT. ۱۱۱ ٭تتد ری :
al. ahmi. اعت dai ene
ای ahi 35 ast WG :
ی adi (aii) اعت # . . استب
۱ ايم mahi we 0 i
ابد ‘Gta 7 aha و
اند 7010 afer anti - oe
In Greek and Latin these become ext, etc., and sum, etc., it
bem a philological law that the 7 and s interchange.
When the Hindistani forms of the above are not. affixed they
take ۵ h before it, as هون hin, کی hat, ete.
Parts oF THE VERB.
The parts of verbs are the following :
Tur Root, as 25 gir, 0 19([ 35
Infinitive or Noun
of Action,
gir-na. گرنا nd, as نا
Mere Abstract or | ون and its inflections رین وى وى 8
Indefinite Action, ون 3 girun, 1 falling, ete.
Actual Future, گا ga.
and the participial affixes, viz. :
One doing, تا 4,
111 :
One done, ‘ec ۱ all inflected like nouns.
and the present and past tenses of the substantive verb هون han
ete., تھا tha etc.
THE TENSES OF THE VERB. 15
All the parts of the verb are but combinations.of the above.
For the different numbers, persons, and genders we have merely
to alter the rmastion أ ۶ into 2 for feminine, ة ی for mascu-
line inflections or plural, and in the aorist یں em for plural
masculine, and ين in for plural feminine, according to the rule
given on p. 5. 2
The root in its simplest form is used for the imperative
singular, as لکه “write thou.” To this we may add the
termination بى 476, which makes the command into a request.
جاهئی) 076716, from حاهنا chahna, “to wish,” is used in the
43 oe ce
sense of one ought,” we should,” — let us,” etc.)
Tur TENSES OF THE VERR,
Root لک Lith, “write.”
likh, Write. لكب
main likhin, I (may be) writing. مین لکهون
ham likhen, We (may be) writing. هم لکھیں
writing-shall. 1 و7 main سين لكهو نگا
main likhta hin, I (mase.) one-writing am. مين لکھتا هون
main likhta tha, I one-writing was. میں لکنها تھا
likha, I wrote. ۱۰۵۸-9۵ میں فى لکھا
likha hai, I wrote is, ۸0. the state it 702۵ سين فى لكها هی
wrote” is now a fact =I
have written.
18 HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR. ©
main-ne likha tha, I wrote was, ۶. the state من فى لكها ٹھا
““T-wrote’’ was the fact= ;
Thad written. .
wrote will be, 2.6. the state 1 ,۵98 1/5۸4 110-6 مین + نی لکها هوگا
“T wrote” will take place
shall have written. 21 _
From which examples we see that the tenses of the verbs
are formed merely by combinations of the words given above
(p. 14). The construction with the agent in فى ne will be ex-
plained further on.
By adding the adverbial particle هی or the termination ی 7
the word becomes emphatic, as ہی 7 (ol ist), “ this very ;”
so هوتا hota, “being,” in its inflected form of هونی hote, be-
comes, with the addition of هوتى هی ,هی hote hi="In the
condition of one actually being,” ۰ “Just as he was doing or
becoming something: ” 6. دیکهتا dekh-ta, “seeing,” ديكهتى هی
dekh-te hi, “‘ At the very moment of his seeing.”
The Hindustani language is very dramatic, never employing
the indirect narration, and the speaker is always as it. were
pointing to what he is talking about. So when it is required
to express a hypothesis and its consequence, it is sufficient to
mention the two things and place them as it were side by side:
thus Vile تو جو 7 أيسا كرتا تو میں wuh aisa karta to main jata,
“ 1+ he were to do so I would go,” dit. ““If he so doing then I
going.’ Hence the use of the present participle, e.g. كرتا karta,
as a conditional tense.
۲837011۲۸۴ ۰ 17
111710 ۳۸۲ VERBS.
Of course some verbs will not at first sight appear to form
their different parts exactly after this rule, and are therefore
called Irregular. As a matter of fact any apparent irregularity
is only due to necessary euphonic change. For example: کر نا
70۶۸3, ‘to do,” makes گیا syd in the past, and سرنا marnda,
“to die,” makes سوأ mu-d. This arises from the fact that’ the
original root contained the old vowel-consonant را and 588 2
(compare the English “‘oreate’”), this being hard to pronounce,
becomes resolved either into ar or 2: now گرا kara (though
it does occur in poetry) is not easy to utter, and kind is harder
still. We therefore get siya for the past, and karna for the
infinitive, the y being introduced simply to facilitate the pro-
nunciation. The cockney patois does precisely the same thing
(cf. I-y-aint).
In مرنا marnd, ‘to die,” the root originally contained a
vowel t (cf. سردن murdan in Persian and mors in Latin), from
which we get mu-d and mi-d=mu-w-d. Again هونا hond, ‘to
be,” makes Aiwa. Here a w is introduced for similar euphonic
reasons.
۲۸٥٥٢ 0
The Passive Voice is of very rare occurrence in Hindistani و
some grammarians cyen aflirm that it does not exist. There
2
18 HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR,
are, however, plenty of words and expressions to make up for
it; of. تمام ce کہا es بيب جلدی هو 717 jaldi ho mujhse
11076107 tamdam, “ May this story soon be finished by me,” ۰
“This story be from-me soon complete.”
When the Passive must be used, 2.6. when an active verb has
to be made passive, the past participle is used with the verb
حانا jana, “to go,” as مارنا 1716116, ‘to beat,” مارا جانا mara
jana, “to be beaten.” With this usage we may compare the
English “to get beaten,” “gct” being connected with “ go ;”
۰ ۰ 20
ef. American you get,” and our own امعم
Formation oF TRANSITIVE FROM INTRANSITIVE VERBS,
To turn a neuter into an active, or an active into a causal, ©
is added to the 8002 : a second causal verb may be formed from
this by adding 76 to the root. These are probably the roots of
‘the verbs آنا ana, “to come,” and iY lana=\} co “to bring,”
introduced to give further motion to the previously neuter or
inactive verb. a
Compound Worps,
Hindistani is very rich in Compound Words. Nouns of this
kind are for the most part borrowed from the Persian, and
these are so like English in their arrangement that they can
cause no trouble to the learner.
The types most in use are exactly analogous to such English
4 ۰ (a3
compounds as tinder-box,”’ block-head,” ‘“yosy-cheeks,” etc.
COMPOUND WORDS. — 19
The Compound Verbs are rather more difficult to explain, but
they range themselves readily under three heads.
1. Those where the root alone is used, as expressing mere
action, and is subsequently further defined or qualified by
another verb expressing the secondary condition of the person
of whom the action is predicated.
2. Where the present participle, ¢.g. كرثا karta, “one doing,”
is used, expressing the condition of the individual. The idea.
may be subsequently expanded, and a secondary predication
made of his state with regard to time and place.
3. Those in which the past participle, as گیا syd, is used to
express a complete action, and a further statement is added of
the condition of the person with reference to such action.
The first belongs te those verbs which are generally called
1. Intensives, 2. Potentials, 3. Completives, of which the fol-
lowing are examples :
1. تر پی جانا jand, to drink up (to go through it—get
it over).
کها جانا kha sand, to eat up.
ہو 4 اٹھنا bol uthna, to speak up (speaking—to stand up).
کاٹ ڈالنا zat 9672, to cut up (cutting—to use violent
action). - -
lity گر gir parna, to fall down (falling—to lie down),
yo کھو kho dend, to squander away (losing—to give).
25
20 HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
2. Any verbal root with
مُگنا sakna, to be able.
كها سکنا kha saknd, to be able to eat.
8. Any verbal root with چکنا chukna, ما finish.”
Note that in these compounds the root is unaltered, and the
second member of the compound only is conjugated ر* if this is
transitive it will take me in the past, but not otherwise (see
Syntax); eg. شیر کو مار دالا eal us ne sher-ko mar dala, ۳ he
slew the lion,” because we say اسنے الا : but LS كو كها uy وڈ
wuh roti-ko kha gaya, because we say گیا Be.
To the second class belong—1. Continuatives, and 2. so-called
Statistical verbs.
The only real compounds of this kind are those formed with
the present participle in its adverbial (¢.e. masculine inflected)
form, ہیں men, “in,” being understood; as
2G balte jana, to go on chattering جانا
raked, to keep on reading. 06 بڑھنے رہ هنا
The so-called statisticals and other continuatives are simply
sentences where the present participle occurs, and must be
inflected to express number and gender; as
wuh hansta jata hai, he—a laughing man— وک هنستا حاتا هى
goes on.
wis Sy wuh gatt ati hat, she—a singing woman آی هى
comes on,
To the third class belong—1. Frequentatives, 2. Desiderae
THE SYNTAX, 21
tives; i.e. we have only to remember that the past participle
with کر نا karna and حاهنا 07/616 means to “keep on doing a
thing,” or to ‘desire to do it,” and that such compounds are
considered as intransitive.
Another class of compounds is formed with inflected infini-
tives; as كنا ee كر karne lagna, “to begin to do.” LS lagna
means ‘ to apply oneself,” and the whole expression is equiva-
lent to کر نے (كو با مين ) لکنا harne ko or men lagna, ما apply
oneself to doing.” Similarly UL كرك and کر( نے دینا harne 8
and harne dena, ‘‘to give or get leave to do.”
The repetition of a root will also imply continuation or fre-
quency; as 1 سوچ سوچ soch soch kar, “having reflected :” or
two different roots may be so used; as ہو 5 حال bol chal, مع“
on talking together.”
THE SYNTAX, .
In Accidence we found how each word was capable of certain
modifications to express the accidents of person, number, gender,
or time.
We now come to Syntax, which, as its name implies, is the
putting together of these individual words, or groups of words,
to express one complete idea.
The Accidence being known, all that we require further is to
learn the usage of the language in this syntactical arrangement.
This depends first upon the natural order in which ideas occur.
vel كام
29 HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR.
Secondly, upon tho history, traditions, habits, and disposition
of the people using the ideas; 2.6. on the natural order modified
by habits: in other words, idiom or peculiarity.
THE SENTENCE.
Now, the complete expression of an idea is called a sentence,
which in its simplest form is the mention of a person or thing
and the telling something about him or it; e.g.
Man is mortal. John went و
but if the verb is 22ھ772 0.6. if, as its name implies, its action
goes on to something else, we must have something else for it to
go on to; ۰ John struck James.
All that can possibly be added to this is: (1) something
telling us about the state of John or James,—these are adjec-
tives added to the person; (2) the manner of the striking,—these
are adverbs added to the verb; (8) the manner in which, or the
thing with which, it was done,—these are instruments; or
(4) the time or place where and when it was done,—these are
locatives.
1 Tur Cases or Nouns.
Now, for each of these cases the Hindistani has a “ case.”
The simplest uninflected form expresses the subject of the
history to be narrated.
It may also be called the nominative, or case which names him.
The Oriental and European grammatical systems not being
precisely the same, the technical names of the cases borrowed
089093۵0201
اور
CONSTRUCTION WITH نی née AND كو ۸0. 23
from the latter are not always applicable to the former, and
not unfrequently mislead the beginner. Three of these have
a peculiar and distinctive use in Hindustani, and for them the
٠ following nomenclature is suggested as more in accordance with
the principles of Urdu grammar :—
Proposed
Old nomenclature. Examples. nomenclature.
Nominative and Accusative ... مرك . . Subjective.
Dative and Accusative...... مرك کو . . Objective.
Lg ae سرد نے دا ری . . Agent.
In the remaining cases, as no additional clearness would be
gained by a change of names, the old nomenclature is retained.
The cases in — and کو are the great stumbling-block to be-
ginners.
CoNSTRUCTION WITH نی me AND کو ko.
In former grammatical analysis the agent was always trans-
lated by the English preposition ‘‘by,” and the verb regarded
as passive. “\eSao گُعا Est a 07 “he saw a dog,’ or
Literally, ‘by him a dog was seen’” (Forbes, .م 103). In this
view other grammars concur, assuming the verb to be passive
and the construction identical with the Sanskrit, ۵0. :
Sanskrit Kukkure-na paniyam ۰
Hindistani Hutte ne péni piyd.
English By the dog water was drunk.
However true this may be as an explanation. of the origin of
the construction, it does not explain its present application.
: ۱
24 | HINDUSTANI GRAMMAR. ۱ ۱
The fact is that the Hindustani idiom makes a much nicer
distinction of cases, and of the relation between the verb and
the noun, than our own language,
In intransitive verbs, and in all tenses of transitive verbs ex-
cept those denoting a past or complete action, a state or condition
is implied 7 still going on; as “he walks,” or دز“ walking,”
“‘he strikes,” ete. The person affected by such condition, or iz
whom it takes place, is properly put in the subjective case.
In certain verbs, too, such as ‘‘to give,” which are said ‘‘tc
govern two accusatives,” it is obvious that one of these so-called
““ accusatives” is the subject of the gift, that is, the thing given,
and the other the odject of it, that i is, the recipient of the gift,
Here the Hindistani logically puts the first in the subjective case
and the second in the olyective case.
In the case of the past tense of a transitive verb we conceive
of an action completed and passed; we wish, therefore, to know
the agent concerned in such act.. Here the 700 کہ م00
us with an agent case.
A complete past action, regarded as an impersonal action
without intimate reference to a subject or object, is put in
the uninflected form of the verb, 4.4. the masculine; thus,
مرد کو مارا 2 “he struck the man,” where نے Gut is the
agent, كو J,» the object, and مارا the impersonal, and therefore
uninflected verb.
But there are many verbs in which the subject of the action
a
CONSTRUCTION WITH ی 416 AND کو ko. 95
is more or less intimately connected with it in sense, as—
اس - پرورش بائي “he obtained nourishment,” where the
action and its subject may be said to form but one idea, being
equivalent to ‘was nourished.”
The intimate relationship between the verb and noun ts only ex-
pressed in Hindustani by making the former agree in gender and
number with the latter. Where the intimate relationship 8
not exist the other construction may be used.
_ Nouns implying abstract ideas will most frequently stand in
this relationship to the verb. : :
In some cases the line between the subject and the object is
less clearly drawn, and we may use either the one case or the
other according as we regard the noun as intimately connected
with the action of the verb, or otherwise. For example, we
may say— 1
us ne ok lomri ا Spey Ls} ديكهي
dekhi. . ۰ 2
7 ته us ne اس نے ایک لومي کو ديكها or
ko dekha. یز
04
He saw a fox.”
in the first case, regarding the act of “seeing a fox” as one
idea; in the second, dwelling mentally upon the act of “seeing”
as complete in itself, but particularizing the object on which
such action falls. In other words, the construction differs as
we regard the noun from a subjective or objective point of
view, and the Hindistini lauguage has a form appropriate to
either idea;
26 1 HINDUSTANI ۵۵۸
In this way کو ko may be said to render the object definite
in the sense of calling attention to its objective nature as distin-
guished from the subject; but certainly not, as the grammars
assert, in the sense of giving to the noun the force of the definite
article. Indeed, both constructions are equally admissible with
the word نو“ ايكث an, one,” which makes the noun expressly
indefinite, as in the example, and with the demonstrative وه or
or 43, which render it beyond all question definite. In such
2ھ the grammars fall back upon the illogical and feeble ex-
planation, that the use of کو is “‘more elegant” in one case
than in another !
By bearing in mind that the so-called nominative or unin-
flected form of the noun is always subjective, that the case in
= is only used for the agent, and that the case in کو always
points to a distinctly objective state of the noun, the student
will avoid an error of idiom into which experience has shown
that most beginners fall.
It only remains to be said that the genitive or dependant
particle كا 56 agrees with the word that follows it in gender,
number, and in being inflected or not; as سرا د کا mard ka, “of
the man.”
mard ka larka, The man’s son. مرك کا لڑکا
mard ke larke ka, Of the man’s son. درك ای لی کا
mard ki jort, The man’s wife. مرد es جورو
hese broad principles can never be departed from, and the
0296 59-5 7 5 ~
4 ور ١
CONSTRUCTION WITH Cs née AND کو ko. 227
sentence must contain the words with the necessary inflections
for marking the cases, the gender, and the number.
The order of ideas in Hindistani is as follows: Subject—
Object—Verb, or Agent—Subject—Verb : the latter, as it were,
locking the whole up into a compact frame.
The rules given in grammars for the concord of words then
are, after all, nothing but—1. Reminders that we are to use
these modifying inflections, and maintain this order of words;
or 2. Attempts to reconcile any apparent deviation from them. —
Bearing in mind these principles, and what was said in the
Accidence as to the exact meaning of the individyal words
which combined form the tense of a verb, etc., we can analyse
grammatically any sentence in the Hindistani language.
23
PERSIAN. ss
THE ALPHABET.
The Persian Alphabet is the same as that used for Hindistant
(sce p. 1), except that it has none of the four-dotted letters,
(dd 5 and }. ۱
The pronunciation is nearly the same in both languages,
PPE وم کی عم 4 Shes 1
except that the long alif is, pronounced in Persian like aw in
6
۰ ۰ ۰ 2 ۰ 7 لت یا ا
“awe,” instead of like 6 in father,” as in Hindistant.
ألمب ر مد 0 00
The Persians also frequently pronounce گت gaf with a slight
G
, ~~ و sound, like the Cockney mode of pronouncing the و in garden,
»
: oe When it occurs between two vowels it is often
>
sounded like y, as 4 , pronounced like ۰
1 7 y
ee
: م رج In old Persian, and in the language as spoken in India at the
—~
>. 2 & present day, the long و and ی have two sounds, 7 and 2, called
كت
:
11 معررف ح marif, ‘known,’ and o and é, called م1( *عهول
The modern native of Iran does not employ the ماه هب
‘I 72 latter sounds.
THE ACCIDENCE.
Tur Parts or SPEECH.
1
7
2 ۳۸
Like other languages, Persian contains three parts of speech,
a
~ namely, Nouns, Verbs, and Particles.
11
NOUNS. 29
_ It is useful to bear in mind the meaning of these words,
. The Noun is the name of a thing (nomen); the Verb is the
action word; and the Particle is a useful word not requiring to
be defined by inflection or conjugation, but itself used to define,
qualify, or restrict other words.
Old Persian—or rather Zend—had a very elaborate gram-
matical system. This has disappeared, and we have the rela-
tions of words to each other expressed in modern Persian with
a simplicity equalled only by our own English.
NOUNS.
Cases or ۰
The only case-ending for Nouns which has survived is رأ for
the objeotine( dans ہ سك widereel). J alee means Yor. ملو 4:
- The other relations which the case-ending of other languages
imply are expressed by the ¢zafat, and by the use of such pre-
positions as ~ ba, “to,” با ba, “with,” از a3, “from,” بر bar,
““apon,” دار dar, in? ete.
720/1 implies the relation of one person or thing to another,
as genitive and dependent, or substantive and adjective.
Of the application of ۸22/26 and the use of the objective case
1 shall speak when 1 come to treat of the Syntax.
The Vocative is formed by prefixing ای ai, as at mard, 0
man!” or (poetical) by affixing | 4, as 02/8, 0۵ ۳
The language has no نیت but a common noun is تور
30 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
to unity, expressing one (specified or not) of the species and no
more, by adding .ي When this is the ل et بای yd-e mahal
(see p. 28) it makes the word indefinite, whether it be a noun
or a verb.
Nouns SvusstantrvE AND ADJECILVE.
All nouns are conerete, that is, substantive.
A noun only exercises the functions of an adjective by being
used in a subservient manner as qualifying another word; e.g.
مرك خوب mard 4 khib, و“ good man,” not as in English (where
good is abstract and meaningless without the substantive being
expressed), but ““a man (I mean) a good one:” hence we can
use a so-called “adjective” as a substantive, as خوبى khibi, ‘a
good (man),” رده murda, ‘a dead (man),”’ whereas in English
to say و“ good,” “a dead,” is nonsense. There is, in fact, no
such thing as an adjective, though one substantive may be used
to qualify another.
Numsus.
The Plural is formed by affixing
أن عه an for rational
and ها ha for اف 7ت
18 سرد أن mardan, men,” سنگها sangha, ‘‘ م0
‘When the word ends in silent s ۸ an euphonic گت is inserted ;
as بنده banda, ۵ slave,” پندگای bandagan, ‘‘slaves.” If it end
in | 2, an euphonic us y is. introduced; as دانا dana, “ wise,”
دأنايان ۰ Lost) foot Lb but با پا or lob,
KX the > هرید an انوھ > :
موی parting Way ۲ی سس تس و سب
31 ۲
ماهيان يفن > .مه تال وماه ال وت ی be : معلسى م۶[
سالہات
whey مسرا
we
to px مس
يت 9 مموممہ
Persian ورس سم so much from Arabic has adopted many
plurals from that language. 3 at the end of a word, representing
the Arabic 3, often becomes ات 24 in the plural, according to
the Arabic usage.
In “‘irrational” words derived from the Arabic Persians very
frequently use the Arabic plural, but they insert a 7 for euphony
in the case of the feminine plural in ات at; as تلعہ kala, “
fortress,” ۰ قلاع 70160 or تلعیان kalajat, “fortresses.” They
even erroneously transfer this construction to purely Persian
words ; as dive navishta, “a writing,” نوشاعیات navishtajat,
.. Writings ;” but this is دہ done ia words ہس ما an irra-
eyo
hen the Arabic کر in x 2 is یل 8 ا im-
_, onal being or ting, oe! 8< Pe ry ee ae b's ا سر کو
plying a rational object, as ر/ 0149/05 معشوق “beloved,” 43 معشو
miashikah, “a mistress,” it becomes 21, and not jat.
In colloquial Persian هأ 76 is used as the plural for nearly
all words, rational and irrational alike.
Dvat.
In some words the Arabic dual form is borrowed; as طرف
tarf, “a side,” طرفیّن tarfain, “the two sides” or “parties :”* this
always ends in (3 ain. ١
GENDER.
From a grammatical point of view the Persian language has
1 The irregular or ‘‘broken” Arabic plurals are treated of in the Arabic
section of this work. gon these “Hr عالت _ صبه مشیم 0
ean المع plant تسس ٠
زو از ز
25
32 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
no gender: Of such words as پدر pader, ‘‘ father,” ole mader,
“‘mother,” the gender is self-evident; and in cases where it is
necessary to make the distinction other additional words are
used, such as ماده mdda, “female,” ر nar, “male ;” thus,
ہو گاو ٹر i nar, ‘a bull,” sole گاو 0 4 mada, و“ 00۱۲۰ For
human beings مرك mard, man,” wy) 247, “woman,” are added;
as پیر هرد pir ¢ mard, “an old man,” زن se pir 6 san, an
old woman.” gv رن ON,
Sometimes different words are employed, as in English, to
distinguish the sexes; as 3 غو ghuch, ۵ ram,” سیش mish, “a
” 5 2 A ۶ کو 2 ”
e” (but in literary Persian signifies ara ۰
ewe”? ) terary Persian میمش sign 2 2 اسب
1 ” 2 ل (peers وو 2 چا
khuris, کر یس madiyan, a mare;” مادیان “asp, a horse, علمم
“٤ ; عج گی و
a cock,” ماکان makiyan, “a hen.”
st
PRONOUNS.
The Personal Pronouns are :
wre man, I, pl. ema, we.
تو tu, thou, ,, Was shumd, you.
بھ أو he, اوشان ,ىر ashan, they (those).
,«ة ایں this, ,, اپشان ishan, they (these).
The only thing to notice in من man and تو tu is that in the
objective case they become مر 715765 (for man+ra), ترا turd
(for tai+ra), the nasal ., and the long vowel both becoming
absorbed.
in ایں in and أو a, and their plurais, we notice the same
/
بر كار alow
مارم
of
7ت
AFFIXED PRONOUNS. 83
principle as in Hindistani, namely, that 7 or y expresses near
relation, and u or w expresses remote relation.
onl in, ‘‘ this,” and ei an, “that,” make ایشان 751,21 and
اوشان ashan in the plural for rational beings: but they sometimes
foim the plural quite regularly, as 7 \ متیر and انان 8167 for
rational, and أينها inka and انتا dnha for irrational beings.
Note.—c “to” or “by” takes an euphonic 4 before there
pronouns; 28 بد ين badin = ب أي ba+in, “to this,” یدان 00061 <
۳ ba--an, ““to that.”
The plural forms are not required for nouns which merely
qualify a plural noun, since the plural termination of the noun
itself sufficiently explains it; as هر 0 خوب mardan © khi,
““ ۵0ج men.”?
AFFIXED PRONOUNS.
The pronouns sometimes take an affixed form, as follows:
eam, abbreviated from ری man, ‘me or mine.”
ٹ al, 2 af تو ta, “thou or thine.”
ش ash, “him or his.”
A ش seems to have once belonged to the pronouns, as we may
see from the plurals شما ,51,511 اوشارنْ shiimd, ete.
These affixes are only used of rational beings, and have the
*
usual plural termination in 2 dn, though the final nasal n is
dispensed with in the first person; thus,
ہا md, “us or our.”
aes itan, “you or yours.”
شان shan, “them or theirs.”
34 PERSIAN GRAMMAR,
Inrerrocatrve Pronouns.
As in Hindistani, the sound كت 7 asks a question relative 16
rational beings; as رت ى “who?” and the corresponding soft
sound» asks a question relative to irrational things; as > chi,
“what?” These, with other words which have become absorbed
or amalgamated in the form, make up the remaining interroga-
tives; e.g. کدام “which?” (of two), the 2 being a survival of
دو di, *“two 3”? جگونہ chigina, “how?” (for کہ chi, “what 2”
and و gin, “phase, colour, sort,””) and چون chin, “how ? like
what?” (the گی having a tendency to disappear between two
vowels); جند chand, “how many” (=> chi, ““what??-++a5\ and,
““some”?) 4 اندكثت andak, و little”); 7 kai, “when?” ete.
3 ae: سس Pronouns,
These are formed by adding the personal pronouns خوك khud,
“self,” ete.; as
مس خود man khud, I myself.
تو خود 18 khud, Thou thyself, etc.
The affixed forms may also be used with خوں khud; as
خودم ols در dar khina-i-khudam, In my own house.
From خودش khudash, ‘““his-self,”” we get خويش 7 eS his
own self, his-self”) and رده خویشتی “himself.” In the -
=e pee 08 4
last the word ,,,3 signifies ۳ 00۳۸ or ‘‘ person.”
wr 5 3 0
ExaMPLys oF THE 218501483
The following examples are useful as showing the various
uses and combinations of the pronouns:
pisr ¢ fulanam, I, so-and-so, the تا man ki من 5 فلار ي سر فانم
son of so-and-so.
رک سور of wil: ۱۳ ہی
تر
NUMERALS. 39
man ki pisaram raft, 1 whose son went. سی ٦ يسرم رت
taki pisarat raft, Thou whose son went. ثو 5 پسرٹ رفك
ki pisarash raft, He ۲۳۲۵8۵ son went. 11 أو S دسرش رفت
ki may be compared the gui of European languages. کہ With
It serves for all relatives, but may be defined by other words, as
in the above examples.
CoMPARIsoN.
The comparative is formed by adding تم ع tar, and the superla-
tive by adding ترس 124720. A single example will impress this
on the reader’s mind :
bih, good, 2% bih-ter, better, نيرتهب bih-tarin, best. به
Sometimes the Arabic comparative form أفعل afal is used in
Persian. Of this I shall speak further on, when treating of
Arabic grammar.
NUMERALS.
The numerical figures are the same as in Hindistini (see p. 9).
The numerals in Persian are:
1 یکت yak 11 بازده yasdah |
)410104623447 دوازده 12 da دو 2
8 bus sth 13 سی 30 515707 سيزدهة 7
4 جہاردہ 4 | 67016۲ چہار chahardah | 0 جببل 01111
5 a pany 15 بانزده pansdah 50 باجاه panjah
6 شش shash 16 شأنزده shdnadah | 60 شعست 6
7 ww haft 17 scan haftdah 70 ھفتاد 28
8 هشت hasht | 18 هشتده hashidah | 80 هشناده 0
9 a muh 19۰ 3d نوأ زد navasdak | 90 نود nuvad
10 sd dah 20 بیست bist 100 ۰ صد sad
1000 هزار hazar.
3
86 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
They are quite regularly compounded, as follows:
ES, بیست و bist 7 yak (20 and 1) 1
يكث هزار و هشت صد و هشتاد ويكث yak hasar a hasht
sad 8 hashtad 8 yak, One thousand eight hundred and eighty
and one, 1881.
The ordinals are made by affixing م 1/10 as
chahdrum, 4tk: حبباره م yakum, 1st يكم
duvum, 2nd est panjum, dth, دوم
oe sivum, 0 and so on.
For ‘‘first”? the word "عخستین nukhustin, or the Arabic اول
awwal, may be used.
The numerals take the noun in the singular; as دو مرك da
mard, ““tywo men.”
We say in English “two head of cattle,” and so on. The
Persians have several such qualifying words for various objects
when used with numerals. The principal are the following:
Persons, نفر nafar, individuals, به نفر دوست pang nafar
dist, 5 friends.
Horses, cattle, رأس ras, head, دوراس اسب di ras asp,
ete. 2 horses.
Camels, قطار katar,
tring, |
ee mahar, 77
Elephant, زیر 20107, chain, حبار زاجیر فیل chahar sane
Jir fil, 4 elephants,
dus 8th katar قطار شتر
shutur, 8 camels.
THD ۰ 37
Jewels ع fruit, دانه danah, grain, ,۵ هشت دانه haft dana
durr, 7 pearls.
hasht dana هشت دانه سيب
seib, 8 apples.
In colloquial Persian the word تا 26 is used as a determina-
tive for most objects; as حبار تا كتاب chahar ta kitab, 4 books.
(The word “‘piecee,” as “one piecee man,” in Chinese Pigeon
English, is a relic of the same use of qualificative or determining
Ab? ae جدد fr KV GA
THE VERB.
The Persian Verb also consists of a root in combination with
words).
various participial affixes and the auxiliary verb “To be,” of
which the simplest form is the affixed substantive verb (see p. 14).
(we) are. 20 یم am, )1( م
(ye) are. ,30 بد (thou) art, ہت ری
and, (they) are, اند ad, (he) is,? د
Tenses OF THE VERB.
The root expresses mere action, as رس ras, “arriving,” hence
ete 2 yastam, “‘T arriving,” ust رد ras+i, “thou arriving,”
رس( ۲68-6 “he arriving,” ہماہ is the simplest tense, or
aorist, which must be further defined by context or by particles.
The prefix می ۶ (or the older form همی hami) does so define
it, and gives it a present meaning; as ہی رسم mi rasam, 7
e
am arriving,” etc.
1 ‘When this is used separately it takes the more regular form تب 7
”رؤز ؛* as in Greek or Latin.
58 PERSIAN. GRAMMAR.
. The Root, as the shortest form of the verb, is also used as an
imperative, as س vy a8, “arrive.” The prohibitive is made by
۳۳ ve A 1114, 88 ہرس 1110-05 “do not arrive,” کرو Hindistant
سبك mat. ) (p. 15). مه = لر سن. بسه سمل / شا س بر
Then comes an affix expressing past action,. which is, as in
English, generally a d or ¢ sound, as “made,” “past.”
Tn Persian this is, 10 most cases, 0208232 by a vowel, as
رید rast+2-+d, “ arrived.”
شنود shin-+i-d, “heard.”
أستاد dst-+-a+d, “stood.”
The first, or 7 sound, being the most common. Sometimes the
د 7 becomes فك 2: as خواستن kh’ رصاوت “to wish.” 1۶ to the
“stem” thus formed we add ن We obtain the infinitive; as سید 3
rasidan, “to arrive.” This, further combined with the simple
tense in رد وكا «م etc., makes the preterite رسيدم 2
** 1 arrived,” 0ط“ ,۲8708 رسیدی didst arrive,” ete. But the
affix ری as we have seen above (p. es makes any word indefinite.
“We therefore get again ۱
رسید هی rasidami, “ aid’ Tar. رسيد يمى rasidimt, “did we are
tive,” or ““were I to arrive,” rive.” ۱
رسیدی+ی - رسیدی rasidi, رد سیدیذی ۸ “did ye ar-
““didst thou arrive,” ۱۳
رسیدی ۲3745 “did he ar- رد سیدندی rasidandi, 5 aid they
ا رو ۱ 4 ۱ rive,”
ےہ .۰ 0 ہس ٦ "ھ8 اوه ھچ نے ےه > رر “ee ہے۔ ۴ یت
Pc 5 1
: ل
1
THE AUXILIARY “VERB “TO BE.” 8
87 adding a-short a 5 to the past form the same idea is ex-
pressed with a sense of incompleteness. Thus, in English one
says, I am going—eh—to,” etc., the hesitating ‘oh? suggesting
something to come. This form, 6.0. رسيدة rasida, signifies
“having arrived,” and is used with those tenses which are
formed from auxiliary verbs, without which the sense would
be incomplete; as
T have arrived. .- و2570 رد سید أم
rasida+2, Thou hast arrived. رسیدہ
rastdatast, He has arrived, رسیده است
and so on.
Vers “To Bu.” یووم Tur
We must now speak more fully of the Auxiliary Verb “4 7
be,” بو (دن) 22 (dan), 2 (ing),” both being derived from the
Sanserit Bhuv. Declining this as far as we can with the affixes
given above, etc., we get
Present نوم biiwam, I may be.
sy) 008, thou mayest be, ete.
buwad, he may be بود
Past بُوں bad, he was, etc.
3) dada, having been.
again, by combination with the tenses of another verb, . ۱
رسیدڈ بودم rasida badam, one come I was, ۰ء
estoy رسیده rasida ۸440007, were I one come.
and so on,
40 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
bash. This 1 shall باش badan makes its imperative بودن
explain when speaking further on of the “irregular” forms of
the verb: for the present we must assume all the forms to be.
regular.
Then by the rules given above we get باشم basham, “I may
be,” and رسید كا باشم rasida basham, 1 may have been.”
With the verb خو استن kh’ dstan,* “to shall,” as an auxiliary,
the same combination may be made as in English to express the
future ; 0.7. خواهم رسید kh’ Gham ge I shall azrive. و
There is another auxiliary, eas سے root gm shav, و
become.” This often has the sense of “to go,” and is employed
to form the passive of an active verb, being analogous in this
respect to the Hindistani جانا jana and the English “get”
(see p. 18).
4 رسمدن shudan may be inflected throughout like شدن
or any cther verb, and the tenses thus obtained may be com-
Lined with those of another verb to make the various tenses
of the passive.
If, then, we know the root and the past form or stem of any
verb we can, with the assistance of the auxiliary verbs, form
any tense we may desire ؛ in other words, conjugate it through-
out; ۰
be ہے 6٤ ۰
رس ras, arriving.” “arrival.”
rasam, 1+ arriving. رسم
1 Note that و between = kh and | @ is not pronounced:
2 8 7
3
THE AUXILIARY VERB. 41
thou arriving. ‘ ,1482 رسی
yasad, he arriving, ctv. رسد
rasam, I am arriving. 1811 می رسم
وو“ rasid, رسيث
rasidam, I arrived. رسیدم
mi rasidam, I was arriving. سی ردیدم
yasida, having arrived. رسید:
rasida am, I have arrived. رسیدۂ ام
rasida badam, I had arrived. رسيدة بودم
rastdan, ““to arrive.” رسیدن
rasida basham, I may have arrived, etc. رسیث باشم
kW’ cham rastd, I shall arrive. خوا أهم رسيد
‘to do,” ,1:41 كردن And in the case of an active verb, as
we may further combine it with yds shudan; as
shudan, to be done. 10۲06 گرده شدن
sas karda shavam, I am done. شوم
karda mi shavam, I am being done, كردة مى شوم
karda shudam, I was done. گرده شدم
karda shuda bidam, I had been done. کرد ش دک بودم
shud, I shall be done. مت 32 70200 کرده خوا اهم شد
and so on.
én affixed to root = “doine,” آن Other parts of the verb are
anda affixed to root expressirg - أندة ”; as why rasan, “ arriving
the agent, as sinus, rasanda, “fan arriver.” With the latter
compare the Italian affix -ante, having the same meaning.
ت1
٦
گی ae ا ا he
یی ا اک a لحن
we سو 1
دا MO
y و
1
42 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
By prefixing بے ba, “to” (sce p. 29), wo get برست ba rasad,
“he is to arrive,” 2.0. 1۵0 him arrive,” and so on for the other
persons of the imperative. This prefix is also used for the ۱
“‘sorist” or indefinite tenses.
Causal verbs are made by inserting ay dn between the root
and the infinitive termination, as رسیدن rastdan, “to arrive,’
۰ res تک 1
رد سا نيدن rasanidan, to cause to arrive.”
Provetic Laws in Pexsran.
As in all other languages, certain words in Persian do not
appear to follow the ordinary rules of accidence, and. are there-
fore called irregular. It will be always found in such cases
‘that the apparent anomaly is due to some euphonic change (see
Deis), oe either from a desire to avoid an awkward com-
bination of consonants, or to facil-iate pronunciation; or else
from the survival in some forms of older radical letters which
have for similar reasvns disappeared in others.
In Persian both these causes act together, and many con-
sonants ate found in the root verbs which differ from those of
the stem. To account for these we need only notice a few
philological facts relative to euphonic changes which exist in
Persian.’ An acquaintance with these will not only enable the
1 Professor Charles Ricu, of the British Museum, has given an admirable
exposition of these laws in a:pamphlet published by the Philological Society,
entitled “ Remarks on some Phonetic Laws in Persian,” to which I am much
indebted for this part of my. subject... .
THE AUXILIARY VERB. 43
student to inflect so-called “irregular verbs,” but to recognise
many common European ee in their Persian form, They
may be briefly stated as follows:—The Old Persian 3 (pro-
nounced like ۸2 in there”) frequently becomes in Modern
Persian :رف of. the Russian Feodore for Theodore. Sk and
ب p before ¢ become ¢ kh and اف
The two sounds of بط namely, & and ch (as in “kirk”? and
“church”), account for many irregularities, thus:—% passes
to ch, thence tos. ۸ and رو d and ¢, p and ۸, are common and
more obvious changes. ۱
p is especially liable to be changed into f when followed
by r, as Sanscrit pra, Latin pro, Persian فر far; as Sanscrit
preshita, “sent,” Persian فر شته frishta, “an angel.”
Sanscrit 38, which becomes f in Latin and ¢ in Greek, be-
comes simple 4 in Persian; as Sanscrit و“ و1 brow,” Greck
opps, Persian أن رو abri. Sanscrit dha, “to be,” Latin fuit,
Persian بودن 01-۰
Sometimes the old Aryan root had an aspirated 0 (dh); this
becomes either 7 without the aspirate, or 4 without the 4: of
wold dadan, “ 0 give,” داد dad, “he od ده dih, “ give.”
~The old 1 also changes to و before ¢ or 0 of the past; as dv
band, “pind,” past بست bast for bandt (the nasal being lost).
Cf. Latin comedo, comestum. 1 :
“The old Aryan 0 or dh is sometimes softened away to y, as
foot,” but the-s into which it و“ pay (Sanscrit pada), بای
ا
44 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
changes remains, as شری shay (Sanscrit gudh), “ wash,” past
شست shust = shudht.
۶ and 7 interchange indiscriminately. Another change which
is exactly paralleled in European languages exists in Persian,
namely, w or و۵ into gu, or simply رو as Arabic Wady el kebir,
Spanish Guadalquiviy; Latin vulpilla, French goupil. So in
Persian we have from the Sanscrit vrka, “a wolf,” Zend vereka,
the Modern Persian gurg. Vistaspa (Darius Hystaspes), Modern
Persian Gushtasp. Sanscrit ort, و turn” or “become,” Latin
vert, German werden, Persian gard.
when preceded in Sanscrit مر also occasionally hardens into ہ
asp, ‘‘a horse.” أسب as Latin eqguus, Sanscrit agva, Persian رو by
The changes of the sibilant are somewhat extraordinary at
first sight: thus ¢, in the instance above given, is equal to 0-3
Sometimes this becomes /, sometimes ره and sometimes simply h
(of. 0. 14); ۰
Sanscrit. Hindustani. Greek. Persian.
daga (10) . das © déxa deh.
sapta (7) sat "606 haft.
As the Sanscrit.s becomes 7 in Persian, so, vice versd, h often
becomes 5: Sanscrit sahasra (1000), Persian هزار: hazar for ۰
۰ ۰ «2 ۰ 0 4 ۰ ۰
Cf. Sanscrit hima, snow,” Persian semistan, winter,” Latin
hiems, Slavonic sima. J also becomes 2: as
Sanscrit. Persian. Greek,
5 ٤ور رہ
jata, born,” zdda
وت “sg رر اہ
jana, a woman,” 20 yun". ~
ات شک
۳7
IRREGULAR VERBS. 45
Irreeutar ۷8+
In studying the so-called Irregular Verbs, we have only to
keep the above principles in view, remembering chiefly that
1 b ١
oe | hooome fat OF
و ب
2 س 5 becomes ۰
Oe
sel | become ( م or 8
نے ec رین
و“ كردن do’ has كن for its root; the Zend or Vedic form
was keren, and for the same reasons as those already stated in
the case of the Hindistini verb bs (see p. 7) the form گت kar
became used for the past and ws kun for the present forms.
In ود adan the و 8 becomes | 6 in the stem; as
خشودن bakhshiidan ) (حفشيد ن , to bestow, فشا ۰
ازمودن 1110410, to try,
6۰ آزسا
۰ کشا kushadan, to open, کشودن
۰ نما numidan, to show, نمودنی
۰ با to rob, ,20016 ربودان
Where the ۲ is a root letter ++ is retained, but as a con-
sonant 9 ۰
0۰ شئو shinudan, to hear, شنودن
shav. شور shudan= 94 5118:0010, to become, شدن
idan and the 7 is part of the یدن When the infinitive ends in
as ون root the stem is strengthened by adding a nasal
Gfrin. آفربن to create, ,626 آفرد بدن
o> chidan, to collect, jas chin.
46 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
ups khtan becomes ز 8 (see 8, p. 45), especially after a long
vowel : Be ae ۱
أفراحمتن afrakhtan, to exalt, — ,8ئ0۳ افراز
أموخةن amikhtan, to learn, أسوز 8.
and sometimes it changes into Cw s or uw sh (see 3, p. 45) 3
شناختن shanakhtan, to know, شناس 06.
firakhtan, to sell, فروخنن
۰ فروش
(see 1, p. 45) 0 و or 7 نب tan in some instances becomes فتن
tad. تاب taftan, to burn, تافتں
,0 آشو — ashuftan, آشفتن
wy raftan, to go, رو
مت ,0.5101 استن tistan (ustan), and پسشی 18101 become T a,
ى 7, and و 8 respectively:
ara. آر arastan, to adorn, آراستن
۰ زى to live, ,22۵/0 زیستن
.تار جو yam justan (jistan), to seck,
as 205 بن or ” ری Sometimes uy stan become
shikan. شكن shikastan, to break, شکتن
۰ شین nishastan, to sit, نشستن
8 785 یس into 48101 شتن Other anomalous changes are
۶ نوپس navishtan, to write, ذوشتنى
ar; as ار dshtan into اشتن
dar. دار dashtan, to have, داشتن
ankar. انکار ankdshtan, to think, انکاشتن
FORMS OF NOUNS, 27
There are a few others which practice and the vocabularies ٭ْ
will teach, but the phonetic rules given on p. 45 will be found
to cover most of the cases met with.
In some instances the infinitive and the stem belong to dif-
ferent verbs, just as in Fnglish “go” and “went” come from
different radical forms:
bash. باش badan, to be, بودن
.و بیج ues) pikhtan, to twist,
رد سي sakhtan, to weigh, سکن
۰ کسل oes gustkhtan, to break,
bastan, to bind, dw band. پستن
Forms or Novns.
These are very numerous and various, but although most
may be left to practice and the vocabulary, some may be
reduced to rule.
Nouns are cither primitive, such as “man,” or derivative,
such ‘as “manly.” The last are formed by adding certain
terminations to the first, and as these terminations are generally
in their turn derived from verbs, and have a signification of
their own, a knowledge of them will greatly assist the learner.
The principal are:
1. أنه ana ="‘like;” as
manly. ,1117416116 مردانه
busurgana, grandly (like a grandec), بزر رگانه
48 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
2.) آو dwar, و awar, ار Gr, all from root أو ردن awardan, and
signifying “ bringing,” “producing,” “displaying” ۸ھ) English
-er, -or), etc.
dil-avar, brave (hearty). دلاور
strong. ,801-6801 زور أور
sukhan-var, eloquent. سكن ور
bar, ‘‘ bearing,” “abounding in.” بار .3
shakar-bar, sugar-laden. شكرد بار
zangi-bar, Zanzibar (full of negroes}, زنكبار
van, “keeping,” “managing;” as 37 ,0 ان .4
shutur-ban, a camel-man. شترد بان
ple bagh-ban, a gardener.
pas-ban, a watchman. پاسبان
fam “colour ;” as فام
siyah-fam, blackish. سياه فام
dashtan : داشتن tar, “having,” from تار dar, دار 7
a deceiver. ,177/11 فرد بفتار
kharid-dar, a purchaser. خرید دارع kharidar خریدار
خواست دار- 51-101 kh’ خواست = kh’ dstar خواستار
kh’ dst-dar, a petitioner.
ديدار didar ديد دار did-dar, the visual faculty.
6. wld dan, “place” or “vessel for;” as
نمکدان namak-dan, a salt-cellar.
قلمدان kalam-dan, a pen-case.
سي چس نہیں تو Shalt
ا کن
FORMS OF NOUNS, : 49.
7. ,مه زار ‘place abounding in:”
Bras guizar, a rose-garden,
8. Similarly سار sdr; as
كوهسار 1:01/-561, a mountainous country.
شاخسار shakh-sar, a place abounding in branches, German
: laube.
سار also signifies “‘like;” of.
خا كسار khak-sar, like dust (vile),
9 ستان stan, مه as
pees: gulistan, a rose-garden
Hindustan, the land of Hindi (Hindistan). هندوستان
10. رش رهش express the abstract idea of the root; as
نكوهش nikihish, goodness.
دانش danish, wisdom.
آرایش ardish, adornment.
11. كت ak expresses the diminutive of rational objects; as
مردكث mardak, a little man.
A contemptuous form of diminutive is کہ ka; as
5 سرد mardaka, a wretched little man.
For irrational objects the ES iis changed into >, just 8
in ک ki and نجه cht (see p. 34), ۰
بانچ baziche, a little game.
كفي faf-che, a ladle (Wit. a little palm of the hand).
4
0 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
gar, as gar, all express action or the actor, كار kar, کار
and are connected with the verb ۰ ردن 5: as
جفاکار jafa-kar, cruelty.
دستگار dast-gar, skill دست) dast, a hand).
جادوگر jadi-gar, a conjurer, juggler.
دک 7 afridagar, a creator.
۳ آ موز amiz-gar, a teacher.
کامگار kdm-gar, successful,
als gunah-gar, a sinner, guilty.
54 ۱ توا tawan-gar, rich (powerful).
13. تا gin, “affected with;” as
غمگین gham-gin, grieved.
خشمكين 2۸۸3707-21۸ angry.
14. اخ lakh, ۲
مت لاخ sang- lakh, a strong place.
15, رج مند “possessor 08: a
dae سود ee profitable.
dae دانش danish-mand, wise.
16. نالت nak expresses quality ;” as
هوا لناك haul-nak, frightful,
يرهيزناك» parhiz-nak, abstinent.
17. A final ی 7 signifies “relation,” such as that implied in
the English adjective; as
هندی 7077, Indian.
انك ليزت inglizt, English,
COMPOUND WORDS. 51
After s this becomes Bat as
بندۂ banda, a slave.
بند وی bandagi, slavery.
خانگی khanagi, domestic (for لخاد ی
The final ی 7, when it represents the yde majhil(e), see p. 28,
signifies ‘‘ unity ;” as
مردی mardi, one @ man.
18. تہ فى signifies “duty,” “‘fitness;” ۰
کر ردنی kardani, what is to be done (duty).
خوردنی 1۵8, good to eat (food).
Sharidani, purchascable. خریدنی
Courounp Worps,
Persian is very rich in compound words, and as has been
before remarked (p. 18), the types most in use for Nouns are
exactly analogous to such English compounds as “plock-head,”
“‘tinder-box,” ““rosy-chceks,” and the like; eg.
lala-rukh, tulip-cheeked. لال رخ
gul-andam, rose-bodied. کل اندام
saman-bar, jasmine-bosomed. آسمن بر
Others are made from two verbal roots; as “3 امد ور 9
raft, ‘coming and going ;” or two nouns joined by a preposition,
AS سر ہسر 8a" ba sar, “individually,” “altogether,” Jit. ۸
to head.”
PERSIAN GRAMMAR,
52
The Compound Verbs are very numerous, but are for the most
part quite simple, the principal ones being the following:
1. A noun followed by either oon kardan “‘to do,” شا كد
4s
2 5 5 7 2: 5
90/6 to make,” (jas 1718061, ما display,” فرمودن
ing ۰
Jarmidan, to order,” and the like; as
تاکز می ality ور jG =
(pn Le) انتظار کردن 1۸1/۷707 kardan (sakhtan), to 6,
2 co
5 karam numidan, to be gencrous. —
ae
wes eg
نہضت فرهودن nalzat farmadan, to start (on a march),
said of a king, cte.
2. A noun followed by آمدن dmadan, “to come” (ef. Angl'cé
4
become’’) :
77ہ سير امدن dmadan, to become satisfied.
wel 3 pur amadan, to become full.
padid dmadan, to become ۵ يديد امدن
3. A noun followed by آوردن dwardan, the converse of the
last; as
يديك آو ردان padid awardan, to make apparent.
4. A noun followed by ره خور۱ دن “to eat,” used with
words expressing passions or grief; as
غم خوردن gham khurdan, to be grieved.
ta-assuf khurdan, to sorrow. تاشف خوردن
There are many other compound verbs of this kind, but they
will be easily understood when met with, and will be found
in most yoeabularics,
8۷77۸ 53
SYNTAX,
The Syntax of Persian is as simple as that of English, which
it much resembles in construction. The student is recommended
to read the preliminary remarks on Syntax in the abstract on
pp- 21 and 22,
‘uu Cases or Nouns.
As has been noticed above, the only real case-ending which
survives in Persian is رأ ra for the objective. This exactly cor-
és
' responds to the Hindiistant كو Zo (sce p.23); as مرد ,| کتاب دادم
8 3 P ¢ ری لیے
mard-ra kitab dadam, '' 1 gave the man the book,”? where 28ء
is the object (its position in the sentence calling attention to
this fact) کتاب ۳ پم هرد دادم و hitab-ra ba mard dadam, 5
gave the book to the man,” attention being chiefly called in
the last sentence to “book,” both by the objective affix and by
its position in the sentence: the fact that “the man” is in
۰ ۰ ۰ ۰ 2
“dative” is then expressed, as in English, by مب ba, ۶
ConcorDANCE.
The Concordance of Verbs and Nouns is exactly the same as
in English, a singular noun requiring a singular verb, and a
plural noun taking a plural verb.
Nouns substantive do not agree with their adjectives or
qualifying nouns in number, it being sufficient to mark the
plural by the termination in the first named ; as
mardan ٩ khub, good men (sce p. 33). ردان خویب
54 PERSIAN GRAMMAR.
The relation of “substantive and adjective,” as well as that
of the “‘genitive case,” is expressed by the 120/48 (see p. 29).
اضافت 220۶ signifies “adding on,” and is expressed by
placing a short ¢ (Aasrah or zer) between the two nouns; as _
oye اسب asp 1 mard, the man’s horse.
اسب خذوب asp 1 khab, a good horse.
The order of 00 in Persian is Subject—Object—Verb,
all qualifying expressions falling into their natural places; ۰
word expressing the condition of the subject follows it; so
does a word expressing the condition of the object ; while words
or Makin signifying time, placc, or other circumstances,
find their proper place immediately before the verb.
The only marked peculiarity in the arrangement is that the
verb comes generally last.
The description of the “tenses” on pp. 88-42 sufficiently
indicates their use.
۱
طسو ۴ می مرا امس lin لم
é 7 Wie 3
j 1 is aig oe! ات دز |
Chie bens | sd; نا مهم 1۳1 ۲ چٹ Can
# 4 wi یا :
۹ Ps
ARABIC.
THE ALPHABET.
The Arabic Alphabet is that used, with certain modifications,
for Persian and Hindistani, and is written in the same way
~ from left to right. The letters and Arabic pronunciation are
as follows :
NAME. EQUIVALENT. PRONUNCIATION,
۱ Alif, a, ره 7,0 or ٭ This is the spiritus lenis of the Greek, a
mere prop to rest an initial vowel on.
Ba, b As in English. با
wo Ta, t A soft dental 1 like the Italian.
ww» Tha, th As in thing.
c Jim, 1 As in English.
Ha, h An aspirate strongly breathed out from 4
the chest.
c Kha, kh Like ch in Welshor Gaelic, or the German
ch as pronounced in Switzerland,
Dil, d A soft dental d as in Italian. د
Dhal, dh Like th in ۰ &
ka, r A distinctly pronounced ۰ ر
j Zain, 2 As z in English,
۳ ae Sia 9
‘en Shia, sh
As in English.
50 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
NAME. EQUIVALENT. . PRONUNCIATION.
ص Sad, $ An s pronounced by placing the tongne
against the side teeth, and slightly
opening the mouth.
Dhad, dh A dh pronounced in the same manner ض
as the last.
L Ta, 7 A 7 pronounced with the tongue full
against the front part of the palate.
ظ Dha, dh A dh or 2 pronounced in the same manner
as the last.
ع Ain, a, ete. A guttural sound only heard in Arabic.
it must be learnt from a native.
3 Ghain, ‘gh A guttural sound something like the
French r grasseyé.
ف Ia, oF As in English.
ق Kas, k A very guttural بے like ck in thick, only
much stronger.
کت Kaf, ا7
Lan, 7 As in English.
م Mim, 110
ن Van, 1 As in English; before ۵ or f it is
sounded as ۰
و 70, w
s Ha, h As in English.
ی و
x is sometimes written thus, رکه with two dots over it, and is
then called ۸۸-16. When followed by a vowel this is pronounced
like ت #¢, but otherwise it is not pronounced at all.
VOWELS. 57
The above are joined to the preceding letter by prefixing a
small curve or stroke, and to the following letter by removing
the curve with which they all but ۵7 end: thus
DETACHED. INITIAL. ٭ MEDIAL. FINAL.
=) ل 5
ی نا 5 2 ی ن
c > = 4
ص کہ ص ص
8 ف ع2 ۱ G
ge 2 تيوتر
ہت 5 کت
J ۱ J
ve a
s 2d ov A mip
if deprived of the curve would become unrecognizable ; د ور
hence they do not join to the left.
The above lIctters are all consonants.
VOWELS.
The vowels are fet-hah > @ (pronounced like ۵ in hat), and
dhammah 2 نه (as in bull), both written above the letter; and
hesrah 2 % (as ¢ in hit) written below the letter.
When the vowels are doubled, thus گے they are pro-
nounced respectively an, wn and in. This is called تو ين tenwin,
وو COL ۰
the ۸ ۳ م تلع ان
08 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
Combined with أ a, ی 1001 ,ہہ و y, the vowels become {aa (a),
uw (a), os ty (2); و 0 (prenounccd as ow in cow), Sai (like
@ in fine).
No word can commence in the Arabic character with a vowel,
or if it does the vowel is introduced by alif \.
When a syllable begins with a vowel, the mark + hamzeh is
used to introduce it.
But this hamzeh being written above the line requires a prop.
this in the case of a is رأ in the case of ۸ it is رو and in the
case of 1 it is eg , only that in the initial form this last is dis-
tinguished from the ordinary y by losing its dots: ۰ فو اد
fi-ad, “a heart,” فانده fa-ida, “advantage.”
” Tashdid doubles the letter it is placed over.
© مو رق shows that the letter it is placed over has no vowel.
Two consecutive sukiuns cannot come together in one word.
Waslah is only used over an initial al/f or over the article تچ
al, and shows that these are to be 100 ۵
7 Maddah is placcd over an initial alif, and shows that it
should be pronounced long, as cer alz, “coming,”
If the first letter of a word bo a sibilant or liquid the article
ال is elided before it and the consonant itsclf dowvled, as
i عَژام الا dwammu-nnas, “common people,” الله acs dbdu-lah,
“Abdullah” (tho scrvant of Allah).
NVote.—Final short vowels or tenwin arc not pronounced before
a full stop.
.مںپ ےہ چپ سح بج oe 3 70 ا eo eer
ROOT WORDS. — 59
ROOT WORDS.
(TrrzitERaL Roors).
Arabic, like the 0 so-called Semitic languages, is totally -
different in construction from European tongues.
Every word in the language is referred to a root, which con-
sists of three radical letters. Roots of two, or four or more
radicals do exist, but they need not be noticed, since they are
treated in practice as though they were derived forms.
۱ Instead of modifying a root to express a modified idea by
prefixing or affixing syllables, the Arabic treats the three
radicals as algebraists treat the symbols x, y, z, and expresses
ideas by formule arrived at by combining these with certain
other lettcrs, called by European grammarians “‘servile,” but
by the natives زايدة zdidah, “pleonastic.” The letters so used
are contained in the words kes اسان و amanun wa tashilun,
‘safety and ease:”” that is, they are | م ل س نت ن٤ and .و
Of course any of these may oecur as radicals, but after learning
the rules I shall presently give the student will not find any
difficulty in identifying them.
All words are arranged in the dictionaries under the triliteral
root: that is, the original word of three radical letters.
I have said that Arabic ideas are expressed by formule
analogous to those employed in algebra. Thus (x-++-y+z) may
may mean (1+2+3), or (2+38-+4), and so on, and the whole
60 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
formula will mean 6 or 9, and so on, according to the valucs
given to the letters x, y, and 2, Similarly in Arabic the three-
letter combination in the roof bears a different meaning ac-
cording to the letters employed; thus, ضرب dht+r+b means
“beating,” قتل ۸+ means “killing,” and so on. The
Arabs use the word گر فعل (fi;1 or fact), ““doing,”. for the
typical formula of a root, the individual letters مغ رف and ل
_ corresponding to the x, y, and z of algebra.
If we add an alif ۱ to the first radical, and place a hesrah 7 %
after the second, the formula will then become (Xa@y%Z) = فاعل
راق قار which means “one doing.” Thus the formula for an agent
as .فاعل Then, if for the ع وفك and 0 (that is, for x, y and z)
we substitute the letters contained in either of the combinations
given above, ۲12۰ ضرب or ot, we cot
)2 6 7 12(
فاعل fail, one doing.
ضارب 07571 3, one beating.
قاتل katt, one killing.
A word, then, of the shape (X4@_%/) will always be the agent
form of the radical word, whatever that may be. In looking
it out in the dictionary you look for the Ist, 8rd, and 5th
letters; that is, for the ع رف and ول or, in other words,
for the x, y and z.
But another difficulty may occur. The letters | a, ہہ و or
us y are called weak consonants, and are considered as homo-
ROOT WORDS. 61
7
gencous with the short vowels <>” a, t, u,. One of these weak
consonants may occur as a radical; eg. قوا ل kavwl, “speaking.”
To get the agent form from this we treat it like the examples
just given, and should have (XayizZ)
فاعل fa cil,
فاول kawil:
but, as a matter of fact, the agent of قو ل 15 not قاول but ee) رقا
the reason being that the vowel 2 being indispensable to the
form absorbs the weak consonant و and turns it into the weak
consonant ري which is homogeneous with itself. So from رغزو
مب make a raid,”
(XaY?Z)
فاعل fa cil,
غازى ghasty=ghazi, a raider (or warrior).
Again, “an .:.090 for doing anything” is expressed by
the formula مفعال (۷60 (=miXyazZ); thus from و4042 وزر ی
“to weigh,” we get (mtXyaZ,
leis mif, al,
wise miwsan;
but و wis not homogencous with %: the latter, therefore, changes
it into ي y, which 7s, and we have میزان miyzdn (= imizdn),
و“ balance.”
These changes of weak consonants are called permutations, and
will be treated of later on, together with other phonetic laws.
The first principle in Arabic grammar, then, is that radical
62 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
ideas arc expressed by combinations of three consonants, and that :
modifications of these ideas are expresscd by algebraical formule
constructed from these three consonants in combination with the
so-called “‘plconastic” letters.
I shall now proceed to show the nature of these formule and
their relation to each other. The student must bear in mina
that the word 7ج +۶ فعل represents the symbols x, y and z.
VerBaL متا
The simplest formula in Arabic is رداق قار فکل ic. (Xayaza) ۰
signifying “he did;” as ضرف dharaba, “he struck,” قتل katala,
“he killed.” It is under this form that words will be found
in the dictionaries.
The form تَعَلَ Jazala, signifying “ho did,” is the past tense
of the verb.
To express the othcr tenses the Arabs have only one form,
(yaXYuZu)
ی =
07ع 6 و یل
which is called the “‘aorist,” or doubtful tense, because it may
stand for aorist, present, future, ete., the exact meaning being
defined either by the context, by changing the final vowel, or
by adding other words. Of the ‘‘numbers,” “persons,” ete., I
shall speak later on.
are susceptible of further ربب بل يفل 64ح قل فَعَلَ The forms
modifications of the middle vowel; this, however, we must also
treat of latcr on.
VERBAL ۰0 68
The imperative is of the form cha} uf ul (with the accent on
the syllable <a). This is the shortest form of the verb (sce
۳. 15) as pronounced sharply or in a tone of command; only
as no Arabic word may begin with two consonants, short ٭ is
prefixed for convenience of pronunciation: this is clided if it
follows a vowel in the preceding word.
Besides the form رااع قر فاعل meaning “one who does,” the
student must learn the following: فعل Jaz1 or Fel, “a doing,”
“an act.” (But if the root, instead of implying an act, as
Ws “striking,” signifies a quality or the like, then the form
تقر فعول is used, and both these are called nouns of action).
مکل maf, al, و“ place where, or time at which, a thing is
done.” مفغول maf, il, و thing done.” We get, therefore,
the following formule for expressing the principal simple ideas
in the language :
si 0 داه (XayaZa), “past tense,” he did.
A بو
ARS yafeulu (yaxyuzu), — “aorist,” he does, ete.
oR oe ۰
Jai) 0 (uxyuzZ), “imperative,” he does, ete.
(XayZ), “noun of action,” doing, cte. عقر تغل
tbe نہ
( intransitive verbal ١ :
being, ete.
noun, j
و
fuzal (Xuyaz), فغول
3
(XaytZ), “agent,” one doing. 1 قار فاعل
mafiil (maXYuZ), “passive participle,” done. مَنغول
eis maf.al (maXYaz),
27 ۰
noun of place | place of doing,
time,” cte.
90 .0 کی 9
04 ARABIC GRAMMAR,
Arabic grammarians never speak of the “agent,” ete., of a
verb, but mention the formula; thus
ضارد تت dharib is the cl fazil of «ضرب
دحتم ٌ۰ 7787ھ
Derivative VERBS.
There are, of course, many ideas which are not expressed by
any of the above formule; of these we obtain a very large
numbcr by certain modifications of the simple formula لعل
مط“ وه نر dia.” These modifications are thirteen in number,
and are called “‘conjugations.”” I shall number them according
to the old system as used in all European grammars and dic-
tionaries of the Arabic language, but shall arrange them some-
what differently. ١
These modifications consist of prefixing or inserting certain
letters in the formula hs fa-ala (XayaZa).
If in English we want to give greater emphasis to a word we
pronounce it more forcibly. The Arabs do the same, and hence
it comes that by doubling the midcle syllable of the above form
we get an intensified meaning. Thus from 568 husara, “he
broke,” (formula دامع ھکر فکعل (XaYaZa),) we got 525 ۸,
ور broke to bits,” (formula Sk: دامع عدر (Xayyaz).) But if
the verb is not active, this doubling of the middle radical
makes it so; as
cs
- م
kadama, to be in front. 5 م
a
SS kaddama, io send forward.
DERIVATIVE VERBS. 65
So from a noun, as جلد jild (formula XiyZ), we get جلد
jallada, “he skinned.”
Prefixing ۱ a also makes a verb active that was not so before;
as نزل nazala, “he descended,” انز anzala, ““he caused to
descend,” formula دامع ره ال (aXYaZa).
By putting ۱ © after the first radical, formula cel fa-ala
(xayaZa), tle sense of reciprocity is given; as si katala, ۵
killed,” Bu katala, “he fought;” <S 2 24 kataba, 136 wrote,”
کا تسا kataba, ‘““he corresponded.”
The word to “come” in Arabic is أ نی ata. Two formule are
obtained by prefixing the consonant ¢ (the only strong letter in
this word ata, with the sense of ““becoming”’) to the two forms
last-mentioned ; thus from 23s kaddama (form. ss fazala), he
sent forward, تام takaddama ۰ تفقل tafa--ala), he re-
moved to, he was sent forward, a distance, “he was removed to
a distance ;” and from ach ۸ 1484م (form. (14هع قار فَاعَلَ from تكد
راع 0ع06 1000000 ( form. و(414ع 105 تفاعل “he was removed
to a distance from someone or something else.”
The state or condition resulting from the action may also be
expressed by two other formulz, namely, دامع دالا انکعل (iXYaZa)
and انفعل infa,ala (inXYaZa), the only difference between them
being that the first implies “being affected by,” and the last
۹۰۵0060 to the state of ;” as واج فطع “he cut,” انقطع
01۱/06 راع “St was cut;” وط '“ راع :7041110 جم gathered,” اجنمع
was in a collected state.” نل ' رم
a سوا
66 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
By prefixing است ist we get the idea of “asking for,”
“wishing to be,” or “deeming;” as خفر ghafara, “he asked
pardon,’ : اَل istaghfara, “he ا pardon,” form. اسکنعل
istaf, ala eyes عظم adhuma, ““to be grand,” —
ista; dhama, “he thought it grand;” کے kabura, “he was
great,” اک اھ istakbara, “he was te 0.6. desirous of
being thought great.
Of the forms Shel f.alla ((XYazZa), esas او 1
وت and اِفعَل ae (¢XyaZZa), the last implies
“colour,” as صذر uel 25/0 “10 be yellow;” the other two being
distorted forms imply some distortion or deformity.
The ‘‘nouns of action” Bs formed from all of these derived
forms (except the first two and those beginning with ta) by
prefixing | ۶ to the form and inserting \ 2 between the second
and third radical, and changing the preceding © to 7; thus
ام ...4۴ اذ...عال )05۰۰۰722(. The dots represent the inter-
yening letters which occur in some of the forms, as the < ¢ in
افتعال (iXtayazZ), of which the noun of action is ام۸ فک
۰( )971801
The remaining form their nouns of action as follows:
jas faz:ala, noun of action اق دا تفعیل (taXyiZ).
maXay 02017 )1( 1107ح 106 مَفَاعَلۃ 7 وج تال فاعل
(4782<) 627 فعال or
and from those prefixing ¢ by changing the last a but one
into uw; as آلف ع ته تفقل (taXayyuzZ),
تفاغل 1/۵ )148[71/2(
DERIVATIVE VERBS, 67
The aorist is made as in the simple verb, except that the vowels
are slightly modified; رھ for the first three it is ds mee a5
' ہہس (yuX...YyiZu); for the two which prefix 3 ¢ ٦ 18
۷بس کذ. وی (yaXyazu); and for the rest it is 07
ا رهز (yaXyiZu).
The imperative is made by cutting off the last vowel of the
aorist and prefixing 7 where two consonants would otherwise
come together at the beginning.
The passive of all verbs is formed by changing the first vowel
into w and the second vowel into 7 for the “past tense,” and @
ce ۰
for the aorist ;”
PASSIVE.
si 80ر jis yaf-ulu فعل Suzila sis yuf-alu
gale ةردو SiS yufazgilu IS fugit CRE »کل
Where the first vowel of the aorist is already w it is retained in
the passive.
The passive participle from 417 derived forms of the verb is
ان 2 muf...cal (muX...YaZ). This formula also serves
for the “nouns of time and place.”
Forms or tre Smrere ۰
1 have said that the simple verb فعل يفعل facala yaf-ulu is
susceptible of further modifications by changing the middle
yowel. The following Table shows these, and also the different
forms of nouns immediately derived from the verb :
08 7ھ
“gov “10 9 7
0 ری
9 50060 1
۸ مر
9* 001015290500 10 ج
٠001100150500 1
کم لم
-.۲ 00:۲ 01 0019101 0
۰0100. 8
وء* 27
1 ¢
Sore SO ۴
4d mag مہ پ۱ ao
101191119 10’ £410
-xe Yup 791105119
' 2011018 0
-xo Yip 090597030 7
wy مر 4919110111۲ IO
101200 5010
‘Eorpel 091012001 *6
1001
oY} وہ 090۵۲ 1099481 0
۱0۱0: ۲
| -01010053 0
۱
مہ 70*۲
دج 11173317171
ore
crepe
2۳ج 0297وک
oA /
ےت
=? ہے
7702207 ap
192917
يلك )1 ]1
۵2 607
8 o
ase
sen} ۰ بن
pr? oh ۳
npn? * ]ہو 7
72
od
۳ی 711 4
7
2 ۳1
لا 0/۸
7/5۳
213/0 ۲
2
722 a 7 ہے هه
1135 ۶۲ 70112211 aD
*0۸ آ)0193 "7٣
‘SNUOT 0214153211 0
1032/7 ۳
17222/( ors
ا
27
| 5 :
ظ perfor ono?
ملي
lag 18
G)uon i و |
10 122/۳۹ 7
7 1١
000۴۳ Jo uno NT
سو
5
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
68
7
iy 1 40% ۳
“eT
2121211121150
: 11۳6910 ZI
۱
۲۳ ۰109 وو
0۲ LE
-00 10 0
* 010.19 ۲
ا 2 ‘ssed
ae *008 “LOW
vere “400% 0114 Aq
۳99902150 vapt ۳۵
-110 ٥ Sv
-01 10 107 101175877 “OT
ار 1
out 0 110190091 Aq
را 21198۰8
1001 ay} Jo -
1 oy} 10 74
OU} 400708 ۸
۰001 09
Chi
۱
jo ومتاوه 9111 001
08008 919119] 85011110 OAT,
۰00 piu
70۵۹۸ jaf?
agp >nnrfr و۳
ا 72“
let 0رہ
7 “Be ود Ag
ھ2 by
7702/71 sper “i
رورم le 7
Days و ماه
ites 207 03"
arb
Zz
aa ( ”
71721010110 2/۸ پ0
7171211020۸ ose
2
كاين 79۸
1۷02/۸ 00
ا
ا/ٗ:رو / 7×۲2
۱۳۳ 2 ری
ک2 ۸/0
7ی 120۸/۸[
pina fi irk
1 {xs
11 8
mf ۳ا
(rss مر 7ر
1۲2۳1۸ جع
prnfur ۲
09
qoman 2/0 ۳
waft پات
7 فرصل
efi ie
0
193219 {oe Ay
TABLE OF DERIVED FORMS.
ا :197
Sx ا سا
ہے و at یت ا
ind 4
یا و رت 5
۵ء7 7
70 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
TABLE OF FORMS 07
‘I'he class to which a verb belongs will be found in the dictionaries
١ aS حشری ۵
Sparen Active. Passive. E Noun of Action.
TRILITERAL 3 = ۳ حسم ۱
Vers. ee Aorist. بت Aorist 3 دنت Neuter.
| |
17
١ 00000 a رک وگو و 2 240%
Class 1 | (x3 | فول ]| فعل | انعل | تنعل | فعل | تفكل pace
اننال هن قاف قز fug ila اانه بال | fagd | fugil fa;lah(t)
|
a ۱
Sa ار
» 2 2+ kai ” ” افعل 1 ” 99
:ہ1۷ 1
کر Cy eg, Ss 7
” 3 29 فعل 7 إفعل 27 7 بَعل 27
| 1/۹/۷ fea Jazal
ےر کے te کے
فعل اف دہ R85 ” وو وو إفعل وو 0
١ داق قل ۷ 1
کا ا
» . 5 ” ssi ” ” إفعل ” ” ”
1۷٥/۷ ۱ئ
| (| es ۱
Ja; Glah(t)
ie ee: o_o eC pe
60 es RSI ” ” فعولة ” أفعل ١١ وو
أه لا لقأل 10 | ألا قار ۵
ےم
Sh
6
ہ-
سا
11
TABLE OF FORMS OF THE SIMPLE VERB. :
THE SIMPLE VERB.
Those of Class 6 are nearly always verbs expressing some quality,
1
wPags
Inten- اش کپ 5۰2
sive ]223-5 با۶ Noun
Quality. |2 523) agent
نے 220
الح وب ی
eae جم ۳ Ss
فعول | افعل فاعل
رب
1
أقع نل | ۱۵ Jazil
23
(37
Noun of Instru-
ment, or
Intransitive Agent.
1
۳
|
|
sive ع
| 0 ul
2 4 Ao we
rea alah(t)
72
7
“to be handsome.”
Noun of
Time or
’ Place.
Noun of | Agent.
Species. a
Patient.
&
7710701
cS
ie Cr
maf, al
مفعل
ee Se شی ا ےئ وم
72 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
As soor as the student has mastered these tables each root ~
. word that he learns adds a large nambér of other words to his
vocabulary. Thus, for instance, from ضرمب dh+r+4, “striking,”
he may make all the words given in the top line of the last 3
table by merely substituting this root for the ز فعل ۰ :
a oe a
Preterite, Jas facala, ضرت dharaba, he struck.
FIG 35
Aorist, نعل yafulu, 425 yadhrubu, he is striking.
Rew : ۳ 1
Preterite Pass., ضرت ,06 فعل dhuriba, he was struck.
= و 2 9 و بر ۶ 3 E
Aorist Passive, Jess yuf,alu, کرد بت yudhrabu, he is struck.
ا os
Imperative, he?! اضرّبٗ . رسمه udhurd, strike.
Noun of action, فعل 0, pe dharb, a blow.
transitive,
Noun of action, neuter. Wanting.
Noun of unity, Ake faglah(t), 4558 dharbak(é), one blow.
Noun of species, Wanting.
Agent, راع قر فاعل ras ضارد 07817, a striker
Patient, Seeds هد maf.ul, i madhrib, struck.
Noun of Hae رد رب را 0 ممَفْعَلُ madhrab, a place of
or place, Deating.
6
يي
Noun of 2 وبقعل 0, Code midhrab, a thing to beat
strument, with.
Noun of quality, Same as Agent.
Noun of ا jail af.alu, شرت adhrab, more addicted to
periority, ~ beating,
Intensive راف قار نگول S558 dharib, one who beats
agent, much.
DERIVATIVE VERBS, 73
Again, from the Table of Derivative Forms, p. 68, he can make
2. os) ضرت ع4 dharraba, he excited another
3 ٠ to beat or fight.
تفعیل taf: il, تضریت tadhrib,a cause of contention.
3. Jel ات وج گر dharaba, he contended with
~~ another with blows.
bela mufa,alah(t), مضاربۂ mudharabah(t), contention,
and so on. Of course every root is not susceptible of every
form, but common sense and the dictionary will tell the student
which are used.
We have seen that the formula fect fa,ala (XaYaZa) is used
for the 8rd person singular masculine of the verb, and is
equivalent to “he does;” as فرب dharaba, “he strikes,” the
pronoun. “he” being considered as inherent to the form. To
express the other persons the following terminations are used :
PRETERITE (AFFIXES).
PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR.
Fen. Mase. Fen. Mase. Fem. Mase,
“ 7 بان
or 70 و Beata ee 7 910 04
۳ و Fas u ی م
oe eo ی 0 تھا 7
tunna = tum tv ta
7۶
نا na یں ۱1 | باس
Aorist (SUFFIXES AND AFFIXES).
PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR,
Fen. Mase. Fem. Mase. Fem. Mase.
و ان ع
و 00 1
ا ا یا و سا ہت ما7 0007
1۷۴۰۰۰۱۱۰۱ ۷۷۰۸۰۰۹۶۸“ ta...dni 00۰۰۰ ۱4۰۰۰ ya...
ee 5 5 7 5 3
يق ی2 تد وی ری 3 7.05 2nd ,,
10۰۰۰10 0۰۰ 12۰۰۵ 10۰۰۰710 ta...u
> 1
۱ :
OTRSS ۳ ا و
ہے ا یں
سر
74 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
Thus, from ضرب “he struck,” we get
Preterite ضرَیّت dh dharabat, she struck,
Cy ضر dharabtu, I struck,
and so on; and in the aorist
ےگ yadhrubu, he strikes,
آفرّت adhrubu, I strike, and so on.
The following exhibits all these forms in the typical root
فعل (see .م 60):
PLURAL.
DUAL. SINGULAR.
Fem. Masc. Fem. Mase. Fem. Mase.
cps pes فَعَلَعا Sed | فعلت ij 3rd pers.
سام مار fazala | fa,alata fazala | لمعتل Jazala
eid wld | ld | eld تعلت ona
Jazaltunna faaltum| fa,altuma فا fa,alta
سس يي
73
- Ze 4 از
فلت ا 10
Sacalna JSacaltu
es ے6
PLURAL. DUAL. ' SINGULAR.
Fem. Mase. Fem. Mase. Fem. Mase.
Cees Chis ed hes M355 seks ord ۰
yaf.ulna yof.ulina taf.ulani yafulant| tafulu ۷۵۷۸۷
G Us و te 2 2 Gs و oe
۶۵ےے و ہے gan 2 gin
تفعلى Opes تفعل تفگلین تفگلان 2-7
taf,ulna ۸۵6 یہ1 14۸۰۶ taf-ulina 1٥ح لاآل
Fue vet
ee انل ist;
nafeulu af ul
It may be taken as an axiom that in Arabic the direct or
subjective idea is expressed by ٭ £, the objective or conditional
IRREGULAR VERBS. 75
by a, and the dependent by ۶ 2۰ This is obviously so in the
cases of nouns, but it is equally applicable to verbs. Thus, to
express the “conditional mood” we have only to change the
final vowel of the aorist from 4 to a; as
یفرب yadhrubu, he strikes,
Conjunctive یرب yadhruba, that he may strike.
The imperative second person singular is, as we have ۲
(p. 63), the shortest form in which a word can occur. To make
the imperative of the other persons in Arabic we have only to
shorten the words as much as possible by cutting off the last
vowel; as
yadhrubu, he strikes, فرب
yadhrub, let him strike, and so on. یرب
in the persons of the aorist is con- ری Note that the final
sidered as a vowel and elided; thus
Os yadhrabuna, they strike,
yadhrubu, let them strike. و AS :
۰ تہ[
Although certain Arabic verbs seem at first sight to be quite
irregular, it may be taken as an axiom that no such thing as an
irregular verb exists.
I have shown (p. 60-61) how a change may occur in a form
from the presence of one or more of the “weak consonants”
\a, 3, 0۲ .ی These changes are called “‘permutations,” and
it will only be necessary to study the following table to be
26 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
able to account for any apparently irregular form which may
be met with, or to conjugate any verb in which weak con-
sonants occur.
PERMUTATIONS IN THE PRNTERITE,
“eh
و ' aw becomes ۴
۰ کی twa becomes و
کے
pronounced like | 2 ٠ ری aya becomes ی
CHANGES IN THE TERMINATION OF THE ۸۰
۱ 0 وو 721 و awu becomes "و
2 ۰ 3 oe 00 4
و) awa remains unchanged (| 93 8ى
۱ 8 وي | .. awa او
ae become ی a ۱ become us 2
کب aya یی 7
۱ 86 وه ۷ رو
>. . 0۵ ان خر | become sau
ws wu پو 8
۰ 5 72 : a
(CS »را remains unchanged کی ری wt becomes CF as
Similarly the nouns and participles, ete. :
awun 5 و
an. کی are become
ayun کی
not being required to sup- ی and و the ,0ه 2 د | 8 رو
us ۷ ۱ port tenwin ۸۰
مہ ہے : > ھی ری سر ود سر وک
9 4 7 و 72۵0۵۰ (but in verbs of the form ف -) رفی )
és, is more commonly used).
Geo
Ga = ۔ G29
۰ رک و tiyun وک
1 When 1 is final, and more than two letters precede it, it is written Gs,
but pronounced the same.
NOUNS: 7
“A Thus, to take an extreme case, ay awa, “to repair to a
house or spot in order to live there,” in which all three radicals’
are ‘‘weak,” we get cos awat, ‘‘she repaired,” for وك awayt
(because the feminine is made by adding ت ¢ to the mascuiine,
which in this case is oC 2 and two suwkans cannot.come together,
800 0. 58) = هآ فعلت = = 5050741 ١ agent آاووی۔ و60 أو =
ال 72910 = XayiZun; and the verbal noun of the fourth
“conjugation” (see .م 68) would be ارات = 7۷00-10 أبواء
00/۱/۵ = Sled] of. alun =¢XyaZun, and so on for all possible
forms.
Note.—In the case of verbs which begin with ۵ و w and
- make their aorist of the form leks the و w drops out in the
aorist active; thus, from وئی. waka, “to guard against,” we
get—Preterite us) waka, Aorist he yakt, Imperative J ki,
for ust kt, because the imperative must be pronounced quickly
and shortly,
NOUNS.
Besides the nouns wuich are included in the forms 0
from verbs, as given above, there are some called primitive,
4.6. which cannot be referred to any verbal root, such as فرش
farasun, ' ' ((روعنامط 2G kalbun, “heart ر48 07 عفر “small
stream.” These belong, of course, to the vocabulary.
There are other forms of nouns, of which the following are
the most useful: .
78 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
1. Trades and oufices are of the measure Ble Ji-dlatun ; as
۱ و1000 تاره “trading,” حياط khiyatatun, “tailoring,”
Eis dilafatun, “office of Caliph.”
2. Pains of the body are of the measure فعال Su-alun; as
را 2105 صُدَاغٌ “headache,” شكال su; Glun, “cough.”
8. Sounds are of the measure Sle Ju; alun or chess Jazilun;
as ey surakhun, “ery,” صفیر safirun, “whistling.”
4. Motion, commotion, or emotion are expressed by the form
Sas fa; alan, and sometimes Chast fa; tun ; as Shes khafakanun,
“nalpitating, fluttering,” oy rahilun “‘ departure.”
5. Flight or avoidance by les fizdlun; as کے Jirarun,
“flight.”
6. A small portion is expressed by es Jizlatun; as as
kisratun, و“ broken crust,” inks kiteatun, و“ fragment.”
7. A small quantity by pate Juzlatun; as 1 kubdhatun,
و handful.”
8. Colour in the abstract, by Es Suzlatun و as ee humratun,
“redness,” 385 sufratun, “‘yellowness.”
9. Small pieces, refuse, by Bei fucdlatun s as tates kura-
dhatun, “‘clippings, filings.”
Cases or Nouns,
The cases of nouns are three—Subjective, Objective, and
Dependent. These are represented by the vowels ۶ نه > a, and
٤ respectively. ۔
CASES OF NOUNS. 79
When the noun 18 indefinite the tenwim form نا used (see ۰
57); thus - 7
Subj. رل rajulun, 8 man. SAY arrajulu, the man.
Obj. Is; rajulan, 8 man. JEST arrajula, the man.
Dep. رجل rajulin, of a man. Jest arrajuli, of the man.
The dependent is used with all prepositions.
The following is a noun declined with and without the article,
and with the affixed pronouns:
DEFINITE.
Paes With the Article. With Pronouns.
Subjective کتات a book. oleh bs ee
Dependent کتاب of a book. CEST کتابی کاب
Objective کتانا a book. oles Ki bales گکاہی
ِ 3 5
The following nouns, ات “father,” اج “brother,” حم
yy 2 6
“father-in-law,” هن “thing,” دو “ possessor,” فم “mouth,”
are declined with long vowels when in construction with a noun,
or when they have an affixed pronoun ; ¢g.
With the With Tn con-
INDEFINITE. Article. Pronouns. struction,
= cs = =
Subjective اب a father. | الاب 563 get a5 و
BLE = =
Dependent الاب آب da) | ا ast 1
0 یا جو کت Zu) کا
Objective Ui زید اپبی باه الاب Gi
Certain nouns cannot take tenwin; these have the fetha (a) for
both objective and dependent case.
When, however, they are preceded by the article, or are in
80 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
construction with ancther noun, they have kesra (7), like other
nouns in the dependent case.
Numsers or (۲0۵8۰
e
The Dual is formed as follows:
MASCULINE. FEMININE.
Subjective ان ani, yk atant.
Objective
(ora لس oss یب
سن ant, we = 7۰
Dependent 7 > 2
Tue Prorat.
The plural in Arabic is either “regular,” 7 ۵. formed by affixes;
or broken,” 26 a modification of the original form of the sin-
gular, just as in English we say ‘‘ship,” pl. “ships,” and “man,”
pl. “men.”
Reevrar Mascurine ت02۸
The regular plural is formed as follows:
MASCULINE,
Subj. عسوت ana, ١ This is merely a lengthening of the singular
رہ for just as + un=§ رح > ens termination اتا روہ
lao i, g 8
۰ وو = UNG ون 50 Dep. a
FEMININE.
ورگ
Subj. ات atun,
1 ۱ کو ہوا
atin ۱ feminine affix ٤ ۰ 5 :
Dep. 5
Similarly this is an expansion of the regular
The regular masculine affixed form is cnly used for—
1. Nouns derived from verbs making their feminine in ¥ and
signifying rational beings,
CASES OF NOUNS. 81
9 Proper names of men, provided they consist of a single
word, and do not end in 8 ۰
3. Diminutives,of proper names of the description just men-
tioned, and diminutives of ordinary nouns, provided they denote
rational beings, and are of the masculine gender; as
ens rujeilun, a little man, 3 pl. يلون 2001
4. Relative adjectives ending in us
5. Nouns of the measure أَنْعَلُ af,alu, provided they signify
comparison.
The regular plural cannot be used in nouns which are common
to both genders; as
Cx Jarthun, wounded. jx 2 sahirun, patient.
6. The following words,
son, ,40711111 اب
& ٭ فا(
ue
سی
ahlun, family,
Gr
dhu, possessor,
٥
way
۵
ay
۳3 6 00ج world, universe,
ardhun, earth, لظ
5 cashrun, ten,
sanatun, year, مه
(and the other cardinal numbers, thirty, forty, etc., between
twenty and nincty,) together with all nouns similar to the last,
nouns of which the last radical is cut off and a & added by .2,6
1
۰ Re “ce = 0
way of compensation; as يانه “‘a hundred,” Cyne; عضۂ
8
thorny path,” ء حون
83 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
The last-mentioned class of plurals in the dependent case may :
be treated as broken plurals, and 0 throughout; 06.
Sub. Craw Obj. 25 Dep. ye:
In construction with a following noun the regular plural loses
its final ¢); as
335 ضارئو dhariba Zaidin, the strikers of Zeid.
N.B.—The ره ا و whether singular or plural, be-
comes نت ¢ when followed by another letter; 8 إخوة 110000060
“brothers,” Se] tkhwatuhu, “his brothers.”
The regular feminine plural is used with all feminine nouns
ending in 3; col atun is frequently used in nouns which have
a neuter sense; as
م ا
gs hammdamdatun. مانت bath, hammadmun, pl. هام
Broxen Prvurats.
There are, besides this regular form, a large number of
formule for the plural, called “broken plurals,” and the use of
these is one of the greatest difficulties in Arabic. Practice and
the dictionary can alone teach all these, but a study of the
following table will account for most of them. The top line
shows the form of plural, the left hand column the forms of
the noun.
Sometimes a word, if used in different meanings, will take
one plural in one sense and one in another; as و“ کیت house,”
Ss Daron ack 0 ےج
pl. 5, but بیّت “a verse of poetry,” makes its pl. .ییات
83
which have a weak conso-
nant at beginning or end ;
as ra اخوے ۳ a “اعمط
مس
pl. x خوا ۱ 6:
Generally used with words
ix}
BS2
eb s ۱
۲ ۶ ه
وه |
8 سے ۱
Sipe ee
P=
دی وج |
Sang
و تج
Sree
6 2
بلط مي
جاع |
۱ ۲۳ پل
From substantives which
have no weak consonants,
and which make their
feminine in :ة5 as حمل
» و camel.”?
Mostly used of nouns of an
objective nature.
ات
BROKEN ۶7074۰
7 Ss a ڑپ 0 = 7 0 =
۷ yo \ —\ 9 ۲ 6 6 ic
x. +هاااوه 9 a “\ se ۰ \
وا 2 5
مہ ١ ۱ ۰
ای 6 ۴
\G. \G. \G. . ۱
9
6 Cy Ce
5 2 5
۳ “o ه >
۱
ی C1. C2 er ۵ Cu,
Xe Ke ہد Xe
Tyo 35 5 همم وا ye
کہ ند و) Gay Gee Ge! Geo
Cy Cr Cy Cu. C: Cw
OOo Be نرہ
‘Plural of Paucity,” ۰
used for any number from
3 to 10.
Paucity, from verbs whose
2nd and 8rd radical is the
same; .م3 مد عم |
Generally from nouns with |
a weak 2nd or 8rd radical ; :
5۱ ‘ 9 7 ۰
asl) ‘fire, خیرات |
a
\
\
و
x EX ER ER
\ \ وی
۰ »و ىھة ہہ
84 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
When' the termination 4 implies unity, the removal of it will
a
naturally have the effect of "0 9 the plural; ۰ Lat
tubfatun, “a gift,” pl. ae tuhaf, ‘‘ gifts.”
Other forms are:
Sing. Me fa; lun, pl. لآق 116 ماع as oo shetkhun, “an '
elder or chief,” ‘d مشا حر masha-ikhu, “elders ;” و خسن
“beauty,” Go mahasinu, “beauties.”
Sing. ,فعال pl. Je fugulun ; as تذال kadhalun, “neck,” pl.
قذل kudhulun.
Sing. فُُل ۰ ,فعیل Suzulun; aS قضیب kadhibun, “vod,” pl.
27
فقثقبی 0۰
2
Sing. ل grt, pl. ز 0/0 فل as 3۵ رسو 514, “apostle,” pl.
رسل ش0 1 rusulun.
۰ م۳ a
Sing. فعيل facil, pl. نار وم2 216-011 as aks fakirun, “poor,”
pl. ٴ٦رقف Jukara-u; عليم calimun, “wise, notable,” pl. عُلما*
culama-w. When this means “pain,” etc., its plural is تعلی
Jala; as Cor jarthun, “wounded,” جرحی 7
The masculine agent فاعل fa 11ع has many forms of the plural,
of which the most common are ]7ج[ تال and a و000 ع الكل فُعُو
as Soa tajirun, ‘“a merchant,” pl. چار tujarun; شاهد shahidun,
be ۰ 5
a witness,” pl. شہوٹ 0+
&
ash see p. 76) the
pl. is thes Ju-alatun 5 as قاض kadhin, “a judge,” pl. ا
From agents ending in — رر (for 4 or
kudhatun= 82.8.5 kudhyatun (sec p. 61),
THE NOUN OF RELATION. 85
Prurat or Worps wits Four Lerrers.
The oe for the plurals of words of four Ictters, whether
radical or not, may be regularly represented by the signs
۱ (4) (3) | (2) 300 which will be found to embrace all the forms
کے ele, Plates, etc.; e.g. from مکاح “key,” we get
)0 @ ے کا یٹ
Inthis\ becomes, (see p. 68), and the whole word .% غ ۱ خا
P لٍ و
a) @ ¢@) a)
ie 2
hy es تی 7 bbe جج و وو
becomes ماقم From جوهر jewel,” ۷۵۳۵۲۵ و سے ر ==
ور و
.جوا
Tn words of five or more letters all above four are cut off in
forraing the plural; as
2 (1)-28)ى, )8( (گاء
5 یام \
یو ات سے) عخادل ‘‘nichtineale,” plural عفد
تھے 799 res 5 to) ? 0 a
(0۔(3)+ )3( لكام
\
۰ ۱ کا و وو : ما “Ak
QR ws ی oy) ار ” quince, مفرچل
Tae Noun or Rerarion.
The noun of relation is formed by affixing the syllable ore
tyun and rejecting all such inficctions as the ٢ of the feminine,
or the signs of the dual and plural; as Xe mekkatun, ‘‘ Mecca,”
relative we mekkiyun, ‘ Meccan.”
Tf the nouns themselves end in the termiaation مین this is
ها 0
rejected.
Ss
Another form of the relative termination is ا ~~ This-is
rincipally used in technical or scientific terms; as حسمان”
2 ? cs ۰
ہا اه کے ما cae د کا م eral ” 5
jismaniyun, “corporeal,” روکانی ruhdniyun, spiritual, Rey
5 82ا
— 3 ” ٠. 0 he و
barraniyun, external,” چوانی 0117/7 internal.
۱
5
86 - ARABIC GRAMMAR.
as reese اک ا : ا
Very irregular forms are شا م shamin, Syrian,” eS yandnin,
2 سج
“of Yemen.” (These are declined like اض 000
91۱0۲ Noun.
From the noun of relation an abstract substantive is formed
by the addition of the feminine termination زو as ال 0061010
“a god,” ار ilahiyun, divine,” الب ilahiyatun, “divinity.”
In theological works (especially Christian) the termination كت
ut is uscd instead ; as 9,5) lahat, ‘“divinity,” “deity,” لكوت
(ba
malakit, kingdom (of heaven).”
Tur (۲ +2۶۳.
The diminutive is formed by inscrting & (quiescent yd) after
the sccond letter of the noun, and pointing the initial Ictter
with dhammah and the second letter with fethah; as جل rajulun,
2 ese 9 و “oil
aman,” dim. رخیّل 0۰
1۶ the noun has more than three letters, all which follow
the inserted 4 are pointed with hesrah; as و“ درم drachma,”
ہہ و
7 A
qin. eo
Declinable nouns only can take the diminutive form.
Formation OF THE FEMININE FROM THE ۰
The feminines of masculine nouns are formed as follows :—
1. By adding 3; as & ضاره dharibun, fem. ضار1 dharibalun,
oo
40 9
a striker.’?
Seen ود
87
FORMATION OF THE FEMININE FROM THE MASCULINE.
and \ an before become زا as ps fatan, a youth,” fem.
311 fatatun, “a young girl.”
2. Nouns of the form yes fa-linu make their feminines in
ماه sakranu, “drunk,” fem. ISS ۰
(eax a
فعلی fala; as ران
و 1
But فعلاری ۲0 and فعلان fu-lanun make their feminines
F 2G -
/
ک٢ کے
2. re
کے کے RX
in the usual manner, 40x: and does; 8 G4 nadmanun
S 5 ٤
curydnun, naked,” کا
“repentant,” fem. تک ما nadmanatun; os
fem. UGE curydnatun.
3. Jas} af,alu, when it expresses the comparative or superla-
ھ77 bee
فک 18: as *2S\ akbaru, “greatest,”
of es دہر
tive, makes its feminine
fem. 8 kubrd.
past af-alu, when it is descriptive of colour or deformity,
4,
has for its feminine NSS 0-0 ز as 2 ahmaru, “ned,” fem.
=
AAS hamra;” آحعدت akdabu, “hump-backed,” fem. 255s:
hidbd-u.
5. فَعُولٌ Ja; alun, when it has an متام signification, has no
different form for the feminine; as jane چو = و sabirun,
gt
a3 اراد 0-01 5093711, ‘a patient
سره صمور
6c ۰
a patient man,”
woman.
But رآ ال تار فعول with a passive signification, makes فعولة
25
2
0
:1لا ار in the feminine; as رسول 051/011, one sent,” fem.
٠ 1 رسو
Say? zlun, in the passive sense, has only one فعیل Vice versd .6
form for the masculine and feminine; as نی Bey 4 ryulun
۰
88 Go ai ARABIC GRAMMAR.
katilun, ‘Sa murdered man,” كَتِيلٌ aly] imra-atun katilun, “a
murdered woman,” while asd Ja-ilun with an active meaning
makes Muss 1ر 700 in the feminine; as رالا 516 شفية “on
intercessor,” fem. فیک 505 atun.
Some few words are of the common gender. The list will be
found in any of the larger grammars.
The following words, though not ending in 5, are feminine:
Names and attributes of women; nouns meaning fire, wind,
wine; the double parts of the body, as “hand,” “‘foot,” etc. ;
~ 7
nouns ending in ۶۱ ری 201ة. and all broken plurals.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
The Demonstrative Pronoun is ذأ “that,” and is thus de-
clined :
PLURAL. DUAL. SINGULAR.
3 2 Fem. Mase. Fem. Mase,
oe 2 “a ۰ 4 ۲
أله or ۲ ids \ تان wie دا دی Subjective.
110-8 ala tant dhant | dht dha
Dependent
تین وو wid م 0
taint dhaini Objective.
dha is seldom used by itself, and when it forms a com- دا
at the 0100 لو or 143 تی pound the singular assumes the form
¢a or ¢ at the beginning, تا end of a word, and
It is 27 combined with ها ha, “behold!” (prefixed), or
ESS Tika, “for thee” = “there you are!” (affixed); as هذا
hadha, ‘‘this,” “£9 at dhalika, “that.”
comer و
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 83
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
1. The separate pronouns are :
SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL
Masc. Common. Fem, Common, 11386, Common, Fem.
vt Cy
1st pers. Ul ۰ ےن ۷۷
1 ۶ we. ۳
- cf 3 عن گی ©
fia: ee 22, vgs G Bs
2nd و cel انق 200 reall انش
anta ants antuma antun antunna
thou. thou. ye two. ye. ye.
72 7 2 من G 2
هو اہ ون cs? VAs هن هم
hinca hiya huma hum hunna
he. she. they two. they. they.
These only express the nominative case.
2. The affixed pronouns are:
SINGULAR. DUAL. PLURAL.
Mase. Common, Fem, Common. Masc. Common. Fem.
Ist pers. پا شی 8
my, me, ولا US. ٠
9 2
and ,, کت eS کا 11 3
ka ke kuna kum kunna
thy, thee. thy, thee.| your, you tio. |your, you. your, you.
و ae
Grd 4,48 \s US 0 هن
hu ha huma hum hunna
his, him. her, | their, them two.| their, them. their, them.
These only express the dependent or objective cases.
With verbs, and certain particles which resemble verbs, the
of the first person becomes بی as | rage “he struck me,’
زی ہی
“verily 1.” ات
1 This is pronounced dnd, both a’s short, but the accent on the first.
00 ARABIC. GRAMMAR.
After a long vowel ےی becomes ی as Whe “sins,” خطایاک
“my sins.”
The pronouns of the third person, whken preceded by kesrah 7
change their dhammah to kesrah; as 4) کف (of) his book,”
mies?
كديع ‘upon them.”
i If the two pronouns are joined, the natural aoe of the
persons must be followed, the first preceding the second, and "
the 2-0 coming before the third.
Where pronouns of the second person plural are followed by
another affixed pronoun, a long اا 18 و5 between the
two; as sheets “1 “T gave أَعطَيْشئي 6 ایی ' ‘I gave you it,”
aed “you gave,’ ره “ you gave it;” شر) appears to
have becn the original full form of the termination of these
pronouns. )
THE ARTICLE.
ct
The article ال
6c 2 5
tke”’ is indecunable,
91
ا
ا
۱
This is declined as an
ordinary dual noun.
From 3 to 10 the |
numerals assume the |
feminine form for the .j
masculine, and vice
versi.
Tvom 8 to 10 the nu-
merals govern a broken
plural of the noun
numbered, which %s
put in the oblique
case. غ1[ the noun haye
a plural of paucity,
this is to be preferred,
و 4
3 ثلانه $418 as
ہے 2
slayes.’’
The numerals com-
pounded with 10 are
indeclinable, both
taking fe‘hah in all
cases. The 10 thus
used in the compound
follows the ordinary
rule for masculine and }
feminine, while the
units reverse it, as
stated above.
THE NUMERALS,
THE NUMERALS.
Tue CarpinaL Numpens.
Feminine.
إحخدى
thda
wahidatun
yt}
athnatant
ان
thintant
Se ting
كلك 0
thalathun
CU
arbacun
کے
رج
مس
Thamsun
rd S
sttiun
S Us
ue
sabeun
c
هر ak
(تمانیع) ای
thamanin
cashrun
9
Masculine.
3
\ 500-76
حل
ahadun
واحق
04
"۸۸۰۷۰
ےچ یچ
تلف AMS
thalathatun
eee
arba.atun
{ تم
Chea al ony :
Cee Sony |
khamsatun
£5
سته
sittatun
مرن مر 34
دس
800600
ila Les
۷ 0
ہے
لسعہ
tis: atun
سے"
د
2
و پر سب
حسام
casharatun
10
02 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
۰ Masculine. : Feminine. |
اپ کس
کے رھ ام اف هم AL | From 11 to 99 the
" اک 2 ای vom
11 a 7 7 numerals take an
ahada ۵ءء 1:16 cashrata | accusative singular
7 De 9 0 act of the thing num-
12 tt pe Lay و لنٌْنتا «دسدرة bered.
8 J ف ou وص بی
011106 <ashara | ۱0/۵۵0 cashrata| 7 9% ےر ٥۶
z “ag 4 ee oy 24 ey 2 Gels,
Car er ean se ثلاث عشہہ etc., are common
7022۷ مه رز تس both genders,
thalathata 17ع 074 ۱ thelatha gashrata |and are declined
and so on to like ordinary sound
ا و تا Ce ee plurals, see p. 81.
Ce OSG,
19 | 15 لسعة عسر ee In compounding
tis-ata 6ء tisca cashrata | numerals with 20,
u 3 ce 30, etc., and a unit,
90] عشت “سر the unit is placed
ey Baus first, the two are
۵۷ء connected by the
(5 ۰ کر a
Bn eee ا ea ان م |conjunction 9 and
91| 5 | Sykes Ssh وَعِشْرُونَ| 5d} and both are de-
thudun wa cishrina thdd wa ادق ina | chned.
2 cte,
9 ۰ 31
00 تلانو را
thelathina
z
ee نر رط ہے
40, ۴ ربعون
۳0۹
كار سے
20 خمسشون The word مات mi-aten, “hundred,”
۱ 2 is common to both genders.
khamsina
pes From 100 to 1000 the numerals govern
60! ٠ وئون the singular of the noun numbered,
کے which they put in the oblique case; as
sittina ints
ماه رخل “a hundred men.”
2 7 Pues 58 5
هت وق لم When the 70014:71 are compounded
٦1008 with units, they are put in the oblique
2 ہی case of the singular,
80| ۸ OY Ao
thamanina
۰ 7 ر) ا ۰
00۱ 4 دسعون
tise Und
0121145 NUMBERS. 93
ہے 1
Masculine,
1001 47 و [43 Le is pronounced as if
1111-0 written mi-Gtun.]
29004 ial ۱
110-00100 ۱
ا تر اق
8001 ۳۳ ثلاث مات
thelathu mi-atin
SCE 3 =
1000| ۳ الف ‘ta thousand”? is
alfun common to both genders.
1 1 ع م
2000| ۳ الغان Thousands compounded with
fini units follow the rules above
5 کی و given, ۰2, they are treated as
j; 10000; ۱ عسرة ال a thing numbered. Thus for
| easharatu aafin 3000 to 10000 the broken
2 هوشر plural KT is used in the
11000 | ۷ Gay 44 سے د oblique case; from 10000 to
ahada Ae alfan 99000 the accusative singular |
| | a ۳1 is used; and from 0
100000 | ٠٠۰ فک it اہ upwards the oblique singular
mi-atu alfin oll ۳
200000 | ۳٠٦ الب (sale
11:0- ata alfin
800000 presse که 0 if BUS Tn these cases the hundred
and unit are written as one
thalathu- ma- ata alfin| word,
1000000 | ٠" | آلف آلب
| 00 alfin
یام |
2000000 ۰ call (a)
alfa alfin
8000000۱۳۳۰۰۱ Call نكن اب
=
thalathate alafi alfin |
The ordinal numbers for the units (except the first) are of the
ARABIC GRAMMAT..
ORDINAL NUMBERS.
04
form of the agent, masc. ,فاعل fem. eli ; the tens, hundreds
and thousands do not differ from the cardinal numbers.
1st
2nd
8rd
11th
12th
20th
21st
22nd
90th
91st
|
Masculine. Feminine.
Jsi awwalu 27 ala
thanin ag ۳ thaniyatun ان
thalithun fay thalithatun 3 نا
ہے
and so on up to عَاشِرٌ 5
a = ہے ہے
MS & عشرة ped GNS
hadi 00 hadiyata ۵
A 3 ی cn S
تانیه عشرة نانی کشر
thant 0 thanryata 6
etc.
7 g% 5
Caps 0
4 4 85
و م ےم - ۸ 9 م che 0
و عِسْرُونَ حا و جشروق Kile
hadin wa 0 hadiyatun wa 0
74 o 4 کے
ہے چیا ہے یا ا وو
و عشرون ان و عشررن Rails
thanin wa لقع wa 0ء
etc.
کرای انا و
0 لسعوںن
Gols و تشون حَادٍ و تشون
0ل 105 hadin wa ۵ hadiyatun wa
etc.
اه اه ههد eS سر» se ۳
. 0023111011018. 55
PREPOSITIONS.
The prepositions are either inseparable (7.e. are written as
one word with the following noun) or separable.
The inseparable prepositions are five in number, namely :
by, with,” etc. This, when joined with the با رز ب
4S, changes their 70 رهم , 8 affixed pronouns
into 7, sce
ta, “by” (a particle of swearing). ت
3 wa, “by” (ditto).
تدوع“ ان (with pronouns this is pointed with Sethah).
eG ka, “like.”
we min, ‘ like,” ete.
All prepositions take the following nouns in the dependent
case.
CONJUNCTIONS,
The conjunctions are—
wa, “and.” و
fa, ‘and so” (as a consequence of what has gone before). ف
rubba, “many a,” or, conversely, “but few,” is used as رب
as a preposition. It must begin the sentence, and the noun
which it governs must be indefinite and qualified by a sub-
sequent adjective; as Abad رت رجل گر يم rubba rajulin kert-
min lakituhu, “many a generous man have I met.”
The word رب rubba is generally preceded by the conjunction
wa followed by و wa, “and.” It may even be omitted, the و
the dependent case having the same meaning.
9 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
SYNTAX.
The following are the principal points of Arabic Syntax, and
are all which it is necessary to learn or remember.
1: Sentences are composed of nouns, verbs, and particles.
2. Arabic nouns are all concrete, and do not express abstract
idcas.
3. The verbs contain a pronoun inherent in the form, which
is their real agent (sec p. 78).
Consequently, in parsing the sentence 2ت2
Zeidun 1 ہوسحمئ “Zeid, the generous, came,” rather than say
that 35; Zaidun is the nominative or agent to the verb sls ja-a,
and that یم Fei) al kerimu is an adjective agrecing with 555
Zaidun, the true explanation is—
came” (the agent he bemg contained in the وگ ja-a, جا
word کا۶ ١۰
355 Zeidun, “I mean Zeid” (Zeid being the name of the agent
صر
zie, 3
get ol and therefore in apposition with it).
لكريم al kerimu, ‘“The generous one” (also in apposition with
the agent or with the name).
4. When one noun defines or determines another, the state of
dependence is indicated by the dependent case; as JEST كناب
“the book of the man.”
The indefinite nature of a noun is expressed by tenwin, and the
definite nature of a noun by the loss of the tenwin ; or, if it stand by
itself, except it be a proper name, by the addition of the article.
6YNTAX. 97
When it has ueither tenwin nor article we way know that,
unless it be a proper name, it is connected with the noun which
immediately follows it.
5. A sentence consists of a subject and predicate; that is, of
the thing about which we arc going to speak, and of somo
statement concerning it; as
مد Predicate,
Zeidun ka- -imun, ١ Zeid (is) standing? 7 زیڈ 5 قازم
Doth subject anc predicate are put in the suljective case.
The simple logical copula “7s” is gencrally omitted; if em-
phasis be required, the pronoun is used to supply its place; as
ری کے وم 5} Zeidun 0:04 ka-imun, ۲2۵۵ he (is) standing.”
The predicate we consist of or contain a verb; as 555 رب ze
dhavaba Zeidun, “Zeid struck.” This is properly “‘ Ze struck,”
namely “Zeid? The agent “he” being contained in the verb,
and the name of such agent being subsequently mentioned for
the sake of clearness, it follows that the natural order of words
is to place the so-called agent after the verb.
But if the verb be active or transitive, there must also be
an object on which the ection falls; as ees 353 نزب dharaba
Zeidun .amran, “Zeid struck Arr.”
The object is put in the objective case.
If tho verb be neuter or intransitive, further explanation
may be 2۵0160 cs to the state or condition of the agent; as
lei ام زنگ kama Zeidun و0۵۵6 “Zeid rose hastily.”
7
03 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
The state or condition of the person or thing spoken of is always
expressed by the objective case.
If, instead of merely telling something about the subject, as
“Zeid (is) standing,” we wish to express existence im a state
of—or, the fact of becoming, that is, of assuming a certain con-
dition,—it is clear that by thc rule above giver such a state
must be expressed by the objective case; as
Us a5 aS hana Zeidun ka-iman, “Zeid was standing ”
۳۹ 5 35; هار ز sara Zeidun khaiyatan, “Zeid became a tailor.”
71:0۰ we get the rule that ae kana and similar verbs put the
predicate in the objective case.
The following sentence contains an cxample of cach of the
وی uses of the eae case :
25 half ary الأ فير يزع اع تحبا all 1355 G8 5 Wes
dharabtu ہہ wa ’Amran Zeidan amama "lamiri yauma 3
dharban shadidan ta-diban lahu,
* ۲ struck, conjointly with Amr, Zeid, before the Emir, on
Friday, a severe blow by way of correcting him.”
6. Particles modify the sentence by extending or restricting
the action of the verb. Some few, ات inna, ‘‘verily,” and the
like, are exactly the reverse of کا kana, puttine the subject in
the objective case, and the predicate in the nominative; thus,
تم sa 1955 J} إن 4 inna Zeidan la-ka-imun, ‘‘ ‘verily, Zeid is standing.”
۲۲6۵۲۵ the predicate is introduced by a second or subordinate
initial particle 3 la. The explanation of this is as follows:
[TOE SYNTAX OF THD TENSES OF THE VERB. 99
T am going to speak of my subject.” و tnna, ان
1355 53 Zeidan, ۵4 “Zeid,” 26. in his condition of Zeid (whence
the use of the objective case).
ras la-ka-imun, “Well—(,3) he is standing”? (which last be-
comes, as it were, a new predicate, and is therefore
properly put in the nominative). _
These principles will account for every possible phase of Arabie
syntax.
Tur Synrax or tur Tenses oF THE VERB.
1. Tue ۰
The pret>rite denotes a completed act, but the time at which
it took place must be defined by the context or by some particle.
Or it may express a foregone conclusion, such as naturally
occurs in hypothetical or conditional sentences ; as أت فكت
وت in kumta kuntu, “if you rise, I will rise.”
Common use of the preterite in Arabic is in precative sen-
tences; as اَدَا ام مه هکم adama "Wahu bakakum, “ ,may God
perpetuate your existence!” or in cursing; as ws a ۱ بارٹ 1
la baraka Wahu fikum, “may God not bless you ۳
The preterite of the verb os kana with the preterite of
another verb is ee to the تام 25 وو 355 ONS
hana Zeidun kama, ‘Zeid had stood up.”
But both the perfect and pluperfect are more usually cx-
pressed by the preterite preceded by the particle S kad, with
or without the conjunction و ۰
II. ۰1118 0
The Aorist denotes an act not yet completed, Like the
eer
100 : ARALIC GRAMMAR
preterite; it is somewhat indeterminate in respect of time, until
defined by the context or by particles,
Tur Syxtax or THE Sursuncrive Mfoop 02 Venus.
The aorist of a verb, as we have scen (pp. 74-75), changes its
final vowcl 2 into > to express the subjunctive mood.
The change takez place when the verb is preceded by any one
5 1 9
of the following particles ٤
3
٤
7 را اری. 1۰
وو 0 (bo, ۶ و 5 کے oft
2. لن lan أن = لا أنْ)- GX 3) “it will not happen that’’)=
6 ۰
“certainly not.”
پا کے A
6 رت ۳
8. ادن tdhan (إد أن ع) © then.”
Tke aorist of the verb loscs its final ۲۵۱۲۵۱ 1000
4 1 ‘ ot eG 3
i. After لم lam, “not,” and J lamma, “not yet,” which
alwuys give a past negative sense to the aorist; as
LORRI 5 2 ۰
لم که lam yakum, He did not stand.”
تچ
Pete) کی پا 3
After ol in, “if,” and similar particles, both verbs lose their
final vowel; as
Gras 01 کر ا A 0 ce
نکسل خشسر ol in taksal takhsar, If you are lazy you will
come to ۳
Tor Acenr سد THE VERB.
The agent is put in the subjective casc.
The agent foliows the verb, and the object of the action
follows the agent; as ضرب )33 عَمرأ dharaba Zeidun -amran,
ای ۰
‘Zeid struck ‘Amr.”
Whcen the agent is, grammatically speaking, masculine, of no
matter what number, the verb is put in the masculine singular.
TUE SUBJECT OF A PASSIVE ۰ 101
With a feminine agent the verb is properly put in the
feminine singular.
But if the agent be not really feminine, but only feminine
from a grammatical point of view, either the masculine or
feminine verb may be uscd, according as the speaker keep the
Jeminine idea in his mind, or not, from the first ; as
sh-shemsu, 0 1016 طَلع آلشخش
tala; at ish-shemsu, طلعتِ الشقغش
For the same reason, even when the agent is really feminine,
The sun ۳
provided a word intervenes between it and the verb, either form
aks be used.
حل aga! قامَ مَ kamal 1 yauna Hindun, ) “ Hind stood to-
SED 2 کے kamati ۲ yauma Hindun,) day.”
When a second verb occurs referring to the same agent, such
verb agrees with it logically in gender, number, and person,
Tur Subsect oF A PasstvE VERB.
The same rules which apply to the agent of an active verb
apply to the 1 of a passive verb.
Si ضرب زا dhuriba Zeidun, “Zeid was struck.”
When a 5 which governs with a Pipers is put in tho
passive voice, as 656 LE bahatha canku, “he 00 9
it,” the preposition with its case is still retained ; as ےک عکه
buhitha eanhu, “it was disputed about.” The verb is then
strictly impersonal, and therefore, in forming the passive part-
iciple, the masculine form only is used, the pronoun alone being
altered to express the gender; thus
102 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
٠. t
ro ماع رم توت “The thing (masculine) dis-
puted about.”
© gt . ۰ ۰ ۰
عدا ysis almabhithu -anha, “Phe thing (feminine) dis-
puted about.”
Nouns جد Constrtcrion.
Or Tue First or Two Nouns 1n 00۵91۵۲۰
Of two nouns in construction, the first invariably loses its
tenwin. :
The use of the construct form of nouns will be understood
from the following examples :
“The slave of the man.” راز و میلو whe اتی
Wis 5 a ze 66
لام رخل ghulamu rajulin, ~ The slave of a man.”
¢
و
ad 2
11020 tue loss of the ¢enwin makes the word ele ghuldmu
definite in both instances (sce p. 90( it is not necessary, there-
fore, further to define it by prefixing the article. ence the first
of tro nouns in a state of construction does not require the article.
Tue Vocative ۰
The vocative case is indicated by the particle با yd, and is
generally put in the direct caso.
If, however, the noun is in construction, it is put in the
objective; as
silt S52 با ya Abd 47721, “Oh, ‘Abdallah (servant of God) !”
When the object called to is uxdefined or not present, or not
directly addressed, it is also put in the objective case.
EMPHASIS. 103
When the noun has the article prefixed, 2! ۰۸۵ (masc.)
and ایشا aiyatwha (fem.) are used instead of یا ya.
Retative 877 8+
1101211۳6 sentences are expressed as follows :
9 Be 7 م 1 0 7 ۰ ۰
25), us} JSF arrajulu Madhi ra-c’ ht,
)وھ
مح سے V-—_ oo بح نسحم
literally, The man who Isaw ۰
انی 67711073 is for definite antecedents only ; for ۷/۵/۸۸۸۵ من
99 1 ۰ ۰
man, who?” and \% ma, what?” are used. I» interrogation
é ° 3 2
the demonstrative pronoun is added; as هي دأ ۸۱۷ ۵ “who
2 2 ure 7
۳ a 5 ke :
is that?” ما دا ma dha, “what is that?”
ne
The article 7ء ال is regarded as a relative.
[1
1۶ it be required to repeat the affixed pronoun by way of
emphasis, the word to which it is affixed must also be repeated ;
as مرت ا بٹ narartu bika bika, “I passed by thee—by
thee” [not eG.
It may, however, be repeated separately in its nominative
form; as
4
eae 2 we ۰ ۰ ”
مآ رمرم 7 بت11 anta, I passed by thee—thee.
ے 522
The usual way in all cases is to repeat the pronoun in its
detached form ; as
5 ضرتت dharabta anta, “Thou hast struck —thou.”
My—thy—him—her—its—self, cte., are expressed ty the
Sie 2» ‘6 ”
“cc 01 کچھ کے
nafs, self” or soul,’ and wrt ain, eye” or نهش words
104 ARABIC GRAMMAR.
“essence;” with the affixed pronouns. تاش naj? agrees in
rumter with the noun; as
نفسه 313 Zeidun nafsuhu, “ Zcid himself.”
‘We may also say dud) binafsthi, in propria personi. |
ADMIRATION.
There are many forms of expressing admiration in Arabic, but
they belong rather to the province of the vocabulary. Two,
however, may be regularly derived from any root, namely,
(1) ها اک ma af,ala, and (2) ’ Sail fil bi.
~(1) Sess le ma af.ala takes the accusative of the thing ad-
mired; as ۱
1355 (os ما ma ahsana Zeidan, “‘How handsome is Zcid!”
et ما ma ahsanahu, ‘How handsome he is!”
(2) 2 esi af-il bi governs the thing admired in the genitive
by the بت ات بر bi; as
0 آخین ahsin bi Zeidin, “How handsome is 77
ہو 5st | akrim bihi, “Wow noble he is!”
The thing admired must immediately follow the forms Sat همأ
ma وا وہ and ’ ae fil bi, and cannot occur in any other
position in the sentence.
The preceding pages contain all the most important facts of
Arabic Accidence and Syntax; other locutions which may 9
met with will be found cxplaincd in the lexicons,
GILBERT AND KIVINGTON, LTD., ملد JOln’S HUUSE, CLERKENWELL, 6ظ
THEOLOGY_EIBRARY
CLAREMONT, CALIF.
کے اط حم
PK Palmer, Edward Henry, 1840-1882.
1983 Simplified grammar of Hindiistani, Persian and ۱
P3 bie. By E. 11. Palmer... 2d 60۰0 London, K. Pa
1906 ~=s- Trench, Triibner, 1890.
vil, 104 p. 19°. (Talf-title: Tritbner’s collection of simplified gra
mars of the principal Asiatic and European languages, ed. by Dr. R. R
1)
1. Hindistani language—Grammar._ 2. Persian language—Granin
3. Arabic language—Grammar. Te Titles
Ccs¢ /mip '
rod 66 Library of Congress فك ۲61.3
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