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THE

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER
OF INDIA

VOL. XV

KARACHI TO KOTAYAM

NEW EDITION

PUBLISHED UNDER THE AUTHORITY OF HIS MAJESTY’S
SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA IN COUN'CIL

OXFORD

AT THE CLARENDON PRESS
1908

HENRY FRO^VDE, M.A.

PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD

LONDON, EDINBURGH
NEW YORR AND TORONTO

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

Notes on Transliteration
'Voivel-Sounds

a has the sound of a in ‘ woman.’
a has the sound of a in ‘ father.’
e has the vowel-sound in ‘ grey.’
i has the sound of i in ‘ pin.’
i has the .sound of i in ‘ police.’
o has the sound of o in ‘ bone.’
u has the sound of u in ‘ bull.’
u has the sound of it in ‘ flute.’
ai has the vowel-sound in ‘ mine.’
ail has the vowel-sound in ‘ house.’

It should be stated that no attempt has been made to distinguish
between the long and short sounds of e and o in the Dravidian
languages, which possess the vowel-sounds in ‘ bet ’ and ‘ hot ’ in
addition to those given above. Nor has it been thought necessary
to mark vowels as long in cases where mistakes in pronunciation
were not likely to be made.

Consonants

Most Indian languages have different forms for a number of con¬
sonants, such as /, r, &c., marked in scientific works by the use
of dots or italics. As the European ear distinguishes these with
difficulty in ordinary pronunciation, it has been considered undesir¬
able to embarrass the reader with them; and only two notes are
required. In the first place, the Arabic a strong guttural, has
been represented by k instead of which is often used. Secondly,
it should be remarked that aspirated consonants are common; and,
in particular, dh and th (except in Burma) never have the sound of
th in ‘ this ’ or ‘thin,’ but should be pronounced as in ‘ woodhouse '
and ‘boathook.’

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

Burmese Words

Burmese and some of the languages on the frontier of China have
the following special sounds :—

aw has the vowel-sound in ‘law/
o and u are pronounced as in German,
gy is pronounced almost like j in ‘jewel/
ky is pronounced almost like ch in ‘church.’
th is pronounced in some cases as in ‘this,’ in some cases as in
‘thin.’

w after a consonant has the force of mv. Thus, ywa and pioe
are disyllables, pronounced as if written yiiwa and piiwe.

It should also be noted that, whereas in Indian words the accent
or stress is distributed almost equally on each syllable, in Burmese
there is a tendency to throw special stress on the last syllable.

General

The names of some places—e. g. Calcutta, Bombay, Lucknow,
Cawnpore—have obtained a popular fixity of spelling, while special
forms have been officially prescribed for others. Names of persons
are often spelt and pronounced differently in different parts of India;
but the variations have been made as few as possible by assimilating
forms almost alike, especially where a particular spelling has been
generally adopted in English books.

Notes on Money, Prices, Weights and Measures

As the currency of India is based upon the rupee, all statements
with regard to money throughout the Gazetteer have necessarily been
expressed in rupees, nor has it been found possible to add generally
a conversion into sterling. Down to about 1873 the gold value of
the rupee (containing 165 grains of pure silver) was approximately
equal to 2^., or one-tenth of a £ ; and for that period it is easy to
convert rupees into sterling by striking off the final cipher (Rs. 1,000
= £100). But after 1873, owing to the depreciation of silver as
compared with gold throughout the world, there came a serious and
progressive fall in the exchange, until at one time the gold value of
the rupee dropped as low as li*. In order to provide a remedy for
the heavy loss caused to the Government of India in respect of its
gold payments to be made in England, and also to relieve foreign
trade and finance from the inconvenience due to constant and
unforeseen fluctuations in exchange, it was resolved in 1893 to close
the mints to the free coinage of silver, and thus force up the value of
the rupee by restricting the circulation. The intention was to raise

INTRODUCTORY NOTES

the exchange value of the rupee to is. 4^/., and then introduce a gold
standard (though not necessarily a gold currency) at the rate of Rs. 15
= £1. This policy has been completely successful. From 1899 on¬
wards the value of the rupee has been maintained, with insignificant
fluctuations, at the proposed rate of is. 4^/.; and consequently since
that date three rupees have been equivalent to two rupees before 1873,
For the intermediate period, between 1873 is manifestly

impossible to adopt any fixed sterling value for a constantly changing
rupee. But since 1899, if it is desired to convert rupees into sterling,
not only must the final cipher be struck off (as before 1873), but
also one-third must be subtracted from the result. Thus Rs. 1,000
= £100—§ = (about) £67.

Another matter in connexion with the expression of money state¬
ments in terms of rupees requires to be explained. The method of
numerical notation in India differs from that which prevails through¬
out Europe. Large numbers are not punctuated in hundreds of thou¬
sands and millions, but in lakhs and crores. A lakh is one hundred
thousand (written out as 1,00,000), and a crore is one hundred lakhs
or ten millions (^^Titten out as 1,00,00,000). Consequently, accord¬
ing to the exchange value of the rupee, a lakh of rupees (Rs. 1,00,000)
may be read as the equivalent of £10,000 before 1873, and as the
equivalent of (about) £6,667 after 1899 ; while a crore of rupees
(Rs. 1,00,00,000) may similarly be read as the equivalent of
£1,000,000 before 1873, and as the equivalent of (about) £666,667
after 1899.

Finally, it should be mentioned that the rupee is divided into
16 annas, a fraction commonly used for many purposes by both
natives and Europeans. The anna was formerly reckoned as ;
it may now be considered as exactly corresponding to id. The
anna is again subdivided into 12 pies.

The various systems of weights used in India combine uniformity
of scale with immense variations in the weight of units. The scale
used generally throughout Northern India, and less commonly in
Madras and Bombay, may be thus expressed : one maund = 40 seers;
one seer =16 chittaks or 80 tolas. The actual weight of a seer
varies greatly from District to District, and even from village to
village; but in the standard system the tola is 180 grains Troy
(the exact weight of the rupee), and the seer thus weighs 2-057 lb.,
and the maund 82-28 lb. This standard is used in official reports
and throughout the Gazetteer.

For calculating retail prices, the universal custom in India is to
express them in terms of seers to the rupee. Thus, when prices
change, what varies is not the amount of money to be paid for the

\ 1 INTROD UCTOR Y NO 7ES

same quantity, but the quantity to be obtained for the same amount
of money. In other words, prices in India are quantity prices, not
money prices. When the figure of quantity goes up, this of course
means that the price has gone down, which is at first sight perplexing
to an English reader. It may, however, be mentioned that quantity
prices are not altogether unknown in England, especially at small
shops, where pennyworths of many groceries can be bought. Eggs,
likewise, are commonly sold at a varying number for the shilling.
If it be desired to convert quantity prices from Indian into English
denominations without having recourse to money prices (which would
often be misleading), the following scale may be adopted—based
upon the assumptions that a seer is exactly 2 lb., and that the value
of the rupee remains constant at is. 4^. : i seer per rupee = (about)
3 lb. for 2S. ; 2 seers per rupee = (about) 6 lb. for 2s.; and so on.

The name of the unit for square measurement in India generally
is the which varies greatly in different parts of the country.

But areas have always been expressed throughout the Gazetteer either
in square miles or in acres.

MAP

Kashmir .

to face /. 138

IMPERIAL GAZETTEER
OF INDIA

-v) j:)

VOLUME XV

Karachi District.—District in Sind, Bombay, lying between 2^
and 26® 22' N. and 66° 42' and 68° 48' E., with an area of 11,970
square miles. It is bounded on the north by Larkana; on the east
by the Indus and Hyderabad 1 )istrict ; on the south by the sea and
the Kori river; and on the west by the sea and the State of Las
Bela (Baluchistan), the river Hab forming for a considerable distance
the line of demarcation. The District, which covers a large tract of
land stretching from the mouth of the Indus to the
Baluchi boundary, differs considerably in appearance aspects^
from the general level of Sind by its possession of
a hilly western region, lying in the mahal of Kohistan and the taliika
of Karachi. Numerous lateral ranges of considerable height here push
forward into the plain from the Kirthar mountains, and diversify
the usually monotonous aspect of the arid surface by their spurs and
offshoots. From this lofty and barren tract, intersected by deep and
wide valleys, the general aspect of the country, as it runs south-east¬
ward in a vast sloping plain, becomes more and more level, until in
the extreme south the Indus delta presents a broad expanse of low,
flat alluvium, stretching away to the horizon in one unbroken sheet,
^aried only by the numerous creeks communicating with the ocean.
Large forests of babul and other trees fringe the river banks, and impart
a somewhat fresher appearance to the otherwise dreary landscape.
Elsewhere, ho\vever, the features of the Sind delta stand unrelieved
in their naked monotony.

Apart from the Indus and the Hab rivers, there are only a few
minor torrents in the District. These take their rise in the western
hills, but consist of dry watercourses for the greater portion of the year,
filled only on the rare occasions when heavy rains fall on the higher
ranges in which they have their sources. The Hajamro and Baghar
are offshoots of the Indus, the former now constituting the chief
channel to the sea. At PiR Mangho there are hot s))rings, situated

KARACHI DISTRICT

<imong barren and rocky hills, and famous for their healing qualities,
as well as for the crocodiles in an adjacent enclosure. Other hot
sulphur springs are to be found at Lakhi in the Kotri tdluka, \Yhich
attract a number of pilgrims every year.

In Karachi District the highly interesting geological series of Sind
is most completely developed. It consists of upper and lower Manch-
har beds of upper and middle miocene age, corresponding with the
Siwaliks of Baluchistan and of the Himalayas; and the Gaj group con¬
taining highly fossiliferous marine beds, whose age is lower to middle
^Miocene. A second series is the upper Nari or oligocene, consisting
of alternating fresh-water and marine strata; and this gives way in places
to the lower Nari or upper eocene, a highly fossiliferous Nummulitic
limestone, and to the upper limestone and shales of the Nummulitic
Kirthar group, of middle eocene age, whieh corresponds with the
Spintangi and Ghazij of Baluchistan. One also finds a lower limestone
and shale group, likewise Nummulitic and classed as Kirthar, but not
known outside of Sind, to which nearly all the Kirthar outcrops in
Karachi District belong. The upper Ranikot, another highly fossili¬
ferous marine group, containing in its upper beds the oldest Nummulitic
strata known in India, is approximately on the same horizon as the
London Clay, and alternates with the lower Ranikot—fluviatile beds
with lignites and fossil remains of plants. Other features of the series
are representatives of the Deccan trap basalts ; the Cardita beaumonti
beds, which are lowermost eocene or uppermost Cretaceous ; and lastly
the hippuritic limestone. All these rocks outcrop, each in turn, in
a succession of gentle synclinal and anticlinal folds, whose structure
recalls that of the Jura mountains. There is scarcely another part of
the world that contains so complete a development of the Tertiary. The
southern part of the District is covered by the Indus alluvium.

Among fruit trees, which are not numerous, the mango, ber^ apple, date,
fig, plantain, and pomegranate are noticeable. The timber is almost
entirely babul \ and the iiuiur or mangrove, found near the salt creeks,
provides firewood for steamers and fodder for camels. Of maritime
[)lants, the chdwara and kaitdel are common on the coast. The tama¬
risk grows in patches which are peculiarly dense in portions of the
Shahbandar taluka ; while the casuarina has been planted with some
success at Karachi.

The wild animals found in the hilly portions are the leopard, hyena,
wolf, jackal, fox, ibex, antelope, and gad or wild sheep. Crocodiles are
found at Magar Talao ; and they are also numerous in the pools of the
I lab river, in the Indus, and in some of the large canals and mountain
tr>rrents.

d'he climate of Karachi city and the neighbouring country, which is
in every direction open to the sea-breeze, possesses a great suj)eriority

HISTORY

over that prevailing throughout the remainder of Sind. The hill
country of Kohistan is also cooler in summer and warmer in winter
than is the case in the plains. In the north, on the other hand, near
the barren Lakhi range of hills, the heat often becomes insupportable.
The hot season commences about the middle or end of March, reaches
its maximum in the month of July, and lasts till the end of August,
when the temperature once more becomes tolerably cool. The annual
temperature averages 79°. The rainfall at Karachi is slight and fluctu¬
ating, the annual average hardly exceeding 5 inches. Sometimes one
or two years pass with scarcely a shower. The average maximum rain¬
fall elsewhere is 9 inches in the Karachi tdluka^ and the minimum 5
inches at ]\Ianjhand.

Alexander the Great, towards the close of his Indian expedition,
dispatched Nearchus, doubtless from some point (suggested to be at
Tatta) in this District, to explore the Persian Gulf.

The date 713 marks the first Arab invasion of the
District, which later resulted in the formation of the local Arab princi¬
pality of Mansura, nearly corresponding with modern Sind. Between
1019 1026, the invasions of Mahmud of Ghazni took place and

paved the way for the supremacy of the Sumra dynasty, whose founder
was a titular vassal of the Ghaznivids; and in 1333 the Samma tribe
from Cutch settled first at Sehwan in Larkana District and afterwards
at Tatta. Close under the Makli hills stood Samui, the capital of the
Samma princes, originally a Hindu or Buddhist race. Converted to
the faith of Islam about the close of the fourteenth century, they con¬
tinued to retain their practical autonomy, in spite of a nominal allegi¬
ance tendered to Firoz Tughlak of Delhiand the town of Tatta,
where they generally resided, became in after years the chief centre of
population and commerce for the whole of Sind.

In 1521 Shah Beg, founder of the Arghun dynasty, completely
defeated the last Samma prince, and established his own claim to the
sovereignty of the lower Indus valley ; but, after a continuance of only
thirty-four years, the Arghun line became extinct in the person of Shah
Hasan, son of the founder, who died childless in 1554. Mirza JanI
Beg, the last local ruler of Tatta, was defeated by an army of the
Mughal emperor Akbar in 1592 ; and the District, together with the
rest of Sind, became incorporated with the ]Multan Subah in the imperial
organization. The country of Tatta, however, was made over to JanI
Beg, who entered the Mughal service after his defeat, and compromised
for his independence by accepting his former territories in jdgir.
Continued struggles for the governorship of Tatta led Jahangir to
abolish the hereditary viceroyalty, and to appoint instead special lieu¬
tenants holding office during the imperial pleasure. The town of
Karachi appears to have attained little importance under either the

KARACni DISTRICT

native dynasties or the Mughal administration. Its rise into notice
l^egan with the period of the Talpur Mirs, in succession to the Kalhora
l)rinces, who had usurped power on the break-up of the Mughal empire.
They were the first to recognize the value of the harbour for commerce,
and in 1792 recovered Karachi from the Khan of Kalat : but soon
afterwards they divided into three branches, each ruling independently
in a separate part of Sind. The British endeavoured to enter into
friendly treaties with the Mirs; but their jealousy and mistrust of the
motives of the Government prevented any cordial understanding, and
in 1838 they offered considerable opposition to the march of British
troops on their way to the first Afghan War. After Shah Shuja was
jilaced on the throne, the Mirs were required to pay the arrears of
tribute due to the Afghan ruler and to permit the establishment of
a British force in Sind. Failure having been made in payment of the
stipulated tribute, the Mirs were required to cede certain territory.
The army, however, resisted this loss of independence, and attacking
the Hyderabad Residency precipitated the conflict which ended in the
annexation of Sind to the British dominions. The District passed to
the British in 1843. Karachi town grew rapidly under the new admin¬
istration, and became the principal port of North-western India. The
District, as at first constituted, did not embrace the same area as at
present; in r86i a portion of the Indus delta, composing the present
Shahbandar taluka^ was added to it from Hyderabad, while in 1901
three talukas were taken from it to form jiart of the new District of
I.arkana.

Among the remains of interest in the District may be mentioned
those situated in the town of 'Fatta. The town is of great antiquity,
and iiossesses a number of tombs, inscriptions, mosques, and a fort.
'Flic Jama Masjid is decorated with coloured tile-work of the well-
known Multan type. The design and shades of colour are very beauti¬
ful. The Dabgar Masjid has a fine central mihrab^ carved with delicate
surface tracery. The old fort at Tatta was commenced about 1699,
but was never completed. The ruined city of Bhamiiore is an inter¬
esting archaeological relic. In the delta of the Indus are numerous
sites of ruined cities, such as Lahori, Kakar, Bukera, Samui, Fathbagh,
Kat Bambhan, Jun, Thari, Badin, and 'Fur, as well as the remains of
Daro and Lohan. Among ruined forts once of importance are those
of Charlo Chakar and Raniji.

In 1872 the population was 442,177; in 1881, 495,860; in 1891,
571,951 ; and in 1901, 607,828. Since the date of the last Census,
Population District has been created by the transfer of

certain talukas from Shikarpur and Karachi Districts.
The population of the jiresent area of Karachi District (446,513) shows
an increase of 8 per cent, over the iiopulation of tlic same area in 1891.

POPULA TIOX

The population is distributed, as follows, in nine talukas and the
Kohistan tract:—

1 W

1 •

0 1

Number of

^ 0

1 « 0 -

Taluka or

C” r

(/5 1

1 5

IJ.i-s

t-rt :

Mahal .

C ~

"* ?

1 *3

1 1

1.13

1 = 0 ? ^ ’

t ^ 1 -=^ rt

^ " CL

I — 0 j

C. ;

Kolii*

+ 2

1 2,287

Kohistan inahal

...

12,877

' — 20

1 I4I

Karachi .

1,678

i 14

n ' ir -97

+ 10

9rr90

Tatta

1,229

1 1

4 '>745

+ 12

1,425

, Mirpiir Sakro .

27,600

+ 6

354

(ihorabari

Keti mahal

26,237
i 8>499 I

+ 14

43'

' Mirpur Batoro .

269

37 >i '6 :

138

4- 5

t Sujawal .

267

3.3>25I

' 25

+ 13

5.30

Jati .

2,14.=^

117

3'.7.52 1

1 + '4

310

Shahbandar

1,388

104

.33,69 1

1 + 14

323

District total

11,970

628

446,.5I3

. -h 8

'5*974

* Inclmling the Maiijhand niahal, for which separate statistics are not available.

There are 5 towns, Karachi, the capital of the province and head¬
quarters of the District, Keti, Kotri, Manjhand, and Tatta ; and
628 villages. The density of population varies according as the tract
concerned happens to be desert, barren hill, or cultivable. Of the
population, 77 per cent, are Musalnians, 21 per cent. Hindus, and
1 per cent. Christians. Sindi is spoken by 340,837 persons, or 76 per
cent, of the total.

The Muhammadans consist mainly of Sindi tribes, of whom half
(112,000) returned themselves as Sammas and 9,000 as Sumras, sug¬
gesting some connexion with the once-powerful dynasties known by
those names. The Muhanas or fishermen number 31,000. Of foreign
tribes, the Baluchis are represented by 28,000, and the Brahuis by
10,000. There are 17,000 Jats. Among Hindus, the trading caste
known as Lohana or Tuvana is alone of numerical importance, with
35,000. Brahmans, Rajputs, and Bhatias scarcely number 3,000 each.
The low castes are represented by 8,000 Dheds. Agriculture supports
45 per cent, of the population; industries, commerce, and the profes¬
sions 24, 2, and 2 per cent, respectively.

Of the 2,707 native Christians in 1901, more than 2,500 were Roman
Catholics and 129 belonged to the Anglican communion. Karachi is
the head-quarters of the Church of England Mission, the Church
of England Zanana Mission, and the Methodist Episcopal Mission.
The first-named society maintains three boys’ schools : the second,
nine girls’ schools and a small orphanage; the third, four boys’ schools
and four girls’ schools, including two poor schools : the fourth, two boys’

KARACHI DISTRICT

schools. The Roman Catholic and Zanana Missions have branches at
Kotri and Jherruck respectively.

In the Karachi tdhika cultivation exists only on a few isolated spots,
and depends upon wells, springs, or natural rainfall. Here the chief

Agriculture j(nvdr^ bdjra^ barley, and sugar-cane, grown

chiefly on the Malir plain, distant about 12 miles
from Karachi city, and easily accessible by rail. In the delta tdlukas
of Tatta and Shahbandar, where numerous creeks and channels inter¬
sect the alluvial fiats, rice forms the staple crop ; but wheat, sugar-cane,
millets, cotton, and tobacco are also grown. In the barren hills of
Kohistan, agriculture is but little practised, except within embankments
erected to impound the scanty rainfall or along watercourses fed by
small hill streams; and the nomad population devotes itself almost
entirely to grazing cattle in the southern plains, where abundance of
forage springs up spontaneously after the slightest fall of rain.

The chief statistics of cultivation in 1903-4 are shown below, in
square miles:—

! Tdlttka.

Total.

Cultivated.

Irrigated.

Waste.

Forests.

Kotri . . 1

3,305

i 329

5 *

56 I

Karachi . . ,

1,678

1 ^3

Tatta

1,21 5

5 * !

1 Mirpur Sakro

104

100

[

Ghorabari .

566

102

240 j

1 i

1 Mirpur Batoro .

269

100

65 !

39 .

' Sujawal . . '

267

Jati .

132

i^hahbandar

G 3 SS

1,0=5

“s

Total

11,970*

1,103

380

1,889

212

* According to the latest information.

Of the area cropped, 22 square miles were under wheat, 13 under
barley, 245 under rice, and 100 under millets {jotvdr bdjra). Rice
is the principal crop, except in the Kohistan tract and the tdlukas of
Karachi and Kotri. Millets take the place of rice in Kotri. Among
the pulses 7 mmg is an important crop. During the decade ending
1903-4 nearly 9 lakhs was advanced to cultivators under the Land
Improvement Loans Act and the Agriculturists’ Loans Act, out of
which 1*8 lakhs wa.s lent in 1899-1900, and 1-3 lakhs in each of the
years 1900-1 and 1901-2. The money is usually employed on erecting
embankments {ba?ids) and clearing canals.

The chief domestic animals are camels, buffaloes, and cattle. The
buffaloes are commonest in the deltaic swamps, and produce ghi famous
all over Western India. The Karachi cows are noted as good milkers,
and many of them are shij)i)ed to Bombay for sale. The best of these

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

cattle are bred within a radius of 30 or 40 miles from Karachi city,
chiefly in the hill tracts.

Of the total cultivated area of 1,103 square miles, 380 square miles,
or 34 per cent, were irrigated in 1903-4. The chief sources of irriga¬
tion are: Government canals, 118 square miles; private canals, 206;
and other sources, 56. Throughout Sind nearly every canal is fed by
the Indus; and in 1903-4 nearly 34 per cent, of the total irrigated area
of the District was supplied by the Pinjari canal, fed by the Shahbandar
embankment of the Indus. The Baghar, a small canal on the right
bank, irrigated nearly 43 square miles, the Kotri 24, and the Kokwari
23 square miles. Of the irrigated land, 87 per cent, is sown for the
kharif or autumn harvest. There are only twenty-seven wells in the
District used for irrigation.

Sea-fishing is carried on by the Muhana tribe of jMusalmans, who
reside for the most part in hamlets near Karachi. The principal fish
caught on the coast are sharks, rays, and skates.

The pearl oyster is found at several places, and the
Mirs conducted pearl operations on their own account. Under British
rule, the right has been let for a small sum, but the pearls are very
inferior in size and quality, so that the industry has greatly declined
during the last twenty-five years. At present practically no pearl fish¬
ing is carried on. Considerable fisheries also exist in the river Indus,
chiefly for the fish known as palla^ which are annually leased out by

Government for about Rs. 20,000.

The forest lands include tracts in the Jherruck forest division, south
of Kotri, producing timber and fuel, with an area of 212 square miles
in charge of a divisional forest officer. A portion of the Hyderabad
forest division, measuring 48 square miles and situated north of Kotri,
also lies within Karachi District. The forest lands are situated on
the banks of the Indus, for the most part in the Shahbandar ialiika.
The principal trees are the babid and tamarisk, the latter being found
chiefly in the Shahbandar jungles. Forest receipts in 1903-4 amounted
to Rs. 52. Good building stone occurs among the arenaceous lime¬
stones of the Gaj group near Karachi.

Local manufactures are confined to cotton cloth, silk scarves, carpets,
rugs, and the ordinary metal and earthenware. Besides a few factories
in Karachi city, there are few industries of importance. ^

Tatta is noted for lungis, used by women as robes or communicadons.
shawls. Extensive salt deposits of the purest descrip¬
tion occur in the Shahbandar tdluka^ on the Sirganda creek, a branch of
the Indus, accessible for small craft of from 50 to 60 tons burden. Salt
is manufactured from salt water by artificial means at the Maurypur
works on the sea-coast, a few miles from Karachi. Out of 15 factories,
5 arc cotton-gins and presses, employing 356 persons, and the rest

KARACHI DISTRICT

include 2 metal foundries, 2 hone-mills, an arsenal, a ininting press,
and a railway workshop.

The traffic centres mainly in the city and port of Karachi. The
staple exports consist of grain, principally wheat, cotton, wool, hides
and skins; and the chief imports are sugar, kerosene, piece-goods,
liquor, and metals. Karachi [district contains three seaports : namely,
Karachi, Keti, and Sirganda. The average value of the foreign trade,
which is practically confined to Karachi port, for the five years ending
1902-3 was: imports, 505 lakhs; exports, 712 lakhs; total, 1217
lakhs. In 1903-4 the value of the imports was 591 lakhs, and of the
exports 1345 lakhs; total, 1936 lakhs, or 719 lakhs above the average
of the previous five years. The average value of the coastwise trade for
all ports for the five years ending 1902-3 was: imports, 340 lakhs;
exports, 251 lakhs; total, 591 lakhs. In 1903-4 the coastwise trade
was returned as follows: imports, 375 lakhs ; exports, 188 lakhs; total,
563 lakhs, or 28 lakhs below the average of the previous five years,
which resulted from a decrease in the exports to Bombay of raw cotton,
wheat, and rapeseed. The coast-borne trade includes reimports and
re-exports from and to Karachi, which are included in the values of
the foreign trade given above.

Besides being the port of call of various steamer lines, chief among
which is the British India Steam Navigation Company, Karachi is con¬
nected with two important railway systems and a number of trade routes
from Afghanistan, Kalat, and Central Asia. The North-Western Rail¬
way links the District with the Punjab and the United Provinces, while
the Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway supplies railway communication with the
Thar and Parkar District and, by a circuitous route, with Bombay.
A line running for 54 miles from Hyderabad town to Badin, the head¬
quarters of the Badin taluka of Hyderabad, was opened in 1904. This
line is to form part of the proposed direct railway between Sind and
Bombay, which will run through Karachi District and pass either
through Cutch or through the 'Phar and Parkar District. Three im-
j)ortant trade routes converge at Karachi, placing it in direct communi¬
cation with the interior of Sind, with Las Bela, and with Kalat. d'he
total length of metalled roads in the District outside the municipal
towns is 7 miles, and of nnmetalled roads 1,321 miles, d'he total cost
of their maintenance in 1903-4 was Rs. 19,631, of which Rs. 16,700
was paid from Local funds. Avenues of trees are maintained along
185 miles.

The District has three subdivisions, comprising nine talukas and three
mahals^ in charge of two Assistant Collectors and a Deputy-Collector.

. . . The nine talukas are each under miikhiiarka)\

A ministration. niamhiidar of the Bombay

Presidency proper. 'I'he three mahals are Keti Bandar, Manjhand, and

A DMINIATRA TIOi\

Kohistan, 1 'he city of Karachi forms a separate charge under the
City Deputy-Collector.

The functions of the former District and Sessions Judge are now
performed by two Additional Judicial Commissioners, who, together with
the Judicial Commissioner, compose the Chief Court in Sind. Sub¬
ordinate to them are a Judge of the Small Cause Court and a Sub¬
ordinate Judge, sitting at Kotri. The city is under the separate charge
of a City Magistrate, and there is a Cantonment Magistrate for the
Karachi and Manora cantonment. Magisterial work in the District
is, as usual, carried on by the administrative staff. Cattle-lifting is a
very prevalent form of crime, and, as in other Districts, blood-feuds
arising from intrigues with women are common among the hill tribes.

Before the introduction of the present settlement rates into all tdlukas
between 1876-7 and 1889-90, there were only two rates of land revenue
levied in the District: that is to say, garden and ‘ dry-crop ’ rates, the
former at R. i and the latter at 8 annas per acre. The present revenue
system of Karachi is adapted to the system of cultivation, depending
almost entirely upon irrigation. The irrigation settlement (.y^’tfSiXD) is in
force in all idlukas of the District, and is fixed for a term of ten years.
Kohistan is settled under a special lease system, which expires in 1909,
but the lease has been extended for another five years. Under this
system the landholder is allowed to cultivate on payment of a fixed
annual rent, amounting to about 8 annas per acre. Owing to the pre¬
carious water-supply of this tract, which is entirely dependent upon the
rainfall, the irrigation settlement has not been introduced into Kohistan.
The average land revenue rates per acre in the District are: garden
land, Rs. 3-9 (maximum Rs. 4, minimum Rs. 2-10); rice land, Rs. 2-14
(maximum Rs. 3-8, minimum Rs. 2-4); and ‘ dry ’ land, Rs. 2-0
(maximum Rs. 2-8, minimum Rs. 1-4).

Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all sources
have been in thousands of rupees :—

1880-1. 1

1890 I.

1900-1.

J 903 - 4 -

Land revenue .

7,21

13,05

12,02

Total revenue .

22,29

33.01

69,22

60,06

'I'here are five municipalities in the District : namely, Kar.\ciii,
Kotri, Manjhand, Tatta, and Keti Bandar. Elsewhere, local
affairs are managed by the District and ialuka boards, the total re¬
ceipts of which in 1903-4 were nearly i'| lakhs, the principal source
of income being the land cess. The exi)enditure in the same year
amounted to one lakh, of which Rs. 30,000 was spent upon roads and
buildings.

KARACHI DISTRICT

The District Superintendent of police has two Assistants and seven
inspectors. There are nineteen police stations in the District. The
total number of police in 1904 was 1,142, of whom 23 were chief con¬
stables, 184 head constables, and 935 constables. The District contains
a District jail (at Karachi), ii sub-jails, and 6 lock-ups. The daily
average number of prisoners in 1904 was 254, of whom 2 were females.
A new jail with accommodation for 374 prisoners is under construction.

Of the total population, 3-3 per cent. (5*6 males and 0-5 females) are
literate. As in other Sind Districts, education is backward as compared
with the Presidency proper, and such advance as has been made is
more observable in Karachi city than in the towns and villages in the
interior. The least backward tdhikas are Kotri and Tatta. In i88o~i
there were 65 schools, attended by 4,581 pupils. The number of
pupils rose to 13,856 in 1891 and to 16,602 in 1901. In 1903-4 there
were 297 educational institutions, public and private, including an Arts
college at Karachi city, 6 high schools, 8 middle schools, 2 training
schools, 2 special schools, and 186 primary and elementary. These
institutions were attended by 13,605 pupils, including 3,028 girls. Of
the 205 institutions classed as public, 2 were managed by Government,
69 by the local boards and municipalities, while 134 were aided. The
great majority of the pupils are in primary schools. Attempts have re¬
cently been made by the Muhammadan community to encourage educa¬
tion, and a society has been formed to promote this object. The total
expenditure on education in 1903-4 was 2-| lakhs, of which about
Rs. 50,000 was derived from fees. Of the total, 55 per cent, was
devoted to primary education.

The District has 2 hospitals and 13 dispensaries and other institu¬
tions, containing accommodation for 186 in-patients. The existing civil
hospital at Karachi is being replaced by a more modern building. In
these institutions, 104,000 cases were treated in 1904, of whom 1,928
were in-patients, and 3,473 operations were performed. The expendi¬
ture was Rs. 64,000, of which Rs. 30,000 was met from Local and
municipal funds.

The number of persons successfully vaccinated in 1903-4 was 12,359,
representing a proportion of 27 per 1,000, which exceeds the average
for the Presidency. Vaccination is compulsory only in Karachi city.

[A. W. Hughes, Gaze flee?' of ike J^rovince of Si 7 id new edition

in the press).]

Karachi Taluka.—Soiitli-western idlnka of Karachi District, Sind,
Bombay, lying between 24° 46' and 25° 39' N. and 66° 42' and 67° 53'
E., with an area of 1,678 square miles. It contains one city, Karachi
(population, 116,663), the head-quarters of the District and of the
tdlnka\ and 14 villages. The population increased from 124,274 in 1891
to 136,297 in 1901. The density is 81 persons per square mile. The

KARACHI CITY

hind revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 32,010. The
aspect of the taluka, excepting the portion bordering on the sea, is
hilly, especially towards the north and west where ranges of lofty and
barren hills run from north to south, with wide valleys between them.
A small chain of hills runs within the tdhika for some miles parallel to
the Hab river, terminating in the headland of Ras Muar or Cape Monze,
a landmark for sailors making the port of Karachi. After a hea\7
fall of rain these hills afford abundant pasturage. The tdhika contains
no canals, but is drained by several mountain torrents, the chief of which
are the Malir and Layari. Salt marshes occur along the sea-coast, and
abound with mangroves and other trees. Much of the fertile portion
of the tdhika is devoted to raising vegetables and fruit for the Karachi
market. Agriculture depends chiefly upon wells and springs, the
principal crops being joivar^ bdjra^ barley, and sugar-cane, which are
chiefly grown at Malir.

Karachi City.—Capital of Sind, Bombay, and head-quarters of the
District and tdhika of the same name, situated in 24° 51' N. and
67° 4' E., at the extreme northern end of the Indus delta, near the
southern base of the Pab mountains and close to the border of
Baluchistan. It is 993 miles distant from Bombay by rail, the distance
in nautical miles being 483. Two routes connect the city with Lahore,
by Sukkur, and by the Kotri-Rohri railway, the distance by each being

about 800 miles. Population has increased rapidly: Population
(1872) 56,753, (1881) 73,560, (1891) 105,199, and opuaion.

(1901) 116,663, of whom 8,019 resided in the cantonment. Muhamma¬
dans number 60,003, Hindus 48,169, Christians 6,158, and Parsis 1,823.

The bay of Karachi is formed by the projecting point of Manora
Head, the extremity of a reef 10 miles in length, which supplies a

natural barrier against the Arabian Sea. The open- .

^ , 1 , ^ 11 V Description,

mg of the bay between Manora and the opposite

sanitarium of Clifton has a width of about 3^ miles; but the mouth is

blocked by a group of rocky islets, known as the Oyster Rocks, as well

as by what was formerly the larger island of Kiamari, now part of the

mainland owing to the action of sand-drifts. The harbour stretches for

5 miles northward from Manora Head to the narrows of the Layari

river, and about the same distance from the old town of Karachi on

the eastern shore to the extreme western point. Only a small portion

of this extensive area, however, is capable of accommodating large

vessels. Manora Head, the first object visible to a voyager approaching

Karachi from the sea, is crowned by a lighthouse, having a fixed light

148 feet above sea-level, and visible for 20 miles around in clear

weather. The point was formerly guarded by a fort, said to ha\ e been

first erected in 1797; but this has now yielded place to a modern

fortification, the port and pilot establishment, the buildings in

VOL. XV. H

KARACHI CITY

ronnexion with the harbour improvements, and a portion of the Indo-
European Telegraph dei)artment. Besides a library, billiard-room, and
European school, IManora possesses an English church, intended for
the crews of vessels frequenting the harbour. It has recently been
made a cantonment, and is shortly to be constituted a military
sanitarium in place of Ghizri, lately abandoned.

On the opposite side of the mouth, Kiamari forms the landing-place
for all passengers and goods bound for Karachi, and has three piers.

A road running along the Napier Mole, three miles long, connects the
island with the city and mainland, and is traversed by the East India
'J'raniway. The North-Western Railway also extends to Kiamari ; but
instead of following the mole, it takes a more circuitous route, to the
south, by the edge of a large lagoon, the waters of which are passed
through the mole by a screw-pile bridge, 1,200 feet in length, erected
in 1865 at a cost of about 5 lakhs, so as to allow them to flow uninter¬
ruptedly into the harbour as a means of scouring the channel. At the
northern extremity of this bridge, and running in a westerly direction,
stands the native jetty, built of stone at an expense of 4^ lakhs. At
the end of the mole, on the mainland side, the custom-house runs right
across the road, which pierces it by five arches, thus intercepting all
traffic.

Two principal thoroughfares lead from the custom-house to the
Karachi cantonment, known respectively as the Bandar and the
McLeod Roads, at the junction of which stands a handsome clock-
tower, the public memorial to Sir William Merewether. The oldest
portion of the town is situated along the former route, close to the
harbour, containing the niost thickly populated quarter in Karachi.
The municipality has widened and paved the streets, and effected other
improvements which must conduce to the health of the inhabitants,
who are chiefly Hindu and Muhammadan merchants. The Eayari,
a river merely in name, as it contains water only three or four times
a year, separates this quarter from the Eayari suburb. On the McLeod
Road are situated the Chief Court, the Bank of Bombay, the National
Bank of India, the city railway station, the general post office, the
telegraph office, the Mansfield import yard, Messrs. Herman & Co.'s
ironworks, and three important cotton-presses—the M^^Leod Road
])resses, owned by the Sind Press Company, eapable of turning out
daily 350 pressed bales of cotton ; the Tyabjl presses, erected in 1865
at a cost of 2^ lakhs, and turning out 250 bales ; and the Albert
Presses, leased to the Sind Press Comi)any, and turning out 390 bales.
'Phis quarter also contains the Edalji Dinsha dispensary, several
schools, the Sind College, a new Hindu temple, and most of the
offices belonging to European merchants. The Afghan sarat\ intended
for the use of caravans from Kandahar, and rebuilt by the municipality

DESCRIPTIOX

in 1873 at a cost of Rs. 20,000, covers an area of about 3 acres.
Nearer to the cantonment, a number of bungalows .stand on the inter¬
vening space, while the civil line.s skirt the cantonment itself to the
eastward. The military quarter, which is situated to the north and
east of the city proper, consists of three portions : the depot lines, the
artillery lines, and the European infantry lines. I'he depot lines are
the oldest military portion of Karachi, and were originally intended to
supply accommodation to troops passing up-country from the sea or
vice versa. Here also is the arsenal. The public garden, distant about
half a mile from cantonments, covers an area of 40 acres, neatly laid out
with trees and shrubs, and contains an e.xcellent zoological collection.

The architecture of Karachi is essentially modern and Anglo-Indian.
The Anglican Church of the Holy Trinity is situated just outside the
cantonments. It stands in a large open space, 15 acres in extent, and
consists of a heavy, ungainly Italian nave, with an ugly tower, the
upjjer portion of which has recently been removed as unsafe.
St. Patrick’s Roman Catholic school, formerly a church, is a fine
stone building, capable of accommodating 40 boarders and 200 day-
scholars. The European and Indo-European school, known as the
Karachi Grammar School, founded in 1854, under the auspices of
Sir Bartle Frere, then Commissioner of Sind, occupies a handsome
stone structure in the depot lines. 'The other chief modern institutions
include a Muhammadan college, the Presbyterian Church of St. Andrew,
Christ Church and the Anglican Mission schools, the Napier Barracks, the
Sind Club, the Empress market, the Pars! Virbaiji school, and the post
office. The Frere Hall, a municipal building, stands near the Sind
Club. It was opened in a somewhat unfinished state in October,
1865, up to which date i| lakhs had been expended upon its erection.
This hall, which is a comparatively good specimen of slightly adapted
Venetian Gothic, contains the Karachi general library. A fine statue
of the Queen-Empress Victoria, erected by public subscription in the
grounds of Frere Hall, was unveiled by His Royal Highness the Prince
of Wales in March, 1906. Government House, the residence ot the
Commissioner of Sind, is situated in the civil quarter, and consists of
a central building with two wings, approached by five separate carriage
drives. Though commodious and comfortable in its interior arrange¬
ments, the exterior can lay no claim to architectural beauty. It was
originally built by Sir Charles Napier when governor of the province,
and has now been improved and fitted with an electric light and fan
installation.

The climate of Karachi, owing to the prevalence of sea-breezes
during eight months of the year, is more healthy than any other in
Sind. The low situation of the city, and the near neighbourhood of
marsh land, render the atmosphere moist and warm ; but the heat

KARACHI CITY

History.

during the hottest months cannot compare with that experienced in
the interior. The mean annual temperature, calculated from data for
twenty-five years ending 1901, may be stated at 65° in January, 85° in
May, and 75° in November. The hottest weather occurs in April,
]May, and June, though September and October are also often close
and sultry. The annual rainfall averages about 5 inches. The first
case of plague occurred early in December of 1896, the locality
attacked being the old town quarter, and nearly 3,400 persons died
in the first year. The total mortality from plague until the end of
!March, 1904, was 19,010.

Karachi came into British possession in 1843. The town may be
regarded as almost a creation of British rule, its extensive commerce,
splendid harbour works, and numerous flourishing
institutions having all sprung up since the introduc¬
tion of settled administration. Before 1725 no town whatever appears
to have existed on the site; but a place named Kharak, with a con¬
siderable commerce, is mentioned as lying on the other side of the
Hab river at the confluence of the river and the sea. The entrance
to Kharak harbour having become blocked with sand, a migration was
made to a spot near the present head of Karachi harbour, and at that
time (1729) called Kalachi Kun ; and in time, under Jam Daria Khan
Jokia, trade began to centre upon the convenient harbour. Cannon
brought from Muscat protected the little fort, and the name of Karachi,
supposed to be a corrupt form of Kalachi, was bestowed upon the rising
village. The hopeless blocking up of Shahbandar harbour shortly
afterwards drove much of its former trade and population to Karachi.

Under the Kalhora princes, the Khan of Kalat obtained a grant of
the town, which he garrisoned from his own territory. Within the short
period 1792-5, three Baloch armies appeared before the town; but
only on the third occasion did the Talpur chief of Hyderabad, who led
the Baloch trooi)s, gain possession by force of arms. A fort was built
at Manora, at the mouth of the harbour. The TMpur chiefs made
considerable efforts to increase the trade of Karachi, so that in 1838
the town and suburbs had a population of 14,000, half of whom were
Hindus. The houses were all flat*roofed, and built of mud, very few
of them having more than one storey : each house had its bMgir or
wind-catcher for the purposes of ventilation. The government under
the Mirs was vested in a civil and military official, the Nawab, who
ruled despotically over the t<jwn and neighbourhood.

Even l)efore the period of British rule, the commerce of Karachi had
attained to some imt)ortance, owing to the value of the river Indus as
a channel of communication. Nevertheless, the sparse
population of the country, combined with the short¬
sighted policy of its rulers, prevented it from reaching its proper develop-

Commerce.

COMMERCE

ment. Under the Talpur MTrs, all imports were subjected to a 4 per
cent, and all exports to a 2\ per cent. duty. In 1809 the customs
revenue amounted to Rs. 99,000 ; by 1837 it had risen to Rs. 1,74,000.
In the latter year the whole trade of the port was valued at about 40
lakhs, the following being the principal items: imports—English
silk, broadcloth, chintz, cS:c., Bengal and China raw silk, slaves, dates,
sugar, ivory, copper, spices, and cotton; exports—opium, indigo,
wheat, madder, wool, raisins, and salted fish. Slaves came chiefly
from Muscat, and consisted of negroes or Abyssinians. Opium to the
extent of 500 camel-loads came from Marwar, and was exported to the
Portuguese town of Daman. Almost all the goods imported into Sind
were then consumed within the province, only Rs. 1,50,000 worth being
sent across the frontier.

In 1843-4, the first year of British rule, the trade of Karachi, includ¬
ing Keti and Sirganda, had a total value of about 12 lakhs, due to
a decline in the opium trade, which had steadily fallen since 1837, when
its value was estimated at 16 lakhs. The second year of British rule
saw a rise to 23, the third to 35, and the fifth to 44 lakhs. By 1852-3
the total value had risen to 81 lakhs. In 1857-8 the exports nearly
overtook the imports, the two standing respectively at 107 and 108
lakhs. The American Civil War gave an enormous impetus to the
trade of Karachi, by the high demand for Indian cotton which it
created in European markets; and in 1863-4 the total value of the
trade amounted to no less than 6 crores : namely, imports 2 and exports
4 crores. The restoration of peace in America, however, brought about
a lower price for cotton in Lancashire, and the trade of Karachi gradu¬
ally returned to what was then considered its normal le^’eL The total
value sank to 4 crores in 1867-8, and 3^ crores in 1873-4 ; but by
1882-3 it had risen again to 7 crores, and in 1892-3 to ii crores.

In 1903-4 the trade of Karachi port, exclusive of Government stores
and treasure, had increased in value to 24-9 crores (of which 5-5 repre¬
sented coasting trade): namely, imports 9-6 crores, and exports 15*2
crores. The main cause of the growth is due to the annually increas¬
ing exports of wheat and other food-grains, and oilseeds, which are
brought by rail from irrigated tracts of Sind and the Punjab. I'he
following were the chief articles of foreign import, with their values, in
1903-4: apparel, 14 lakhs; cotton piece-goods, 2 crores; cotton twist
and yarn, 10 lakhs; manufactures of wool, 20 lakhs; hardware and
cutlery, 13 lakhs; wines and liqueurs, 9 lakhs; spirits, ii lakhs ; metals,
wrought and unwrought (chiefly coj'iper, iron, and steel), 43 lakhs ; pro¬
visions, 19 lakhs; sugar, 102 lakhs ; machinery and mill-work, 10 lakhs;
mineral oil, 22 lakhs; and treasure, 44 lakhs. Total imports from
foreign ports (including treasure), 5*9 crores.

From the United Kingdom Karachi imports cotton manufactures.

KARACHI CITY

\(^

railway materials, licjiiors, coal and coke, machinery, metals, provisions,
apparel, drugs, and medicines; from Bombay, cotton piece-goods and
twist, treasure, metals, silk, sugar, tea, jute, spices, dyes, woollen manu¬
factures, coco-nuts, manufactured silk, liquors, fruit, and vegetables;
from the Persian Gulf, dried fruits, treasure, wool, grain, and horses ;
from the coast of Makran, wool, provisions, grain, and pulses; from
Calcutta, jute, grain, and pulses; and from Russia, mineral oil.

d'he following list shows the value of the exports to foreign ports in
1903-4: raw cotton, 2| crores ; grain and pulses, 7| crores, of which
7^ crores represented wheat; hides and skins, 47 lakhs; oilseeds,
chiefly rape and til, one crore ; raw wool, 52 J lakhs; bones, 17 lakhs.
'Fotal value of exports (including treasure), 13^ crores.

'To the United Kingdom Karachi exports cotton, wool, wheat, seeds,
skins, and bones ; to France, wheat, cotton, bones, hides, gram, gingelly,
and rai)eseed; to Germany, wheat, cotton, hides, bones, and seeds ; to
Japan, cotton ; to Russia, indigo and cotton ; to Bombay, Cutch, and
Gujarat, cotton, grain, indigo, seeds, skins, fish-maws and shark-fins ; to
Mauritius, grain and pulses ; to Persia, rice ; to Madras, rice and skins;
and to (diina, raw cotton.

'The inland trade of Karachi includes wheat from the Punjab and the
United Provinces, cotton from the Punjab, a large quantity of wool,
dried fruits, and horses from Kandahar and Kalat; while camels,
bullocks, and donkeys bring in firewood, grass, ghl, palm-leaves, hides,
from Las Bela and Kohistan.

'I'he harbour of Karachi during the period of the Talpur Mirs, and
for the first few years after British annexation, was capable of accommo¬
dating only small native craft. Steamers and large ships anchored
outside Manora Point, whence men and stores were conveyed in boats
up the river, as far as the tide permitted, and then transferred into
canoes, which carried them through a sea of liquid mud to a spot near
the site of the existing cu.stom-house. In process of time, however, it
became apparent that the bar did not interpose so great an obstacle
as was originally supposed, and that square-rigged vessels of a certain
draught could cro.ss it with safety. In 1854, under the Commi.s-
sionership of Sir Bartle Frere, the Napier Mole road or causeway,
connecting Karachi with the island of Kiamari, was completed, which
offered additional inducements to ships for vi.siting the harbour.

In 1856 a scheme for improving the harbour by deepening the water
on the bar was submitted for the opinion of Mr. James Walker, an
eminent London engineer, who estimated the cost of works to provide
an ample width of passage, with a depth of 25 feet at neap tides,
at 29 lakhs. After much debate and intermissions, owing to partial
failures, the principal part of the works—the Manora breakwater, 1,503
feet in length — was commenced in 1869, and completed in 1873 at

COMMERCE

a cost of 7 lakhs. It aftbrds complete shelter to the entrance channel
(eastern) over the bar during the south-Nvest monsoon, and, combined
with other works, has already led to the deepening at the entrance to
20 feet at low-water spring tides. The rise and fall is about 8 feet.
Further progress was ensured by the creation in 1880 of a Harbour
Board, for the purpose of levying shipping dues, which eventually was
transformed into the Port Trust by Act VI of r886. Among the works
carried out by the board are the Kiamari and East Channel groynes or
stone banks, which direct and confine into one channel the tidal flow ;
extensive dredging, boring, and submarine blasting operations; the
Merewether Pier, opened in 1882, to accommodate one steamer and
provide facilities for trooping ; the Erskine wharf, 2,000 feet long, and
the James wharf, 1,900 feet long, which can together accommodate ten
large steamers and are linked for cargo purposes with the North-^Vestern
Railway by a commodious railway yard ; a special pier for oil-steamers,
to serve the four bulk-oil installations at Kiamari ; and the Mansfield
import yard, with warehouse accommodation for all goods landed at the
wharves. In the harbour entrance, within shelter of the breakwater,
there is a minimum depth of 24^ feet of water, which is maintained and
will eventually be improved by dredging during the fair season. Further
developments are under consideration, while the reclamation of a large
area and the construction of two new steamer berths, with a minimum
depth of 28 feet, are now being carried out.

In 1847-8 the number of vessels which entered the harbour was 891,
all native craft, with a total burden of 30,509 tons. In 1903-4, 384
vessels (of which 174 were steam-vessels) entered Karachi harbour with
cargoes from foreign ports: gross tonnage, 301,109 tons. In the same
year 515 vessels (of which 344 were steam-vessels) cleared with cargoes
for foreign ports; gross tonnage, 720,919 tons. From the ports on the
coasts of India and Burma 1,311 vessels entered Karachi laden with
cargoes; tonnage, 567,436 tons. For the ports on the coasts of India
and Burma 1,177 vessels left Karachi laden with cargoes; tonnage,
•392,463 tons. The affairs of the port are managed by the Karachi Port
Trust, the income of which in 1903-4 was about 19 lakhs and the
expenditure 13 lakhs. During the three years ending 1904-5, the
average income expanded to more than 21 lakhs and the expenditure
to 15-I lakhs. The surplus is devoted to paying off the debt of 66
lakhs, which has now been reduced to 58^ lakhs. The principal steam¬
ship lines are the Ellerman, Wilson, Strick, Hansa, Austrian Lloyd,
British India, and Bombay Steam Navigation Compan3\

The Karachi municipality was established in 1852, and had an
income during the decade ending 1901 of about 12 lakhs. In 1903-4
the income was 15 lakhs and the expenditure 14 lakhs. The chief
heads of municipal revenue are: octroi (10 lakhs, excluding refunds of

KAJ^ACHI CITY

6 lakhs), tax on houses and lands (Rs. 53,000), and rents (Rs. 27,000);
and the chief items of expenditure are administration and collection
charges (7 lakhs), water-supply and drainage (Rs. 62,000), conservancy
(Rs, 1,50,000), hospital and dispensary (Rs. 15,000), public works
(Rs. 1,63,000), and education (Rs. 49,000). The management of the
cantonment is in the hands of a committee, which had an income and
expenditure of about Rs. 18,500 in 1903-4. The normal strength of
the Karachi garrison is 1,300, and of the volunteer forces 800.

'J'he difficulty of water-supply long formed one of the chief drawbacks
to Karachi, most of the wells being too brackish for drinking purposes.
Formerly the supply was mainly derived from wells tapping a subter¬
ranean bed of the Layari. The inhabitants of Kiamari, and the ship¬
ping in the harbour, obtained water from carts, which brought it up
from ‘ camp b’ For the purposes of ice manufacture, water was for¬
merly imported by rail from Kotri. A scheme for constructing an
underground aqueduct, r8 miles in length, from the Malir river at
a cost of 5 lakhs was completed in 1882, and Karachi is now in
possession of a pure water-supply. The capital outlay on this under¬
taking, including pipes for distributing the water to the city, Kiamari,
and the cantonment, amounted to 17 lakhs ; and the annual charges
are 3 lakhs, of which Rs. 32,600 represents maintenance charges.

Education is carried on by the Sind College, the Government high
school, Anglo-vernacular schools, the Government vernacular school, and
several female and other minor establishments. The
Education, number of boys’ schools is 48, with a daily

attendance of 6,239, girls’ schools 20, with an attendance of

1,861. The Dayaram Jethmal Sind Arts College was established in
1887. It is attended by 120 scholars, some of whom are accommo¬
dated in a hostel attached to it. A law class prepares students for the
first LL.B. The Narayan Jagannath high school prepares students
for the matriculation and school final examination. It is managed by
Government, and Rs. 10,000 is annually contributed from Provincial
revenues. Among the special schools may be mentioned the Muham¬
madan high school {Madrasaf-itl-Isldm), the normal class for the training
of mistresses, and the engineering class. Newspapers or periodicals
published at Karachi include four English (the Si?id Gazette^ the Sind
Times^ the Phoenix^ and the Karachi Chronicle') and four native (in
Sindi, Gujarati, and Persian).

The city possesses a civil hospital, a Diifferin hospital for females,
and four dispensaries. These institutions afforded relief in 1904
to 70,155 persons, of whom 1,543 were in-patients
treated in the civil hospital. The Dufferin hospital,

' The portion of Karachi comprising the Sadr bazar, civil lines, &c., is locally
known as * camp,' as oj^posed to the old town proper and Kiamari.

Medical.

KARAD T0]VN

built by Mr. Edalji Dinsha in 1901, treated 10,017 patients in 1904,
of whom 206 were in-patients. A sick hospital, now called the military
hospital, was established in 1869, in connexion with the cantonment,
and in 1901 the cantonment hospital was opened in the Preedy quarter
of the city. Adjacent to the barracks is a third hospital, known as the
followers’ hospital, where camp servants are treated.

[A. F. Baillie, Kiu'rachee^ Past, Presefii a 7 id Futin^e (1890); Official
CompendiiDn of Alilitary Informatioji regarding Karachi (Bombay,
1896); Karachi Harbour JForhs (Bombay, 1867); An Account of the
Fort of Karachi (K arachi, 1892).]

Karad Taluka. — Taluka of Satara District, Bombay, lying between
17° 5' and 17° 30' N. and 74° and 74' 18' E., with an area of 378 square
miles. There is one town, Karad (population, 11,499), head¬
quarters; and 98 villages, including Kale (5,077). The popula¬
tion in 1901 was 134,947, compared with 154,383 in 1891. The den¬
sity, 357 persons per square mile, is much above the District average.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was 2-9 lakhs, and for cesses
Rs. 24,000. The taluka is a portion of the valley of the Kistna river,
which runs 30 miles from north to south between two parallel chains of
hills. The western chain is broken half-way by the Koyna, which joins
the Kistna at Karad. The land is generally flat and open, but becomes
rougher as it rises towards the hills. Gardens and groves and several
charming river reaches lend a picturesque appearance to the country.
The soil is extremely fertile. In the cold season the days are
warm and the nights bitterly cold, and in the hot season Karad is
one of the hottest parts of the District. The annual rainfall averages
30 inches.

Karad Town {Karhdd, originally Karahdkadd). —Head-quarters
of the taluka of the same name in Satara District, Bombay,
situated in 17° 17' N. and 74° ii' E., at the confluence of the Koyna
and Kistna, on the Bombay-iSIadras high road, 31 miles south-south-
east of Satara town, and about 4 miles south-west of Karad Road on
the Southern Mahratta Railway. Population (1901), ii,499- ^he
town was constituted a municipality in 1885. During the decade
ending 1901 the income averaged Rs. 10,500. In 1903-4 the income
was Rs. 12,000. It is referred to in ancient writings as Karahakada,
and has given its name to a subdivision of Brahmans. In the north¬
east is an old mud fort containing the mansion of the Pant Pratinidhi,
the most noteworthy objects in which are an audience-hall with an orna¬
mental ceiling of teak and iron, built about 1800, and a curious step-
well. The mosque of Karad is interesting, as it contains nine Arabic
inscriptions. One of these shows that it was built during the reign of
the fifth Bijapur king, Ali Adil Shah (1557-79), by one Ibrahim Khan.
About 3 miles to the south-west is a group of 54 Buddhist caves of

KARAD TOWA

a very plain and early type. The town contains a Subordinate Judge's
court, a dispensary, and an English school.

Karadge.—Village in the Chikodi tdhika of Belgaum District,
Bombay, situated in i6° 33' X. and 74° 30' E. Population (1901),
5,138. The village, which is purely agricultural, contains a boys’
school with 66 pupils,

Karagola.—Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Puniea
District, Bengal, situated in 25° 24' N. and 87® 28' E., on the left bank
of the Ganges. Karagola is on the old route from Calcutta to Darjeeling,
and is a place of call of the Ganges Dispatch Service, though the
steamer now touches 2 miles below the \ illage. The fair held here
was formerly one of the largest in Bengal, but has recently lost
much of its importance. It takes place at the time of the full moon in
the month of Magh (about February); and a brisk trade is carried on
in nuts and spices, as well as in tents, carpets, and wooden furniture
imported from Monghyr.

Karaia.— Village in the Gwalior Gird district of Gwalior State,
Central India, situated in 25° 54' N. and 78° i' E. Population (1901),
4,989. The place is held by a family of Ponwar Thakurs on a quit-
rent. It is said to have been founded in 1564, but nothing is known
of its early history. In 1852 it fell to Sindhia, and until 1868 was in
a prosperous condition. It afterwards, however, became notorious for
the depredations committed by the Ponwars, their excesses reaching
such a pitch as to necessitate the forcible depopulation of the place in
1893. It since then been slowly recovering its position.

Karaikkudi.—Town in the Tiruppattur tahsil of the Sivaganga
estate, Madura District, Madras, situated in 10° 4' X. and 78° 47' E.
The population has rapidly increased, and numbered 11,801 in
1901, compared with 6,579 in 1891. d'he town is chiefly noted as
one of the centres of the Xattukottai Chettis, an enterprising class of
merchants and money-lenders ; and the many handsome residences
which these people have constructed within it have added greatly to
its appearance.

Karajgaon.—Town in Amraoti District, Berar. See Kar.4SG.aon.

Karajgi.—Eastern tdluka of Dharwar District, Bombay, lying between
14® 44' and 15° 5' X. and 75® 17' and 75® 44' E., with an area of 441
square miles. It contains one town, Haveri (population, 7,974), the
head-quarters; and 127 villages, d'he population in 1901 was 104,342,
compared with 90,206 in 1891. d’he density, 237 persons per
square mile, is slightly below the District average. The demand for
land revenue in 1903-4 was 2-09 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 16,000.
Except in the south-west, where it is broken by hills, the country is
flat. It is crossed from east to west by the Varada, a tributary of
the 'Tungabhadra. In the north and east the soil is black and in the

A^AA^JA/r.VG/ 2x

south and west mostly red, with an orcasional plot of black. The plain
of Karajgi is broken at Deogiri, Kanvali, and Kabur by short ranges
of hills. The annual rainfall averages 30 iiK'he.s.

Karakat.— Tahsil in Jaunpur District, United Province.s. See
Kirakat.

Karamnasa {Karam?idshd^ ‘ the destroyer of religious merit ’ ^ the
Ko 7 ?wi€nases of Arrian).—River of Northern India, rising near Sarodag
in the Kaimur Hills (24^^ 32' N., 83® 26' E.), 18 miles west of Rohtas-
garh in Bengal. It first flows north-west, and near Darihara begins to
form the boundary between the Districts of Shahabad (Bengal) and
Alirzapur (United Provinces). It then flows north for about 15 miles
across JVIirzapur, after which it turns north-east and separates Shahabad
from ’Benares and Ghazipur, until it falls into the Ganges near Chausa,
after a total course of about 146 miles. Its tributaries are the DurgautT
and DharmautT, two small streams on the right bank. In the hills, the
bed of the Karamnasa is rocky and its banks abrupt : but as it de¬
bouches upon the plains, it sinks deeply into a rich clay, very retentive
of moisture. During the rains small boats can ply as high as the con¬
fluence of the DurgautT. There are two falls, called Deo Dhari and
Chhanpathar, which attract attention from their height and beauty.

Two legends account for the ill repute of the river. One tells how
Raja Trisanka of the Solar race had killed a Brahman and contracted
an incestuous marriage. He was purged from these sins by a saint who
collected water from all the sacred streams of the world and washed
him. The bath took place at the spot where the river issues, and this
bears for ever the taint of his guilt. The other legend makes Trisanka
attempt to ascend into heaven by means of long austerities. Half-way
he was suspended head downwards by the gods, and a poisonous mois¬
ture exudes from his mouth into the river. The real cause of its ill
fame is probably the fact that the Karamnasa was the boundary of the
eastern kingdom of Magadha, which is treated with contempt in San¬
skrit literature because its inhabitants were not Aryans. Hindus living
on its banks, except those of the highest castes, are not defiled by it,
and carry more scrupulous travellers over it for a consideration, d'here
is no regular irrigation from the Karamnasa.

Karamsad.— Patidd?' in the Anand tdluka of Kaira District,

Bombay, situated in 22° 33' N. and 72*^ 54' E., and one of the thirteen
kiilhi villages of the District. Population (1901), 5,105. It contains
a middle school with 38 pupils.

Karamungi.—Crown tdliik in BTdar District, Hyderabad State,
d'he population in 1901, including jdglrs, was 51,808, and the area
was 362 square miles. In 1891 the population had been 60,341, the
decrease being due to the famine of 1899-1900. The taluk contains
130 villages, of which 19 are Jagir \ and Janwada (population, 2,165)

KARAMUNGI

is the head-quarters. Since 1905 the talitk has included the old tdliik
of Aurad, which had an area of 189 square miles, a population of
19,301, and 65 villages in 1901. The land revenue in 1901 was 1*7
lakhs. The Alanjra river flows through the tdlitk. The paigdh taluk
of NMyankher (population, 42,972) lies south of this tdluk^ and con¬
sists of 106 villages. Farther south again is the paigdh tdliik of Hasaii-
abad (population, 21,563), with 45 villages.

Karangarh.—Hill, or more properly plateau, in the head-quarters
subdivision of Bhagalpur District, Bengal, situated in 25° 15' N. and 86^^
56' E., near Bhagalpur town, and said to derive its name from Kama,
a pious Hindu king. The plateau, which is locally known as the kila
or fort, is believed to be the site of one of the famous pre-Buddhist
forts in Bengal; the lines of several bastions and the ditch in the west
can still be traced. In more modern times it contained the lines of the
Hill Rangers, a body of troops raised in 1780 from among the hill
people by Augustus Clevland, Collector of the District, for the paci¬
fication of the lawless jungle tribes. The corps was disbanded in 1863
on the reorganization of the Native army. The only objects of interest
are Saiva temples of some celebrity. These consist of four buildings
(maf/is), with square bases and the usual pointed pinnacles. One is
several hundred years old, the others being modern. Numbers of Hin¬
dus, though not usually worshippers of Siva, pay their devotions here
on the last day of the month of Kartik. The temples contain several
of the so-called seats of Mahadeo or Siva, one of which is made of
stone from the Narbada. There are also two monuments erected to
the memory of Clevland—one by Government, and the other by the
landholders of the District. The Bidyasagar Memorial Sanskrit tol
occupies a fine building in the fort compound.

Karanja.—Peninsula, village, and petty division (petha) in the Pan-
vel tdhika of Kolaba District, Bombay, situated in 18° 51' N. and
12^ 57' E., in the south-east of Bombay harbour, and about 6 miles
south-east of the Carnac Bandar of Bombay. On a clear day the
peninsula can be distinguished plainly, and apparently but a mile or
two distant, from Bombay. It is 8 miles long and 4 broad. The
peninsula consists of two rocky hills, between which stretch grass
and rice lands, wooded with mango-trees and palms. The creek to
the east is broken up into several salt-pans, the offlcers connected
with which are stationed at the town of Uran close by. Besides its
rice crop, which is of considerable value, the two special exports of
Karanja Island are salt and liquor made from the niahud or from
the date-palm. The chief industry of the people, however, is fishing.
The great area of the salt-works, about 3,000 acres, the shining white
pans, regular boundaries, and heaps of glistening salt, produce a curi¬
ous effect to the eye. The saltpans are not of recent date; reference

karanjiA

is made to them in 1638, and in 1820 they are noted as having pro¬
duced 20,000 tons of salt. During the year 1903-4 the salt export
was about 2,000,000 maunds, and the revenue therefrom 29 lakhs.
There are 19 distilleries at Mora on the island of Uran, all owned
by Parsis. The inahud flowers distilled in these are brought through
Bombay from the Panch IMahals, and the annual revenue is about 35
lakhs. The water-supply is good, being derived from reservoirs, and
from many ponds and wells which hold water for several months after
the rains.

Karanja has passed under every form of rule and suffered every
species of vicissitude. Under the Silaharas, in the twelfth century,
the island was prosperous, with many villages and gardens. It formed
part of Bassein province, under the Portuguese, from 1530 to 1740;
was fortified with two strongholds, one at Uran, the other on the top
of its southern peak; and 100 armed men were maintained as garrison.
At the present day may still be seen the ruins of Portuguese hermitages
and churches. In 1535 the island was in charge of the Franciscans.
In 1613 the scene of a great riot. In 1670 it was plundered

by a Maratha freebooter. In 1737 the Marathas finally occupied the
place, and held it until 1774, when the English took possession.

The most noteworthy ruins are on the summit of Dronagiri, the
southern of the two hill peaks, including the Portuguese fort, guard¬
house, church, rock-temple, and reservoir. On the east face of Khar-
avli (the north hill peak) is a Buddhist rock-cut chapel; at Uran town,
the old Portuguese fort and churches; in the village of Sheva, a ruined
church, of which the broken walls of the graveyard are the only trace.

Karanja.—Town in the IMurtazapur taluk of Akola District, Berar,
situated in 20° 29' N. and 77° 32' E. Population (1901), 16,535.
Karanja is a place of some commercial importance. It is said to take
its name from a Hindu saint, Karinj RishI, who, being afflicted with a
grievous disease, invoked the aid of the goddess Amba. She created
for him a tank, still existing opposite the temple of the goddess, in
which he bathed and became clean. The town is surrounded by an
old wall, now dilapidated. It is known as Karanja Bibi, owing, it
is said, to its having once formed part of the dowry of Daulat
Shah Begam (see Badnera). The municipality was created in 1895.
The receipts and expenditure during the ten years ending 1900-1
averaged Rs. 14,000 and Rs. 13,500. In 1903-4 the income was
Rs. 18,000, mainly derived from taxes and cesses; and the expendi¬
ture was Rs. 15,000, chiefly devoted to conservancy and education
Karanja is connected with Murtazapur (20 miles) by a metalled road.

Karanjia.—Village in Mayurbhanj, one of the Orissa Tributary
States, Bengal, situated in 21° 44' N. and 86° 6' E. Population
(^ 9 ^ 0 ^ 732- Karanjia is the head-quarters of the Panchpir sub-

24 KAJ^AAyij

division of the State, and is connected with Baripada, the capital,
by a metalled road.

Karasgaon. -'Fown in the Ellichpur /d/ifk of Amraoti District,
Berar, situated in 21° 20' X. and 77® 39' E. Population (1901),
7,456. A fort of fine sandstone, now in ruins, was built here by
^h■thal Bhag Deo, a taliikddr in the Ellichpur jdgir in 1806.

Karatoya.—Old river of Eastern Bengal and Assam, which rises
in the Baikuntpur jungle in the extreme north-west of Jalpaiguri
District in 26® 51' X. and 88® 28' E., and meanders through Rangpur,
until, after a course of 214 miles, it joins the Halhalia, in the south
of Bogra District, in 24° 38' X. and 89® 29' E. The united stream
is known as the Phuijhur, and it eventually finds its way into the
Jamuxa (3). The Karatoya bore in ancient times, as we learn from
the l^uranas, a high character for sanctity; and its mermaid goddess,
whose image has been found among the ruins of Mahasthan, was
widely worshipped, and this place is even now a favourite place of
pilgrimage. The river is mentioned in the Joginl Tantra as the
western boundary of the ancient kingdom of Kamarupa, which it
separated from Pundra or Paundravardhana, the country of the Pods,
whose capital was at Mahasthan. It was along its right bank that
Muhammad-i-Bakhtyar Khilji, the Muhammadan conqueror of Bengal,
marched upon his ill-fated invasion of Tibet in 1205 : and in the
narrative of that expedition the Karatoya is described as being three
times the width of the Ganges. It was no doubt the great river crossed
by Hiuen 'fsiang on his way to Kamarupa in the seventh century, and
by AlcTud-dm Husain on his invasion of the same country in 1498.

The topography of the river is attended with numerous difficulties ;
changes of name are frequent, and its most recent bed, which ultimately
joins the Atrai some 30 miles east of Pabna, is known indifferently
as the Burhi (‘ old ’) Tista and the Karto or Karatoya. It appears
that at the end of the eighteenth century, when the Gancies and the
Brahmaputra were still 150 miles apart, the 'IIsta united with the
enher Himalayan streams to form (jne great river. The elevated tract
of stiff clay known as the Barind, which spreads over a considerable
part of the modern Districts of Rajshahi, Dinajpur, Malda, and Bogra,
formed an obstacle which could not be so easily pierced as the more
recent alluvium round it, and the outlet of the Himalayan streams was
thus diverted to one side or the other. Sometimes when the trend
of the rivers was eastwards, they flowed down the channel of the
Karatoya, which is shown in Van Den Broucke’s map of Bengal
{circa 1*660) as flowing into the Ganges, and was, in fact, before the
destructive floods of 1787, the main stream which brought down to
the Ganges the great volume of Tista water. South of the Padma
there is now no trace of any river bearing this name; and, since the

KARAULI STATE

Physical

aspects.

main stream of the 'I'ista broke away to the cast in 1787, the Karatoya
has gradually silted up, and it is at the present day a river of minor
importance, little used for navigation.

Karaudia. -yy/^/Xv/r<7/ in the Malwa Agency, Central India.

Karauli State. —State in the east of Rajputana, lying between
26° 3' and 26® 49' N. and 76^ 34' and 77° 24' E., with an area of
1,242 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Bharatpur; on
the north-west and west by Jaipur; on the south and south-east by
(jwalior; and on the east by Dholjmr. Hills and broken ground
characterize almost the whole territory, which lies
within a tract locally termed the Dang, a name given
to the rugged region immediately above the narrow
valley of the Chambal. The principal hills are on the northern border,
where several ranges run along, or parallel to, the frontier line, forming
somewhat formidable barriers. There is little beauty in these hills ;
but the military advantages they present caused the selection of one
of their eminences, Tahangarh, 1,309 feet above the sea, as the seat
of Jadon rule in early times. Along the valley of the Chambal an
irregular and lofty wall of rock separates the lands on the river bank
from the uplands, of which the southern part of the State consists.
From the summits of the pa.sses the view is often picturesque, the
rocks standing out in striking contrast to the comparatively rich and
undulating plain below. The highest peaks in the south are Bhairon
and Utgir, respectively 1,565 and 1,479 above the sea. Farther
to the north the country Hlls, the alluvial deposit is deeper, level
ground becomes more frequent, and hills stand out more markedly,
while in the neighbourhood of the capital the low ground is cut into
a labyrinth of ravines.

The river Chambal forms the southern boundary, separating the
State from Gwalior. Sometimes deep and slow, sometimes too rocky
and rapid to admit of the safe passage of a boat, it receives during
the rains numerous contributions to its volume, but no considerable
perennial stream flows into it within the boundaries of the State. 'I'he
Banas and Morel rivers belong more properly to Jaipur than to
Karauli; for the former merely marks for some 4 miles the boundary
between these States, while the latter, just before it joins the Banas,
is for only 6 miles a river of Karauli and for another 3 miles flows
along its border. The Panchnad, so called from its being formed
of five streams, all of which rise in Karauli and unite 2 miles north of
the capital, usually contains water in the hot months, though often
only a few inches in depth. It winds away to the north and eventually
joins the Gambhir in Jaipur territory.

In the western portion of the State a narrow strip of quartzites
belonging to the Delhi system is exposed along the Jaipur border,

KARAULI STATE

while Upper Vindhyan sandstones are faulted down against the quartz¬
ites to the south-east, and form a horizontal plateau extending to the
Chamal river. To the north-west of the fault, some outliers of Lower
Vindhyan rocks occur, consisting of limestone, siliceous breccias, and
sandstone, which form two long synclinals extending south-west as
far as Naraoli.

In addition to the usual small game, tigers, leopards, bears, nilgai^
sdmbar^ and other deer are fairly numerous, especially in the wooded
glens near the Chambal in the south-west.

The climate is on the whole salubrious. The rainfall at the capital
averages 29 inches a year, and is generally somewhat heavier in the
north-east at Machilpur and the south-east at IMandrael. Within
the last twenty years the year of heaviest rainfall has been 1887
(45-! inches), while in 1896 only a little over 17 inches fell.

The iVIaharaja of Karauli is the head of the Jadon clan of Rajputs,
who claim descent from Krishna. The Jadons, who have nearly always
History remained in or near the country of Braj round
Muttra, are said to have at one time held half of
Alwar and the whole of Bharatpur, Karauli, and Dholpur, besides the
British Districts of Gurgaon and Muttra, the greater part of Agra west
of the Jumna, and portions of Gwalior lying along the Chambal. In
the eleventh century Bijai Pal, said to have been eighty-eighth in
descent from Krishna, established himself in Bayana, now belonging
to Bharatpur, and built the fort overlooking that town. His eldest
son, Tahan Pal, built the well-known fort of Tahangarh, still in Karauli
territory, about 1058, and shortly afterwards possessed himself of
almost all the country now comprising the Karauli State, as well as a
good deal of land to the east as far as Dholpur. In 1196, in the time
of Kunwar Pal, Muhammad Ghori and his general, Kutb-ud-din,
captured first Bayana and then Tahangarh \ and on the whole of the
Jadon territory falling into the hands of the invaders, Kunwar Pal fled
to a village in the Rewah State. One of his descendants, Arjun Pal,
determined to recover the territory of his ancestors, and about 1327
he started by capturing the fort of Mandrael, and gradually took
possession of most of the country formerly held by Tahan Pal. In
1348 he founded the present capital, Karauli town.

About a hundred years later Mahmud I of Malwa is said to have
conquered the country, and to have entrusted the government to his
son, Fidwi Khan. In the reign of Akbar (1556-1605) the State
became incorporated in the Delhi empire, and Gopal Das, probably
the most famous of the chiefs of Karauli, appears to have been in
considerable favour with the emperor. He is mentioned as a com¬
mander of 2,000, and is said to have laid the foundations of the Agra
fort at Akbar’s request. On the decline of the Mughal power the

HISTOR y

State was so far subjugated by the Atarathas that they exacted from
it a tribute of Rs. 25,000, which, after a time, was commuted for
a grant of Machilpur and its dependencies. By the treaty of November 9,
rSiy, with the East India Company, Karauli was relieved of the
exactions of the Marathas and taken under British protection ; no
tribute was levied, but the Maharaja was to furnish troops according
to his means on the requisition of the British Government. In 1825,
when the Burmese War was proceeding, and Bharatpur was preparing
for resistance under the usurpation of Durjan Sal, Karauli undoubtedly
sent troops to the aid of the latter ; but on the fall of that fortress
in 1826 the Maharaja made humble professions of submission, and it
was deemed unnecessary to take serious notice of his conduct.

The next event of any importance was the celebrated Karauli
adoption case. Narsingh Pal, a minor, became chief in 1850, and died
in 1852, having adopted a day before his death a distant kinsman,
named Bharat Pal. It was first proposed to enforce the doctrine of
‘ lapse,’ but finally the adoption of Bharat Pal was recognized. In the
meantime a strong party had been formed in favour of Madan Pal,
a nearer relative, whose claim was supported by the opinions of several
chiefs in Rajputana. An inquiry was ordered; and it was ascertained
that the adoption of Bharat PM was informal, by reason of the minority
of Narsingh PM and the omission of certain necessary ceremonies.
As Madan Pal was nearer of kin than Bharat PM and was accepted by
the Ranis, by nine of the most influential Thakurs, and by the general
feeling of the country, he was recognized as chief in 1854. During the
Mutiny of 1857 he evinced a loyal spirit and sent a body of troops
against the Kotah mutineers; and for these services he was created
a G.C.S.L, a debt of 1*2 lakhs due by him to the British Government
was remitted, a dress of honour conferred, and the salute of the
Maharajas of Karauli was permanently increased from 15 to 17 guns.
The usual sa/iad guaranteeing the privilege of adoption to the rulers
of this State was granted in 1862, and it is remarkable that the last
seven chiefs have all succeeded by adoption.

Mahar^a Bhanwar PM, the present ruler, was born in 1864, was
installed in 1886, obtained full powers in 1889, and, after receiving
a K.C.I.E. in 1894, was made a G.C.I.E. in 1897. The nobles are
all Jadon Rajputs connected with the ruling house, and, though for
the most part illiterate, are a powerful body in the State, and until
quite recently frequently defied the authority of the Darbar. The chief
among them are Hadoti, Amargarh, Inaiti, Raontra, and Barthun,
and they are called Thekdnaddrs. The Rao of Hadoti is looked
upon as the heir to the Karauli gaddt] when the ruling chief is without
sons.

The only places of archaeological interest are Tahangarh, already

VOL. XV, c

KARAULI STATE

mentioned, and Bahadurpur, 8 miles south of the capital : both are
now deserted and in ruins.

The number of towns and villages in the State is 437, and the
population at each of the three enumerations was: (i88r) 148,670,
(1891) 156,587, and (1901) 156,786. The smallness
Population. increase during the last decade is ascribed to

famines in 1897 and 1899. The territory is divided into five fa/isl/s:
namely, Karauli (or Sadr), Jirota, Machilpur, Mandrael, and Utgir, the
head-quarters of each being at the place from which it is named, except
in the case of Jirota and Utgir, the head-quarters of which are at
Sapotra and Karanpur respectively. The only town in the State is the
capital, a municipality.

The following table gives the chief statistics of population in 1901 :—

Number of

Population.

Percentage of
variation in
population be¬
tween 1891
and 1901.

Number of
persons able to
read and
wTite.

TaJisil.

Towns

Villages.

Karauli

I 28

67,581

10-8

2,546

Jirota .

32,646

+ 3.2

542

Machilpur .

1 24,015

- 3-8

184

Mandrael

i 19*665

-15.0

227

Utgir .

12,879

—19-0

107

State total

436

156,786

-f- o.i

3,606

Nearly 94 per cent, of the total are Hindus, the worship of Vishnu
under the name of Krishna being the prevalent form of religion, and
more than 5 per cent, are Muhammadans. The languages mainly
spoken are dialects of Western Hindi, including Dangi and Dangbhang.

The principal tribe is the Minas, who number 32,000, or more than
20 per cent, of the population, and are the leading agriculturists of the
country; next come the Chamars (23,000), who, besides working in
leather, assist in agriculture. Brahmans number 20,000, and are
mostly petty traders, village money-lenders, and cultivators; while
the Gujars (16,000), formerly noted cattle-lifters, are now very fair
agriculturists.

Agricultural conditions vary in different parts of the State. In the

highlands of the Ed/ig the soil is clayey, and the slopes of the hills are

. . embanked into successive steps or terraces, only

Agriculture • *

a few yards broad ; here rice is grown abundantly,

and after it has been reaped barley or gram is sometimes sown. The

fields are irrigated from tanks excavated on the tops of the hills.

The lowlands of this tract are surrounded by hills on two or three

sides and are called api/ri. The soil is of two kinds : the first is

composed of earth and sand washed down the hill-sides by the rain-

AGRICULTURE

fall, and is of very fair quality, while the second is hard and stony
and is called ka?ik 7 jll. The crops grown here are mostly bdjra and
moth, though the better of these two soils produces fair spring crops
where irrigation from wells is possible. On the banks of the Chambal
the soil is generally rich, and the bed of the river is cultivated to the
water’s edge in the cold season. 'I'he principal crops here are wheat,
gram, and barley. Elsewhere, outside the Dd?ig, the soil is for the
most part light and sandy, but in places is associated with marl.
Excellent crops of bdjia, Dioth, and joivar are produced in the autumn ;
and by means of irrigation, mostly from wells, good crops of wheat,
barley, and gram in the spring.

No very reliable agricultural statistics are available, but the area
ordinarily cultivated is about 260 .square miles, or rather more than
one-fifth of the total area of the State. The principal crops are bdjra
and gram, the areas under which are usually about 58 and 57 square
miles respectively; moth occupies 36 square miles, wheat about 25,
barley nearly 20, rice 18, and joivdr about 14 square miles. Cotton,
poppy, and sugar-cane are cultivated to a certain extent, and i’^r/z-hemp
is extensively grown in the neighbourhood of the capital.

Karauli does not excel as a cattle-breeding country; the animals are
small though hardy, and attempts to introduce a larger kind have not
succeeded as they do not thrive on the rock-grown grass. The goats
alone are really good, and many are exported from the Dd 7 ig to Agra
and other places.

Of the total area cultivated, 61 square miles, or about 23 per cent.,
are generally irrigated. Well-irrigation is chiefly employed in the
country surrounding the capital. The total number of wells is said
to be 2,813, which 1,645 masonry; leathern buckets, drawn up
with a rope and pulley by bullocks moving down an inclined plane, are
universally used for lifting the water. Tanks are the principal means
of irrigation in the rocky and hilly portions; there are said to be 379
tanks of sorts in the State, but only 81 of them have masonry dams.
From tanks and streams water is raised by an apparatus termed dhe 7 ikli,
consisting of a wooden pole with a small earthen pot at one end and
a heavy weight at the other.

There are no real forests in the State and valuable timber trees are
scarce. Above the Chambal valley the commonest tree is the dhao
(A7Wgeissus pe 7 iduta), but it is scarcely more than a shrub; other
common trees are the dhdk {Butea f 7 V 7 idosd), several kinds of acacia,
the cotton-tree {Bo 77 ibax 77 ialaba 7 'icu 77 i\ the sal {Shot^ea 7 ’obustd), the
garja 7 i (Dipterocarpus alatiis), and the 7 U 77 i (JMelia Azadirachta), Near
the Chambal in the Mandrael tahsll, and again in a grass reserve 20
miles north-east of the capital, a number of shisha 77 i trees {Dalbergta
Sissoo) are found together; but they are, it is believed, not of natural

KARAULI STATE

growth. The so-called forest area comprises about 200 square miles,
and is managed by a department called the Bagar, whose principal
duties are to supply grass for the State elephants and cattle, find and
preserve game for the chief and his followers, and provide a revenue by
exacting grazing dues. The forest revenue averages about Rs. 6,400
a year, derived mainly from grazing fees, and to a small extent from
the sale of grass and firewood, while the annual expenditure is about
Rs. 3,000.

Red sandstone abounds throughout the greater portion of the State,
and in parts, especially near the capital, white sandstone blends with
it. Other varieties of a bluish and yellow colour are also found, the
former near IMachilpur, and the latter in the south and west. Iron ore
occurs in the hills north-east of Karauli; but the mines would not pay
working expenses, and the iron manufactured in the State is smelted
from imported material.

Manufactures are not of importance. There is a little weaving and
dyeing; and a few wooden toys, boxes, and bed-legs painted with
coloured lac, and some pewter and brass ornaments

comm!.ilca”fons. gu»'iy-cloth of Karauli is

well-known in the neighbouring marts, and a good
deal is exported ; it is made from .f^ 7 ;/-hemp grown near the capital.

The chief exports are cotton, opium, zira (cumin seed), rice
and other cereals, while the chief imports are piece-goods, sugar, gu?-
(molasses), salt, and indigo. The trade is mainly with the neigh¬
bouring States of Jaipur and Gwalior and with Agra District.

There is no railway in the State, the nearest stations being Hindaun
Road on the Rajputana-lMalwa line, 52 miles north of the capital, and
Dholpur on the Indian Midland section of the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway, about 65 miles to the east. Apart from a few metalled streets
in Karauli town, the only metalled road in the State is about 9 miles
long. It runs north from the capital in the direction of Hindaun Road
as far as the Jaipur border, and was completed in 1886 at a cost of
Rs. 37,000. The rest of the roads are mere fair-weather tracks, some
passable by bullock-carts, and others only by camels and pack-bullocks.
The Chambal river is crossed by means of small boats maintained by
the State, and the fare per passenger is usually about a quarter of an
anna, the transit of merchandise being .specially bargained for. There
are five British post offices in the State (four having been opened
in January, 1905), and that at the capital is also a telegraph office.

The State has been fairly free from famines, but has had its share of
indifferent years. In 1868-9 the rains crops failed, and there was
considerable distress ; but the Maharaja did his best
to mitigate the sufferings of the poor by establishing
kitchens and poorhouses and starting public works. A sum of 2 lakhs

Famine.

ADMIiVISTRA TION

was borrowed from the British Government; the price of grain went up
to 8 seers per rupee, and there was scarcity of fodder, especially in the
highlands of the Ddng^ where nine-tenths of the cattle are said to have
perished. The years 1877-8, 1883-4, 1886-7, and 1896-8 were
periods of scarcity and high prices. In 1897 locusts did much damage;
and in the following year a pest called kdta^ akin to the locust, almost
entirely destroyed the autumn crops in parts of the State. In 1899-
1900 distress was confined to a comparatively small area of 254 square
miles, and never amounted to famine. Nevertheless, about 268,000
units were relieved on works ; and the total expenditure, including
loans (Rs. 23,800) and land revenue remitted (Rs. 46,000) and sus¬
pended (Rs. 28,600), exceeded a lakh.

The State is governed by the Maharaja, assisted by a Council of five
members. His Highness is President of the Council and has exercised
full powers since 1889. Each of the five tahslls is .

under a tahsildar, and over the latter is a Revenue
Officer or Deputy-Collector. In every village there is a State servant
called a tahsilia^ who is subordinate to the pahmrt of the circle in
which the village is situated.

In the administration of justice the Karauli courts follow generally
the British Indian enactments; but certain sections have been added to
the Penal Code, including one declaring the killing of cows and pea¬
fowl to be offences. The lowest courts are those of fahsildars^ who
can try civil suits the value of which does not exceed Rs. 50, and on
the criminal side can punish with imprisonment up to one month and
with fine up to Rs. 20, or both. The court of the Judicial Officer,
besides hearing appeals against the orders of tahsilddrs^ can try any
civil suit, and on the criminal side can sentence up to three years’
imprisonment and fine up to Rs. 500, or both; it can also pass a
.sentence of whipping not exceeding 36 stripes. The Council is the
highest court in the State; it hears appeals against the orders of the
Judicial Officer, tries criminal cases beyond his powers, and, when
presided over by the Maharaja, can pass sentence of death.

The revenue courts are guided by a simple code of law, introduced
in 1881-2, and amended by circulars issued from time to time by the
Council to meet local requirements. Petty suits are decided by
tahsilddrs subject to appeal to the Revenue Officer, who can also take
up rent and revenue suits of any value or nature. As on the civil and
criminal side, the highest revenue court is the Council.

The normal revenue of the State is about 5 lakhs, of which 2-8 lakhs
is derived from land, one lakh from customs, and Rs. 23,000 as tribute
from jd^trddrs. The normal expenditure is about 4-4 lakhs, the mam
items being cost of army and police (1-3 lakhs), gifts and charities (Rs.
70,000), cost of stables (Rs. 33,000), allowance to relatives (Rs. 29,000),

KARACLI STATE

and personal expenses of the chief (Rs. 28,000). The State, owing to
a series of years of scarcity, is in debt to the extent of nearly 5 lakhs,
which is being paid off by annual instalments- of Rs. 55,000.

The State had till quite recently a silver and copper coinage of its
own, and it is believed that coins were first struck by Maharaja Manak
Pal about 1780. The distinctive mint-marks are the jhdr (spray) and
the katdr (dagger), and since the time of Madan Pal (1854-69) each
chief has placed on his silver coins the initial letter of his name. The
Karauli rupee, which in 1870 was worth half an anna more than the
British, subsequently fell slightly in exchange value, and the Darbar
resolved to introduce British currency as the sole legal tender in the
State. The conversion operations have just been completed.

There are two main kinds of tenure in Karauli: namely, khdlsa^
under which the State itself possesses all rights and privileges over the
land; and mudfi^ under which the State has, subject to certain con¬
ditions, conferred such rights and privileges on others. Of the 436
villages in the State, 204 are khalsa and 232 are viudfi. The latter
tenure is of several kinds. The Thakurs or nobles pay as tribute
iJAiiVidi) a fixed sum, which is nominally one-fourth of the produce of
the soil, but really much less; and this tribute is in lieu of constant
military service, which is not performed in Karauli, though, when
military emergencies arise or State pageants occur, the Thakurs come
in with their retainers, who on such occasions are maintained at the
expense of the Darbar. No tax is ordinarily exacted in addition to
the tribute, except in cases of disputed succession, when nazardna is
levied. This tenure is known as bdpoti \ and such estates are not
permanently resumed except for treason or serious crime, though in the
past they were frequently sequestrated for a time when the holders gave
trouble. Another form of mudji tenure is known as pa 7 idrth or religious
grant. Under it land is granted in perpetuity free of rent and taxes.
Other lands are granted on the ordinary jagir tenure, while lands are
also set apart to meet zanana expenses. In the khdha area the
cultivating tenures of the peasantry are numerous. In some villages
a fixed sum is paid, varying according to the kind of crop and the
nature of the soil, and village expenses may be either included or
excluded ; in other villages an annual assessment is made by the
tahsi/ddr^ and the land revenue is paid sometimes in cash and some¬
times in kind ; in other villages again the State merely takes a share,
varying from one-fifth to one-half, of the actual produce; and lastly,
under the fhekaddri or lajjibarddri system a village, or a part of one, is
leased for a term of five or ten years to the headman or some individual
for a fixed sum payable half-yearly. Land revenue is nowadays mostly
paid in cash, and the assessment varies from Rs. 15 per acre of wheat,
sugar-cane, or poppy, to 12 annas per acre of j 7 ioth or HI, There is no

A DMINISmA TION

complete revenue survey and settlement in Karauli, but one has been
in progress since 1891.

No salt is manufactured in the State, nor is any tax of any kind
levied on this commodity. By the agreement of 1882 the Maharaja
receives Rs. 5,000 annually from the British Government as compen¬
sation, as well as 50 maunds of Sambhar salt free of cost and duty.
The liquor consumed is mostly made from the flowers of the mahua
{Bassia latifolia). The right to manufacture and sell country
liquor is sold annually by auction, and brings in from Rs. t,6oo to
Rs. 1,800; similarly the right to sell intoxicating drugs, such as gdnja^
bhangs &c., yields about Rs. 1,200. The revenue derived from the
sale of court-fee stamps is about Rs. 6,000.

The only municipality is described in the article on Karauli Town.

There is a Public Works department called Kamthdnd^ but it is
not now under professional supervision. A British officer was, however,
usefully employed in 1885-6. The expenditure during recent years
has averaged about Rs. 12,000; and the principal works have been
tne metalled road to the Jaipur border in the direction of Hindaun
Road (Rs. 37,000), the Neniaki-Gwari tank (about Rs. 23,000), a
couple of bridges (costing respectively Rs. 17,000 and Rs. 30,000),
and a building for a school (about Rs. 45,000).

The military force consists of 2,053 ri'^en. The cavalry number
260, of whom 171 are irregular; the infantry number 1,761 (1,421
irregular); and there are 32 artillerymen. Of the 56 guns, xo are
said to be serviceable.

The State is divided into seven police circles or thdnas^ besides the
kotivdli at the capital. The police force consists of 358 men of all
ranks, and there is in addition a balai in each village who performs
duties similar to those of the chaiikiddr in British India. The only
jail is at the capital.

According to the Census of 1901, about 2-3 per cent, of the people
were able to read and write : namely, 4 per cent, of the males and
0*2 per cent, of the females. The State maintains sev’en schools:
namely, a high school and a girls’ school at the capital, and primary
schools at Mandrael, Karanpur, Sapotra, Kiirgaon, and Machilpur.
These are attended by nearly 400 pupils. Education is free, the
annual expenditure being about Rs. 4,000. In addition, several private
schools are attended by about 200 boys.

The State possesses five hospitals: namely, two at the capital (one
exclusively for females), and three in the districts, at Machilpur,
Mandrael, and Sapotra. They contain accommodation for 36 in¬
patients; and in 1904 the number of cases treated was 31,909, of
whom 136 were in-patients, and 2,150 operations were performed.

Vaccination is nowhere compulsory. Three vaccinators under a

KARAULI STATE

native Superintendent are employed; and in 1904-5 the number of
persons successfully vaccinated was 5,865, or more than 37 per 1,000
of the population.

[P. W. Powlett, Gazetteer of Karauti (1874, under revision);
H. E. Drake-Brockman, Gazetteer of Eastern Rajputdna States (Ajmer,
1905) ; Administration Reports of A^arai/ti {annually from 1894-5).]

Karauli Town. — Capital of the State of the same name in
Rajputana, situated in 26° 30' N. and 77° 2' E., equidistant (about
75 miles) from Muttra, Gwalior, Agra, Alwar, Jaipur, and Tonk. It is
also the head-quarters of the Sadr tahslL It was founded in 1348 by
Raja Arjun Pal, and was originally called Kalyanpuri after the temple
to Kalyanji built about the same time. It is connected with the
Rajputana-Malwa Railway at Hindaun Road by a metalled road 52
miles long. The population in 1901 was 23,482, of whom 76 per cent,
were Hindus and 22 per cent. Muhammadans.

Viewed from some points whence the palace is seen to advantage,
the town has a striking appearance. It is surrounded by a wall of red
sandstone, and is also protected on the north and east by a network
of ravines. To the south and west the ground is comparatively level;
but advantage has been taken of a conveniently situated watercourse
to form a moat to the town wall, while an outer wall and ditch,
defended by bastions, has been carried along the other bank, thus
forming a double line of defence. These fortifications, though too
strong for the desultory attacks of the Alarathas, would be far less
formidable to regular trooj>s than were the mud walls of Bharatpur.
'I'he town wall, in spite of its handsome appearance, is unsubstantially
built, being composed of ill-cemented stones faced by thin slabs after
the fashion which prevails throughout the State. The circumference
of the town is somewhat less than 2J miles, and there are six gates and
eleven posterns. The streets are rather narrow and irregular, but since
1884 most of them have been flagged with the local stone, and they
can easily be cleansed as the natural drainage is excellent, dfliere
are several costly houses and a few handsome temples; of the latter
the most beautiful is perhaps the Pratap Saroman temple, built by
Maharaja Prata|) Pal (1837-50) in the modern Muttra style. The
l)alace is about 200 yards from the eastern wall of the town; it was
founded by Arjun Pal in the fourteenth century, but little or nothing
of the original structure can now be traced. In its present state it was
erected about the middle of the eighteenth century by Raja Gopal
Singh, who adopted the Delhi style of architecture with which his
residence in that city had made him fluniliar. 'khe whole block of
buildings is surrounded by a lofty bastioned wall in which there are
two fine gates.

A municipality was constituted in 1884, and the committee has

• KARENNI

successfully looked after the paving and lighting of the streets and the
general conservancy of the town. Indeed, Karauli is one of the
cleanest towns in Rajputana. The income of the municipality varies
from Rs. 7,000 to Rs. 9,000, derived mainly from a small octroi duty
on cereals; and the expenditure is somewhat less. The jail has
accommodation for 77 prisoners, who are employed on cotton cloth
and carpet-weaving; attached to the jail is a small printing press, in
which some of the prisoners occasionally work.

Besides a few private schools in which only plain ciphering and
letter-writing are taught, and a girls’ school, the town possesses a high
school teaching up to the matriculation standard of the Allahabad
University, with an Oriental department affiliated to the Punjab
University, and a pattvdri class. This institution costs the State about
Rs. 3,000 a year and education is free; the daily average attendance
in 1904 was 227. Since the high school was established in 1889,
6 students have passed the matriculation at the Allahabad University
and 39 have passed various Oriental examinations of the Punjab
University. There are two hospitals, a general and a female. The
latter, which was opened as a dispensary for out-patients in 1891, is
maintained from municipal funds.

Karchana.—The central of the three trans-Jumna tahsJls of Allah¬
abad District, United Provinces, conterminous with the pargana of
Arail, lying between 25® 9' and 25° 26' N. and 81° 44^ and 82® 5' E.,
with an area of 257 square miles. Population fell from 134,818 in
1891 to 127,327 in 1901. There are 338 villages and one small town.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 2,64,000, and for
cesses Rs. 42,000 ; but the revised settlement has reduced the revenue
to Rs. 2,39,000. The density of population, 495 persons per square mile,
is below the District average. The tahsll is bounded on the north-east
by the Ganges, on the north-west by the Jumna, and on the south and
east by the Tons. Bordering on the rivers are tracts of high sandy
soil much cut up by ravines, except towards the Ganges. The central
portion consists of a fertile loam, which changes in the west to clay,
where coarse rice is the staple crop. Though situated south of the
Jumna, the country resembles the Doab, but facilities for irrigation
are not good. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 174 square
miles, of which 28 were irrigated. Wells supply about two-thirds of
the irrigated area, and jhlls the remainder.

Karenni.— The country of the Red Karens, Burma, lying on both
banks of the Salween, between iS° 50' and 19® 55' N. and 97*^ lo"' and
97° 50' E. It is bounded on the north by the Shan States, on the
south by Salween District, on the east by Siam, and on the west by
Toungoo District. At Loikaw, a village of 2,042 inhabitants towards
the north of the tract, an Assistant Superintendent of the Shan States

KARENNL

is posted as Agent of the British Government, with a military police
guard under an assistant commandant, and control is exercised by him
and the Superintendent at Taunggyi over the chiefs. The tract is
divided in a general way into eastern and western Karenni, the former
consisting of the single State of Gantarawadi (2,500 square miles), the
latter of the four small States of Kyebogyi (350 square miles), Bawlake
(200 square miles), Nammekon (50 square miles), and Naungpale
(30 square miles). The north-western portion is an open, fairly level
plain, well watered and in some parts swami)y. It lies in the basin
of the Nam Pilu or Balu stream, which drains the Inle Lake, and, after
flowing past Loikaw, sinks into the ground to the south-east of that
village before joining the Nam Pawn. The rest of the Karenni
country is mountainous, with occasional fertile valleys, but for the
most part arid. It is watered by the Salween and its tributary the
Nam Pawn, which are separated by a ridge 5,000 feet in height.

Nothing definite is known of the history of the Karenni States prior
to the middle of the nineteenth century. During the latter part of
that eentury they were the scene of constant hostilities, occasioned by
incursions from the Shan States and by intestinal disputes. Certain
features of their history since the annexation of Upper Burma are
given in the article on the Southern Shan States. Gantarawadi
was heavily fined for the disturbances which Sawlapaw had occasioned
in 1888, and Sawlawi undertook to pay a tribute of Rs. 5,000 to the
British Government. This chief was raised to the dignity of Sawbwa
in 1901. The other four chiefs were formally recognized as feudatories
in 1892, and appointed Myozas. Kyebogyi, Bawlake, and Nammekon
pay a tribute of Rs. 100 each, and Naungpale Rs. 50. The population
of Karenni was estimated in 1901 at 45,975, distributed as follows
over the different States: Gantarawadi, 26,333 ; Kyebogyi, 9,867 ;
Bawlake, 5,701; Nammekon, 2,629; Naungpale, 1,265.
inhabitants are said to have decreased considerably of late, owing to
the diminution of water in the Nam Pilu valley, the most cultivated
part of the country. More than half are Red Karens, who are at
a low stage of civilization, and very far from clean in their persons
and habits. Other people represented are Shans, Taiingthus, Bres,
Padaungs, and White and other Karens. The chief wealth of the
country is teak timber, rich forests lying on the left bank of the
Salween, on both banks of the Nam Pawn, and in the north-western
States. 'The total revenue of the States in 1893-4 was Rs. 37,000.

Karens.-A collection of Indo-Chinese tribes, the representatives
in Burma of one of the smaller immigration waves that entered the
country from the direction of South-Western China during prehistoric
times. The arrival of the Karens in the country in all probability pre¬
ceded that of the Tai (Shans), and may possibly have been earlier than

KAREA^S

that of the Burmans, It is more probable, however, that they appeared
after the latter, and in any case there is reason to believe that they were
later comers than the representatives of the Mon-Anam races. The
Karens may be divided into three main divisions: the Sgaw, the Pwo,
and the Bghai. The Sgaw and Pwo are generally looked upon as the
Karens proper. They are found down the whole of the eastern border
of Lower Burma, from Toungoo to Mergui, in the delta of the Irra¬
waddy, and in the Pegu Yoma; in fact it is only in the Arakan Division,
in Rangoon, and in the Districts of Prome and Thayetmyo that they do
not form an important section of the community in the Lower province.
They are most numerous in the Districts of Thaton, ]\Iyaungmya, and
Toungoo. In 1901, 86,434 persons were returned as Sgaw-Karens, and
174,070 as Pwo-Karens, a total of 457,355 having been shown as Karens
with no division specified. These last were practically all either Sgaw
or Pwo, probably more of the former than of the latter.

The Karens are for the most part hill-dwellers, but a very consider¬
able proportion of them are now permanently settled in the plains.
The Sgaw plain-dwellers are often known as Burmese Karens, and the
Pwo as Talaing Karens. In physique there is no great difference
between the Karens of Lower Burma and their Burman and Talaing
neighbours; they are not exceptionally flat-faced, and sharp features
are frequently met with. Their eyes are not oblique, like those of the
Chinese. In dress they have to some extent adopted the style of the
people in whose neighbourhood they live. The typical Karen garment,
where the national dress is still worn, is the thindaing or smock, a long,
sleeveless or almost sleeveless garment, which is slipped over the head
and falls away from the neck, leaving a V-shaped opening in front and
behind. Where this is worn it forms the sole upper garment of the
men, boys, and unmarried girls. In the case of married women the
thmdaing is shorter, is often highly decorated, and is worn over a skirt.
Clan distinctions were, and to a certain extent still are, indicated by
differences in dress, as for instance in the embroidery on the hem of
the men’s smocks. The typical hill Karen house, like that of the
Kachin, is far longer and larger than that built by the j^eople of the
plains. The Karens practise agriculture, their cultivation, when resi¬
dent in the hills, being of the ordinary taiuigya description. They are
excellent foresters, and ever since the annexation of Pegu their relations
with the Forest department have been intimate. The original religion
of the Karens was spirit-worship, and a considerable number still hold
by their old faith; but some have embraced Buddhism and a large
proportion of them have become Christians. In their spontaneous
readiness to accept Christianity they are probably unique among the
more backward races of Asia. The Karens have been enlisted to some
extent in the Burma military police. At one time a battalion was

KARENS

recruited entirely from the Karens ; but a riot that occurred in its ranks
in 1899 led to its abolition as a separate unit, and to the distribution of
the companies of which it was composed over other battalions. The
two main divisions of the Karens proper have dialects of their own
which differ very considerably. It is probable that the Sgaw dialect
will in time supersede the Pwo for educational purposes. The lan¬
guage is tonal, and belongs to the Siamese-Chinese sub-family of the
Indo-Chinese family.

Of the Bghai division of the Karen race, the Red Karens of Karenni
have hitherto been the best known. Other representatives of this
division are called Padaungs, Bres, Zayeins, Sawngtiing Karens, Loilong
Karens, White Karens, and the like. The Bghai inhabit the south¬
western corner of the Shan States, between 18° 30'' and 20® 30' N.
They were found mostly in the ‘estimated’ areas in 1901, and the
precise strength of the different tribes is not exactly known. The total
of Red Karens would appear, however, to be above 29,000, that of the
Padaungs between 9,000 and 10,000, and that of the Bres about 3,500.
Most of the Zayeins live in territory that was regularly enumerated ; they
aggregated 4,440. The Bghai tribes vary considerably in language, cus¬
toms, and dress. The male costume consists as a rule of short trousers
and a jacket or blanket ; the female costume, of a short kilt with either
a .short smock or, in the case of the Red Karen women, of a single piece
of cloth, draped over the upper portion of the body. Leg and neck
ornaments are common among the women, the former being specially
noticeable in Karenni in the shape of beaded garters, the latter in the
Padaung country, where the women lengthen their necks artificially by
means of a succession of brass rings which is added to year by year.
All the Bghai are spirit-worshippers, and the majority of them are at
a lower stage of civilization than the Karens of Lower Burma. The
Bghai dialects, though differing, are probably all variants of a common
speech.

Karhal Tahsil. — Central southern tahsil of ISIainpurl District,
United Provinces, comprising the parganas of Karhal and Barnahal,
and lying between 26° 56' and 27° N. and 78^^ 46' and 79® 10' E.,
with an area of 218 square miles. Population fell from 100,297 in
1891 to 98,398 in 1901. There are 189 ^'illages and one town, Kak-
HAL (population, 6,268), the tahsil head-quarters, d'he demand for
land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,75,000, and for cesses Rs. 28,000.
The density of i)opulation, 451 persons per square mile, is the lowest in
the District, and this is the only tahsil which lost in population between
1891 and 1901. The Sengar, flowing from north-west to south-east,
divides tlie tahsil into two parts. The eastern portion forms part of the
great central loam tract; and its fertility is interrupted only by patches
of barren land called nsar^ and great swamps from which are formed

KARIKAL

the Puraha and Ahneya streams, flowing into Etawah. Although the
west is more sandy it contains no usar\ this tract suffered during the
scarcity of 1896-7. In 1901-2 the area under cultivation was no
square miles, of wdiich loi were irrigated. The Etawah branch of the
Low'er Ganges Canal serves the tract east of the Sengar, supplying
about half of the irrigated area; and wells irrigate most of the re¬
mainder.

Karhal Town.—Head-quarters of the iahstl of the same name in
Mainpuri District, United Provinces, situated in 27*^ N. and 78® 57' E.,
on the road from MainpurT town to Etawah. Population (1901), 6,268.
The town contains a bazar of poor shops, but has some substantial
brick-built houses. A Saiyid family, some of the members of which
are reputed to possess miraculous powers, resides here. The tahsili
and dispensary are the chief public buildings. Karhal is administered
under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about Rs. 1,400. Trade
is local. The tahsih school has about 90 pupils.

Kariana. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Karikal {Kdraikkal^ ‘ fish pass ^; the Carical Cariiikalla of Barto¬
lomeo).— P'rench Settlement and town on the Coromandel coast, lying
between the taluks of Mayavaram, Nannilam, and Negapatam in the
Tanjore District of Madras and the Bay of Bengal. The town is
situated in 10° 55' N. and 79° 50' PI The Settlement is divided into
three communes, containing no villages in all, and covering an area
of 53 square miles, and is governed by an Administrator subordinate
to the Governor at Pondicherry. The population has been rapidly
decreasing. In 1883 it was 93,055; in 1891, 70,526; and in 1901,
56,595 ; but the density is still very high, being 1,068 persons per square
mile. Kumbakonam is the only fdliik in Tanjore District which has
a higher density. Each of the three communes—* namely, Karikal, La
Grande Aldee, and Nedungadu—possesses a mayor and council. The
members are all elected by universal suffrage, but in the municipality
of Karikal half the number of seats is reserved for Europeans or their
descendants. The country is very fertile, being irrigated by seven
branches of the Cauvery: namely, the N’andalar, Nattar, Arasalar,
Tirumalarajanar, IMudikondanar, Vanjiar, and Nular, besides many
smaller channels.

The capital of the Settlement is situated on the north bank of the
Arasalar, about \\ miles from its mouth. It has a brisk trade in rice
with Ceylon and to a less extent with the Straits Settlements. In 1904
it had no commerce whatever with France, and very little with other
PTench colonies. The total imports amounted to £49,000, of which
£1,600 came from the PTench colonies. The total exports were valued
at £106,000, out of which only £600 went to the French colonies.
The port is merely an open roadstead, provided with a lighthouse

kArikAl

142 feet high, the light in which has a range of from 8 to 10 miles.
Indian labourers emigrate from Karikal to the French colonies in large
numbers. Inland customs are governed by a convention with the
Madras Government, and all salt consumed in French territory is by
treaty purchased from the British on payment of an annual indemnity
of Rs. 20,748. In 1899 Karikal was connected with Peralam on the
Tanjore District Board Railway. The line is i4f miles long and is
owned by the French Government, but worked by the South Indian
Railway.

Karikal was promised to the French in 1738, in return for their assis¬
tance, by SayajI, the exiled Raja of Tanjore. He did not, however,
keep his promise; and it was only by the assistance of Chanda Sahib,
then at war with Sayaji, that a grant of the town was obtained in the
following year. An additional cession of 81 villages was obtained in
1749 under a like pressure and with the same assistance, when the
French and Chanda Sahib were besieging Tanjore. The latter grant
was confirmed by treaty in 1754. The town and fort were besieged
by an English force under Major Monson in 1760, and, after a gallant
defence of ten days, surrendered on April 15. They came into British
possession again on three subsequent occasions {see French Posses¬
sions), and were finally restored to the French on January 14, 1817.

Karimganj Subdivision.—Subdivision in the south-east of Sylhet
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, lying between 24® 15'and 25® N.
and 92° 2' and 92° 36' E., with an area of 1,048 square miles. It
contains one town, Karimganj (population, 5,692), the head-quarters;
and 924 villages. The northern portion of the subdivision is a level
plain, but to the south it is much broken by hills. The Saraspur and
Patharkandi ranges project into the valley from the Lushai-Tippera
system \ and a third range of low hills, which intervenes between them,
separates the valleys of the Langai and Singla rivers. The lower hills
have been largely taken up for tea, but the upper valleys of these two
rivers are still, to a great extent, covered with jungle. Attempts have
been made to colonize this tract; but they have only met with a qualified
measure of success, as it is very inaccessible, and much of the land is
not well adapted for cultivation. At the extreme end of this valley are
located the only forest Reserves in the District, which cover an area of
103 square miles. The population of Karimganj in 1891 was 384,638,
and by 1901 had risen to 410,460, an increase of nearly 7 per cent.
Like the rest of Sylhet, the subdivision is densely peopled ; and, in spite
of the large tracts of waste land in the south, the density in 1901 was
392 persons per square mile, which is but little below the figure for the
District as a whole. 4 'he rainfall at Karimganj town is as much as
160 inches in the year, but in the Langai valley it is about 50 inches
less. 'Fhe staple food-crop is sail or transplanted winter rice, and the

KARlMNAGAR DISTRICT

dense groves of areca palms surrounding the villages are a special
feature in the landscape. The cultivation of tea is an important indus¬
try; in 1904 there were 35 gardens with 21,413 acres under plant,
which gave employment to 51 Europeans and 24,126 natives. Karim-
ganj is almost invariably in charge of a European magistrate, and for
administrative purposes is divided into the two thdnas of Karimganj
and Jaldhub. The demand on account of land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 was Rs. 2,24,000.

Karimganj Town.—Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Sylhet District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24° 52' N.
and 92° 22' E,, on the left bank of the Kusiyara river. The town is
favourably situated for trade, as it is a port of call for the river steamers,
and has a station on the Assam-Bengal Railway. Population (1901),
5,692. The public buildings include the Magistrate’s and Munsifs
courts, a subsidiary jail with accommodation for 35 persons, a hospital
with 6 beds, and a high school with an average attendance of 176 boys.
The Subdivisional Officer is almost invariably a European, and there is
a branch of the Welsh Presbyterian Mission in the town. Most of the
offices are located on low hills which command a fine view across the
dense groves of areca palm, with which the neighbourhood abounds,
to the hills of North Cachar. There is a considerable export trade to
Bengal in unhusked rice, mustard, linseed, bamboo mats, and timber.
The principal imports are cotton piece-goods, grain and pulse, kerosene
and other oils, salt, sugar, and spices. The majority of the merchants
are natives of the District, but there are a few Marwaris from Rajputana.

Karimganj.—Village in the Kishorganj subdivision of Mymensingh
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24° 28' N. and 90°
52' E., 9 miles east of Kishorganj. Population (1901), 136. It is a
large bazar and reed and jute mart, and has given its name to a well-
known variety of jute.

Karimnagar District.—District in the Warangal Division of the
Hyderabad State, formerly known as Elgandal. It is bounded on
the north by Adilabad ; on the east by the Bastar State of the Central
Provinces; on the south by Warangal; and on the west by Medak and
Nizamabad. In consequence of the changes made in 1905, its area has
been reduced to 5,369 square miles, includingA range of hills
extends in a north-easterly direction between Gurrapalli and Jagtial,
terminating at Vemalkurti near the Godavari. A second range, running
parallel to the former, stretches from Sunigram to Mallangur. A third
range starts in the south-western corner of the District from the valley
of the Maner river, runs in a north-easterly direction, and, after inter¬
secting the Sunigram range, passes beyond Ramgir and terminates near
the Godavari. The principal river is the Godavari, which flows through
the northern portion, forming the northern and eastern boundary, and

KARlMNAGAR DTSTRICT

partially separating the District from AdilabM in the north and from
Bastar in the east. The next important river is the Maner, a tributary
of the Godavari, which traverses the District from west to cast as far
as Karlagunta, and thence flows due north, till it falls into the Godavari
in the IMahadeopur taluk. The Peddavagu and Chelluvagu are minor
tributaries of the Godavari.

The geological formations are the Archaean gneiss, and the Cuddapah,
Sullavai, and Gondwana series. Gneiss occupies most of the District,
the remaining formations occurring in the east.

The flora of the , District includes teak, mango, custard-apple,
tamarind, ebony, black-wood, satin-wood, tarvar (^Cassia anriculaid)^
babul (Acacia arabica), ualldmaddi (Terminalia to?nentosa\ and eppa
(Hardivickia bbiata).

Karimnagar is covered with a large extent of jungle and fprest,
which give cover to tigers, leopards, bears, hyenas, wolves, wild hog,
and wild dogs, while in the plains sd?nbar, spotted deer, and 7 nlgai are
met with everywhere.

With the exception of Mahadeopur and parts of Sirsilla and Jagtial,
the District is healthy. The temperature at Karimnagar and Jamikunta
in May rises to iio°, and in the remaining idluks it ranges between
roo^ and 105°. In December it falls to 60°. The annual rainfall
averages about 33 inches.

The population of the area of the present District in 1901 was
861,833. It comprises seven idluks \ Karimnagar, Jamikunta,
SuLTANABAD, Jagtial, Sirsilla, Mahadeopur, and Parkal. The
chief towns are Jagtial, IVIanthani, Koratla, Karimnagar, and
Vemalwada. About 96 per cent, of the population are Hindus ; 90
per cent, speak Telugu, and 6 per cent. Urdu.

The land revenue demand of the District as at present constituted
is about 2 2-6 lakhs.

Karimnagar Taluk,— Tdluk in Karimnagar District, Hyderabad
State, with an area of 1,012 square miles. The population in 1901,
including was 138,591, compared with 170,676 in 1891, the de¬

crease being due to famine and cholera. The tdluk contains one town,
Karimnagar (population, 5,752), the District and tdluk head-quarters;
and 186 villages, of which 26 are jdgv\ The land revenue in 1901
amounted to 4-3 lakhs. Rice is largely raised with irrigation from
tanks and wells. The Maner river flows through the tdluk from west
to east.

Karimnagar Town.—Head-quarters of the District and tdluk of
Karimnagar, Hyderabad State, situated in 18° 26' N. and 79° 8' E., on
the Maner river, 6 miles east of Elgandal. Population (1901), 5,752.
Besides the District and tdluk ofifices, it contains the District civil
court, two dispensaries, one of which provides yundni treatment, a post

KARKALA

office, local board and municipal offices, several State schools, a mission
school, a female mission hospital, a District jail, and a tannery. The
town is noted for its fine filigree work.

Karjat (i).—Southern taluka of Ahmadnagar District, Bombay, lying
between i8° 20' and 18° 50' N. and 74° 43' and 75° 13' E., with an area
of 565 square miles. It contains 81 villages, including Karjat, the head-
quarters. The population in 1901 was 35,619, compared with 48,828
in 1891. The decrease, which is greater than in any other taluka^
is primarily due to emigration to the Nizam’s Dominions and other
regions, consequent upon famine. It is the most thinly populated in
the District, with a density of only 63 persons per square mile.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 80,000 and for cesses
Rs. 6,000. A chain of low hills with flat summits traverses the taluka
from north-west to south-east, dividing it into two equal parts. The
streams from the eastern slope flow into the Sina river, and from the
western into the Bhima. The country presents a dismal appearance,
owing to the large proportion of rocky and unprofitable ground, almost
destitute of vegetation. There are a few level tracts, some of con-
siderable extent, where the soil is deep and rich. In the neighbourhood
of the hills the soil is of the poorest description. The rainfall is
extremely uncertain, and good harvests are rare. It suffered severely
in the famines of 1876-7 and 1899-1901, when many villages were
deserted. The cultivators, owing to a succession of bad harvests, are
nearly all in debt.

Karjat (2).—North-eastern taluka of Kolaba District, Bombay, lying
between 18° 45' and 19° 8' N. and 73° n' and 73° 33' E., with an
area of 359 square miles, including the petty subdivision (petha) of
Khalapur. There are 270 villages, the head-quarters being at Karjat.
The population in 1901 was 87,415, compared with 85,288 in 1891.
The density, 243 persons per square mile, is much below the District
average. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,61,000,
and for cesses Rs. ro,ooo. Karjat may be described as a rough hilly
tract, lying between the ^Vestern Ghats and the hills of Matheran. On
its northern side dales and valleys diversify the surface; the lowlands
are divided into rice-fields, while the higher grounds arc clothed with
teak, aluy and black-wood. In the east the woodlands become a forest.
The Ulhas and other streams which rise in the Western Ghats flow
through the taluka^ but beeome dry channels in the hot season. The
rainfall is fairly plentiful, and failure of the rice crop rare. Drinking-
water is scarce. The rice soil is black, and the upland soil reddish.
'Fhe climate varies greatly with the season. In January and February
the nights are extremely cold. The rainfall during the ten years
ending 1903 averaged 130 inches.

Karkala. —^Village in the Udipi taluk of South Kanara District,

VOL. XV. u

KARKALA

r^ladras, situated in 13° 13' N. and 74° 59' E. Population (1901),
5,364. It was once a populous Jain town and the seat of the Bhairarasa
Wodeyars, a powerful Jain family of which no representatives are now
left. In the neighbourhood are many Jain remains. The most
remarkable is the monolithic statue of Gomata Raya, erected by the
ruling prince in a.d. 1431. It stands in an enclosure on the summit
of a rocky hill south of the town overlooking a picturesque lake, and
is 41 feet 5 inches high, with the traditional form and lineaments of
Buddha. Once in sixty years Jains from all parts gather and bathe the
statue with coco-nut milk. To the north, on the summit of a smaller
hill, stands a square temple with projecting porticoes facing each of the
four quarters, its columns, pediments, and friezes being alike richly
carved and ornamented. Within, facing each entrance, stand groups
of three life-sized figures in burnished copper, counterparts of the great
statue above. At Haleangadi, close by, is the finest Jain stambha
(pillar) in the District. It has a monolithic shaft 33 feet high in eight
segments, each beautifully and variously ornamented, supporting an
elegant capital and topped by a stone shrine containing a statue. The
total height is about 50 feet. Karkala is situated on one of the
principal roads leading to Mysore, in the centre of a fertile tract con¬
taining many fine areca gardens. It has a considerable trade in rice
and other local produce, and is the head-quarters of a ^Q.]^\!Xytahslldar,

Karkamb.—Town in the Pandharpur tdluka of Sholapur District,
Bombay, situated in 17® 52' N. and 75° 18' E., 13 miles north of
Pandharpur town. Population (1901), 5,571. Karkamb has a large
weaving and thread-dyeing industry, with about 500 looms, chiefly
producing cheap cloth for women’s robes. About 1,500 persons are
employed in the weaving industry, which has an output of the annual
value of i§ lakhs. The establishments for thread-dyeing number ii.
The betel-vine is largely grown. "Weekly markets are held on Mondays,
when cattle, grain, and cloth are sold. The town contains two schools,
one of which is for girls.

Karli {AmHo). —Adllage in the Maval tdluka of Poona District,
Bombay, situated in 18° 45' N. and 73*^ 29' E., on the road between
Bombay and Poona. Population (1901), 903. Some celebrated caves
are 2| miles from the Karli and 5 from the Lonauli station on the
Poona section of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway. The principal
cave is thus described by i\Ir. J. Fergusson in his History of Eastern
and Indian Arekiteeture : —

‘ It is certainly the largest as well as the most complete chaitya cave
hitherto discovered in India, and was excavated at a time when the
style was in its greatest purity. In it, all the architectural defects of
the previous examples are removed; the pillars of the nave are quite
perpendicular. The screen is ornamented with sculpture—its first

KARLI

appearance apparently in such a position—and the style had reached
a perfection never afterwards surpassed.

‘ In the cave there is an inscription on the side of the porch, and
another on the lion-pillar in front, which are certainly integral, and
ascribe its excavation to the Maharaja Bhuti or Deva Bhuti, who,
according to the Puranas, reigned 78 h.c. ; and if this is so, they fix the
age of this typical example beyond all cavil.

‘The building resembles, to a very great extent, an early Christian
church in its arrangements, consisting of a nave and side aisles, ter¬
minating in an apse or semi-dome, round which the aisle is carried.
'I'he general dimensions of the interior are 126 feet from the entrance
to the back wall, by 45 feet 7 inches in width. The side aisles, however,
are very much narrower than in Christian churches, the central one
being 25 feet 7 inches, so that the others are only 10 feet wide, includ¬
ing the thickness of the pillars. As a scale for comparison, it may be
mentioned that its arrangement and dimensions are very similar to
those of the choir of Norwich Cathedral, or of the Abbaye aux
Hommes at Caen, omitting the outer aisles in the latter building.
The thickness of the piers at Norwich and Caen nearly corresponds
to the breadth of the aisles in the Indian temple. In height, however,
Karli is very inferior, being only 42 feet, or perhaps 45 feet from the
floor to the apex, as nearly as can be ascertained.

‘ Fifteen pillars on each side separate the nave from the aisles; each
pillar has a tail base, an octagonal shaft, and a richly ornamented
capital, on which kneel two elephants, each bearing two figures,
generally a man and a woman, but sometimes two females, all very
much better executed than such ornaments usually are. The seven
pillars behind the “altar” are plain octagonal piers, without either base
or capital, and the four under the entrance gallery differ considerably
from those at the sides. The sculptures on the capitals supply the
place usually occupied by frieze and cornice in Grecian architecture;
and in other examples plain painted surfaces occupy the same space.
Above this springs the roof, semicircular in general section but some¬
what stilted at the sides, so as to make its height greater than the
semi-diameter. It is ornamented even at this day by a series of
wooden ribs, probably coeval with the excavation, which prove beyond
the shadow of a doubt that the roof is not a copy of a masonry arch,
but of some sort of timber construction which we cannot now very
well understand.

‘ Immediately under the semi-dome of the apse, and nearly where the
altar stands in Christian churches, is placed the ddgoba, in this instance
a plain dome slightly stilted on a circular drum. As there are no
ornaments on it now, and no mortices for woodwork, it probably was
originally plastered and painted, or may have been adorned with hang¬
ings, which some of the sculptured representations would lead us to
suppose was the usual mode of ornamenting these altars. It is .sur¬
mounted by a Tee, and on this still stand the remains of an umbrella
in wood, very much decayed and distorted by age.

‘ Opposite this is the entrance, consisting of three doorways, under
a gallery exactly corresponding with our rood-loft, one leading to the
centre and one to each of the side aisles ] and over the gallery the

D 2

KARLI

whole end of the hall is open, as in all these chaitya halls, forming
one great window, through which all the light is admitted. This great
window is formed in the shape of a horseshoe, and exactly resembles
those used as ornaments on the facade of this cave, as well as on those
of Bhaja, Bedsa, and at Nasik. Within the arch is a framework or
centring of work standing free. This, so far as we can judge, is, like
the ribs of the interior, coeval with the building; at all events, if it has
been renewed, it is an exact copy of the original form, for it is found
repeated in stone in all the niches of the facade, over the doorways, and
generally as an ornament everywhere, and with the Buddhist “ rail,”
copied from Sanchi, forms the most usual ornament of the style.

‘The outer porch is considerably wider than the body of the building,
being 52 feet wide, and is closed in front by a screen composed of two
stout octagonal pillars, without either base or capital, supporting what is
now a plain mass of rock, but once ornamented by a wooden gallery
forming the principal ornament of the fagade. Above this, a dwarf
colonnade or attic of four columns between pilasters admitted light to
the great window; and this again was surmounted by a wooden cornice
or ornament of some sort, though we cannot now restore it, since only
the mortices remain that attached it to the rock.

‘ In advance of this screen stands the lion-pillar, in this instance
a plain shaft with thirty-two flutes, or rather faces, surmounted by
a capital not unlike that at Kesariya, but at Karli supporting four lions
instead of one; they seem almost certainly to have supported a chakra^
or Buddhist wheel. A similar pillar probably stood on the opposite
side, but it has either fallen or been taken down to make way for the
little [Hindu] temple that now occupies its place.

‘ The absence of the wooden ornaments of the external porch, as well
as our ignorance of the mode in which this temple was finished later¬
ally, and the porch joined to the main temple, prevent us from judging
what the effect of the front would have been if belonging to a free¬
standing building. But the proportions of such parts as remain are so
good, and the effect of the whole so pleasing, that there can be little
hesitation in ascribing to such a design a tolerably high rank among
architectural com] 30 sitions.

‘ Of the interior we can judge perfectly, and it certainly is as solemn
and grand as any interior can well be, and the mode of lighting the
most perfect—-one undivided volume of light coming through a single
opening overhead at a very favourable angle and falling directly on the
“altar” or principal object in the building, leaving the rest in comparative
obscurity. The effect is considerably heightened by the closely-set
thick columns that divide the three aisles from one another, as they
suffice to prevent the boundary walls from ever being seen ; and as there
are no o]}enings in the walls, the view between the pillars is practically
unlimited.

‘These peculiarities are found more or less developed in all the other
caves of the same class in India, varying only with the age and the
gradual change that took place from the more purely wooden forms of
these caves to the lithic or stone architecture of the more modern
t)ncs. This is the principal test by which their relative ages can be
determined, and it proves incontestably that the Karli cave was

KARMALA tojvr

excavated not very long after stone came to be used as a building
material in India/

Karmad.—Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Karmala Taluka .—Tdhika of Sholapiir District, Bombay, lying
between 17° 58' and 18° 33' N. and 74° 48' and 75° 26' E., with an
area of 772 square miles. It contains one to\\m, Karmala (population,
7,301), the head-quarters; and 123 villages. The population in 1901
was 67,558, compared with 93,353 in 1891. The great decrease is due
to mortality and emigration during the famine of 1899-1901. The
taluka is one of the most thinly populated in the District, with a density
of only 88 persons per square mile. I'he demand for land revenue
in 1903-4 was 1-7 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 11,000. Karmala is in the
north of the District, between the Bhima on the west and the Slna on
the east. Except the hills near Kem and the dividing ridge, forming
the watershed between the two rivers, the country is flat : towards the
north it is rough and broken, crossed by many streams. About half
consists of rich black soil, and the rest is red and gravelly. The
seasons are uncertain —a really good one, as a rule, not occurring
oftener than once in three or four years, when, however, the harvest is
exceedingly abundant. The annual rainfall averages 23 inches. Weekly
fairs are held at eight towns and villages ; and at Sonari an annual fair
in April is attended by about 6,000 persons.

Karmala Town.—Head-quarters of the taluka of the same name
in Sholapur District, Bombay, situated in 18° 24"^ X. and 75° 12' E., ii
miles north of the Jeur station on the south-east section of the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway. Population (1901), 7,301. Karmala was
originally the seat of a branch of the Niimbalkar family. The founder
began and his son finished a fort, which still exists and is used for the
taluka offices. This fort, one of the largest in the Deccan, extends over
a quarter of a square mile, and contains about a hundred houses.
Karmala grew and became a large trade centre, being a crossing station
for the traffic from Balaghat through Barsi to Poona, and between
Ahmadnagar and Sholapur. Most of this traffic has now passed to the
railwa}^ but Karmala is still a large mart for cattle, grain, oil, and piece-
goods. A weekly market is held on Friday, and the town has a small
weaving industry. The water-supply is derived from wells three-quarters
of a mile to the south, the water being carried through an earthenware
conduit to dipping wells in the town. An annual fair is held here, last¬
ing four days. The town possesses a large temple of Amba Bai. The
municipality, established in 1867, had an average income during the
decade ending igoi of Rs. 8,800. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 9,100.
Karmala contains a Subordinate Judges court, three schools, includ¬
ing one maintained by the American Congregational Mission, and
a dispensary.

KARMGARH

Karmgarh.—A ?iizawat or administrative district of the Patiala
State, Punjab, lying between 29® 23' and 30® 27' N. and 75° 40' and
76° 36' E., with an area of 1,834 square miles. It had a population
in 1901 of 500,635, compared with 500,225 in 1891, dwelling in four
towns— Patiala, Samana, Sunam, and Sanaur —and 665 villages.
The head-quarters are at Bhawanigarh or Dhodan, a village in the
Bhawanigarh tahslL The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted
to 9*5 lakhs. The 7 uzamat consists of a fairly compact area in the
south-east of the main portion of the State, and is divided into four
tahslls —Patiala, Bhawanigarh, Sunam, and Narwana —of which the
first three lie in that order from east to west, partly in the Pawadh and
partly in the Jangal tract, on the north of the Ghaggar river, while the
fourth tahsil, Narwana, lies on its south bank in the Bangar.

Karnal District.—District in the Delhi Division of the Punjab,
lying between 29® ti' and 30® 15' N. and 76° ii' and 77® 17' E., with
an area of 3,153 square miles, including 36 outlying villages scattered
throughout the eastern part of the State of Patiala. The District is
bounded on the north by Patiala State and Ambala District; on the
east by the Jumna, which separates it from the Districts of Saharan-
pur, Muzaffarnagar, and Meerut in the United Provinces ; on the
south by the Punjab Districts of Delhi and Rohtak ; and on the west
by the States of Patiala and Jlnd. It is divided into two parts by the
low ridge which forms the watershed between the Indian Ocean and
the Bay of Bengal. To the east of this ridge along the Jumna lies the
khada)\ a strip of low-lying land from 5 to 10 miles
wide ; though it is not so thickly wooded as the rest
of the District, date-palms abound, and in places
a thick jungle skirts the river bank. West of the ridge lies the bd/igar,
an upland plain watered throughout by the Western Jumna Canal, and
stretching parallel to the khddar for the whole length of the District.
These two tracts fill up practically the whole of the southern tahsil of
Panipat ; but in Karnal and Kaithal, the central fahsih^ the bangar
rises with a perceptible step into the Nardak\ a high and once arid
country, now travensed by the Sinsa branch of the Western Jumna Canal.
In the north of the District nearly the whole of Thanesar and the
northern part of the Kaithal iahsll :sxq intersected by mountain torrents
which drain the Lower Himalayas, and include large tracts of wild
country covered with forests of dhdk {Butea frondosd).

The Jumna forms the entire eastern boundary for a distance of 81
miles. Its bed varies from half a mile to a mile in width, of which the
stream occupies only a few hundred yards in the cold season. The
most important of the torrents which traverse the northern portion are

^ The N.irdak is properly another name for Kuruksuetra, but it is extended to
include all the high tract.

Physical

aspects.

KA/^iVAL DISTRICT

the Ghaggar, with its tributaries the Umla and Saraswati, the
Chautaxg, and the Markanda and Puran, the last an old bed of
the Ghaggar. Minor drainage channels are the Nai or ‘ new ’ Nadi,
the Burhi or ‘old' Nadi, and the Rakshi.

Karnal District offers nothing of geological interest, as it is situated
entirely on the alluvium. The flora of the upper Gangetic plain is well
repre.sented in the eastern portion ; in the west there is an approach to
the desert vegetation ; while the Jumna valley produces a few temperate
types, e. g. a rose, a kind of scurvy grass (Cochlearici)^ both of which are
found again in T.ower Bengal, and a crowfoot (Ranunculus pennsylvajii-
cus)^ which extends to Ludhiana, but is absent from the Himalayas.
Relics of a former Deccan flora, of which a wild cotton is the most
interesting, survive, especially in the neighbourhood of Thanesar. In¬
digenous trees, except the dhdk^ are uncommon ; in the Jumna khddar
a low palm abounds, which is often taken for a wild form of the date-
palm, but is almost certainly a distinct species.

The Nardak was a favourite hunting-ground of the Mughal emperors,
and as late as 1827 Archer says that lions were sometimes seen within
20 miles of Karnal, while tigers were exceedingly common. Now, how¬
ever, even the leopard is found only rarely, but wolves are still common.
Antelope, nilgai, ‘ravine deer' (Indian gazelle), and hog deer are fairly
plentiful where there is suitable cover. Small game is abundant.

Fever is particularly prevalent in the Naili (Nali) tract, flooded by
the Saraswati, and in the canal-irrigated portions of the District. Owing
to the faulty alignment of the canal and the swamping caused thereby,
fever used to be terribly prevalent, and in consequence the canton¬
ments were removed from Karnal town; but recent improvements have
greatly diminished the evil. The climate of Kaithal resembles that of
the plains of the Punjab proper, but the Jumna lahsils are not subject
to the same extremes of heat and cold.

The annual rainfall averages 30 inches at Karnal, 23 at Panipat, and
18 at Kaithal, rapidly decreasing as one goes west or south. The
khddar receives the most plentiful and frequent rain, as many local
showers follow the bed of the river. Of the rainfall at Karnal, 27-4
inches fall in the summer months and 2-4 in the winter.

The early legendary history of the District will be found in the
account of Kurukshetra or the holy plain of the Hindus, which
occupies its north-western portion. The number of History
Indo-Scythian coins found at Polar on the Saraswati
would seem to show that about the beginning of the Christian era the
District was included in the Indo-Scythian empire. In or about a. d.
400 it was traversed by the Chinese pilgrim Fa Hian and in 639 by
Hiuen Tsiang, the latter finding a flourishing kingdom with its capital
at Thanesar. Though Thanesar was sacked by Mahmud of Ghazni in

karnal district

1014, the country remained under Hindu rule until the defeat of
Prithwl Raj at Tirawari in 1192. Thereafter it was more or less firmly
attached to Delhi till after the invasion of Timur, who marched through
it on his way to the capital. It then belonged, first to the ruler of
Samana, and then to the Lodi kings of the Punjab, and during the
century and a half that separated Akbar from Timur was the scene of
numerous battles, of which the most important were two fought at
Panipat. For two centuries Karnal enjoyed peace under the Mughals,
broken only by the raid of Ibrahim Husain Mirza in 1573, the flight of
prince Khusru through the District in 1606, and the incursion of Banda
Bairagi in 1709. During this period a canal was constructed from the
Jumna and the imperial road put in repair. In 1738 Nadir Shah de¬
feated Muhammad Shah near Karnal, and in 1761 occurred the third
great battle of Panipat, in which the Marathas were routed by the
Afghan army. A terrible period of anarchy followed, during which
the tract formed a sort of no-man’s-land between the Sikh and Maratha
powers, coveted by both but protected by neither, and the prey of every
freebooter that chanced to come that way. On annexation, in 1803,
the greater part of the country was held by Sikh chiefs or by con¬
federacies of Sikh horsemen; and the District was gradually formed
out of their territories as they escheated. The most important were the
petty principalities of Kaithal, Thanesar, and Ladwa, of which the first
two lapsed between 1832 and 1850, while Ladwa was confiscated owing
to the conduct of its chief during the first Sikh War. In 1849
District of Thanesar was formed, but in 1862 it was broken up into
the two Districts of Ambala and Karnal. During the Mutiny there
was a good deal of disorder, but no serious outbreak occurred. Great
assistance was given by the Rajas of Patiala and Jlnd in preserving
order. The Pehowa thana was transferred from Ambala to the Kaithal
taJml of the District in 1888, and the rest of the Pipli iahstl {viow
Thanesar) was added to it in 1897.

The chief relics of antiquity are to be found at Karnal, Panipat,
Thanesar, and Pehowa. At the village of Sita Mai in the Nardak is
a very ancient shrine of Sita, and several of the great sarais built along
the old imperial road still remain.

The District contains 7 towns and 1,383 villages. Its population at
the last three enumerations was: (1881) 820,041, (1891) 861,160, and

Po ulation increased by 2-6 per cent, during

the last decade, the increase being greatest in the
Panipat iahsil and least in Karnal. In the Thanesar iahsil the popula¬
tion decreased 0*9 per cent, in the twenty years ending 1901, owing to
the unhealthiness of the tract; while Kaithal increased by 20 per cent,
in the same period, owing to the development of canal-irrigation. The
District is divided into the four iahsils of Karnal, Panipat, Kaithal,

POPULA TION

and ThanksaRj the head-quarters of each being at the place from
which it is named. The chief towns are the municipalities of Karnal
(the District head-quarters), Panipat, Kaithal, Shahabad, Thanesar,
and Ladwa.

The following table gives the chief statistics of population in
1901 : —

Area in square
milf s.

Number of

Population.

Population per

square mile.

Percentage of

variation in

population be¬

tween 1891
and iQOi.

Number of

persons able to

read and

write.

Tahsil

5 1

Karnal

836

3S0

248,344

297-3

2.9

6,11 7

Thanesar .

559

41 s

173,208

309*8

2-4 i

4 > 36 i

Panipat

-l6i 1

172

196,284

424.9

6-2 ,

^>377

Kaithal

I,2SS 1

413

263,189

205.9

3-0

4.340

District total

1,383

883,223

280.1 1

2.6

21,195

Note. —The figures for the areas of taksils are taken from revenue returns. The
total District area is tliat given in the Cens 7 (s Report,

Hindus number 623,597, or over 70 per cent, of the total. Monastic
communities of Bairagis own a good deal of land and exercise con¬
siderable influence in the District. Muhammadans (241,412) form 27
per cent, of the population. The Saiyids of the District belong to
the Shiah organization known as the Bara Sadat, which was founded
by Saiyid Abdul Farsh Wasiti, a follower of Mahmiid of Ghazni.
Sikhs number 12,294. Hindi is spoken by 96 per cent, of the popu¬
lation, and Punjabi in the scattered villages surrounded by Patiala
territory.

The Jats or Jats are the most numerous tribe, numbering 120,000, or
14 per cent, of the total. They own i5-| per cent, of the land, and are
mostly Hindus, only 8,000 being Sikhs and 3,000 Muhammadans.
Their principal clans are the Ghatwal, De.swal, Sindhti, Pawania, Man,
Katkhar, and Jaglan. The Rajputs (83,000) own 32 per cent, of the
land ; 67,000 are Muhammadans, known as Ranghars. Their principal
clans are the Chauhan, Mandhar, Ghorewaha, and Ton war. The Rors
(42,000) own per cent, and are almost all Hindus; they seem
originally to have held their lands as dependants of the Rajputs.
Gujars (30,000) are mostly Hindus, though 8,000 are Muhammadans,
Their reputation is no better here than in other parts of the Division.
The Tagas (4,000) claim to be a Brahman race, which has abandoned
the priestly profession and taken to agriculture ; half of them in this
District are Muhammadans. Of Brahmans (71,000), the Bias or
Gujrati and the Daknut are important and interesting clans. The
Saiyids (6,000) trace their descent from settlers left by J^lahnuld,
Timur, and other Muhammadan invaders. Of the Shaikhs (19,000),

karxal district

besides the few properly so called and the large number of converts
who have taken that name, there are in many villages one or two
families of a menial tribe from which the village watchmen are drawn,
who are said to be the relics of the old policy of the emperors of
settling one or two Muhammadans in every village. The Malis (26,000)
have of late years immigrated in considerable numbers into the District,
especially the irrigable tracts of the Thanesar tahsll^ where they have
purchased estates. Kambohs number 14,000. Of the commercial
classes, the chief are the Banias (52,000). Among the menial classes
may be mentioned the Chamars (leather-workers, 79,000), Chuhras
(scavengers, 45,000), Jhlnwars (water-carriers, 44,000), Kumhars (pot¬
ters, 19,000), and Tarkhans (carpenters, 20,000). About 58 per cent,
of the population are supported by agriculture, 19 are industrial,
3 commercial, and 2 professional.

There is a curious division of the non-Rajput tribes into the Dehia
and Haulania factions, apparently dating from a time when the
Haulanias under the leadership of the Ghatwal Jats were called in
by one of the emperors to help to coerce the Mandhar Rajputs, and
were opposed by the Dehia Jats, who from jealousy of the Ghatwal
supremacy joined the Mandhars. The leading families of the District
are those of the Xawab of Kunjpura, the Mandals of Karnal, and the
Bhais of Arnauli and SiddhuwM.

The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel carries on mission
work at Karnal, Kaithal, and Panipat. Its operations include zajidna
teaching, girls’ schools, and a hospital and dispensary for women and
children. There are also Methodist Episcopal missions at Karnal and
Pampat, and a Presbyterian Mission at Thanesar (founded in 1895)
and Kaithal, to which the village of Santokh Majra has been leased
for a Christian colony. In 1901 the District contained 225 native
Christians.

The soil of the khddar is light, and water lies close to the surface.
The Jumna floods are, however, not fertilizing, and the best lands are

. . . those which lie beyond their reach. The eastern

/ifirrictil t iir0 ^

bd?i^ar is almost entirely watered by the Western

Jumna Canal; the soil is a fertile and easily worked loam, and the

tract forms for the most part a sheet of cultivation. The soil of the

Kaithal bdyigar is a strong intractable loam, chiefly irrigated by the new

Sirsa branch of the Western Jumna Canal, which also supplies most of

the Kaithal Nardak. The Thanesar tahsil is a rich alluvial tract

watered by the Markanda and Umla, but in the flooded tracts crops

are very precarious, owing to the uncertainty of the floods. On the

Saraswati two-thirds of the crops belong to the spring harvest, chiefly

gram ; on the Umla coarse rice is often the only crop.

The District is held almost entirely by small peasant proprietors,

AGRICULTURE

large estates covering only about i6o square miles and lands leased
from Government 4,000 acres.

The area for which details are available from the revenue reeord of
1903-4 is 3,147 square miles, as shown in the following table:—

Tahsil.

Total.

Cultivated.

Irrigated.

Cultivable j
waste. 1

j Krinial

S38

45®

164

263

Thanesar .

559

3.^5

I '

: Panlpat

461

288

192

74 1

Kailhal

1,289

724

208

416

T otal

^797

601

904

The staple products of the spring harvest are wheat and gram, sown
on 338 and 265 square miles respectively in 1903-4. Barley covered
only 19 square miles. In the autumn harvest great millet covered 256
square miles, and rice and spiked millet 97 and 94 square miles
respectively. Cotton covered 66 square miles, maize 72, and sugar¬
cane 30.

During the thirteen years ending 1904, the cultivated area rose from
1,637 square miles to more than 1,797, or by 10 per cent., the increase
being chiefly due to the extension of canal-irrigation. This has been
accompanied by an extended cultivation of maize, cotton, and sugar¬
cane, as well as of the more valuable spring crops; and the use of
manure is said to be increasing. Loans for the construction of wells
are fairly popular. In the five years ending 1903-4, Rs. 57,000 was
advanced under the Land Improvement Loans Act, and 2 lakhs for
the purchase of bullocks and seed.

Cattle-raising used to play an important part in the economy of the
Nardak before the construction of the Sirsa canal, and the cattle of
the District are still noted for their excellence. The local breed of
horses is of no particular importance. A remount depot, established at
Karnal in 1889, was abolished in 1902, and its lands are now used
as a military grass farm. The District board maintains three horse
and five donkey stallions. Large flocks of goats and sheep are kept in
parts, the sheep being all of the small black-tailed breed. There is
a fine breed of pigs at Karnal, dating from the time of the old
cantonment.

Of the total area cultivated in 1903-4, 601 square miles, or 33 per
cent., were classed as irrigated. Of this area, 230 square miles were
irrigated from wells, 364 square miles from canals, 32 acres from wells
and canals, and 4,581 acres from streams and tanks. The District
possessed 10,931 masonry wells, besides 223 unbricked wells, lever
wells, and water-lifts. In the khadar^ although little irrigation is

KA/^XAL DISTRICT

necessary, wells worked by Persian wheels are numerous. The new
main line of the Western JuMxNa Canal enters the Thanesar tahsll^
and within this District gives off the Sirsa, Hansi, and New Delhi
branches, which irrigate the greater portion of the Nardak and hd 7 igar^
except in Thanesar, where the percolation from the main canal and the
stoppage of the natural drainage keep the land so moist that it suffers
from excess of water rather than from drought. The total area
irrigated from the Western Jumna Canal is 2,493 acres. The hangar
in the Kaithal tahsil is also supplied by the Saraswati canal (an
inundation canal made and worked by the District board), and some
of the Nardak villages are also watered by floods from the Chautang.
The few wells in these tracts are on the rope-and-bucket system.
The northern part of the District is irrigated by floods from the hill
torrents, and for the most part suffers from capricious water-supply,
being waterlogged one year and parched the next. Except in the more
favoured tracts, wells are liable to be destroyed by floods and are little
used. The villages scattered through Patiala territory are irrigated
from the Sirhind Canal.

The District contains 17 tracts of unclassed forest, with a total area
of 24 square miles, in charge of the Deputy-Commissioner; but these
are not true forests, being covered only with scrub and small trees.
About 2-6 square miles of ‘reserved’ forest are under the Military
department.

Sal-ammoniac has from ancient times been manufactured by the
potters of the Kaithal tahsil. About 84 tons, valued at Rs. 3,400, are
produced annually, and sold to merchants, who mostly export it. It is
prepared by burning bricks made of the dirty clay found in certain
ponds, and subjecting the substance that exudes from them to sub¬
limation in closed vessels. The District has four saltpetre refineries.
The only other mineral product is ka 7 ika 7 % or nodular limestone.

KarnM town used to have a name for shoe-making, but the industry
is said to be declining from want of capital. PanTpat is famous for glass-
blowing, the chief product being silvered globes
coi^unl^tfons. broken up, are used for mirror-covered

walls, or sewn on phrilkd 7 'is ; the glass retorts used
in the manufacture of sal-ammoniac are also made. The town is
noted for its manufacture of brass vessels, small fancy wares in various
metals, and silver beads. The District possesses three cotton-ginning
factories, at PanTpat, Kaithal, and Dhatrat; a cotton-press at PanTpat;
and two combined ginning and pressing factories, at PanTpat and
Kaithal. The total number of employes in 1904 was 702. Silver-
work and mu.sical instruments are made at Shahabad, Some good
lacquered woodwork is also produced.

The chief exports are wheat, cotton, gram, fine rice, ghi.^ brass

FAMIXE

vessels, glass, sal-ammoniac, and saltpetre ; and the chief imports are
salt, oil and oilseeds, iron, and piece-goods. Cotton and wheat go
chiefly to Delhi and Ambala; ghi and hides to Delhi; oil and oilseeds
come from the Punjab and the Doab; timber from Ambala; iron and
piece-goods from Delhi; and salt from Bhiwani, Delhi, and Ambala.
Karnal town and Panipat on the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka Railway are the
chief marts, and a good deal of trade goes through Kaithal, which is
on a branch of the Southern Punjab Railway. The local trade is prin¬
cipally conducted through the village dealers \ but a very considerable
traffic is carried on by the cultivators themselves, especially by Jats
from Rohtakj who in the hot season earn a good deal by plying their
carts for hire.

The Delhi-Umballa-Kalka Railway runs through the District side by
side with the grand trunk road, and Kaithal is the terminus of a branch
of the Southern Punjab Railway. The new main line and the Delhi
and Hansi branches of the Western Jumna Canal are navigable, as is
also the Jumna during the rains. The District has 145 miles of
metalled roads, and 684 miles of unmetalled roads, of which 129 miles
of metalled and 67 of unmetalled roads are under the Public Works
department, the rest being maintained by the District board. Metalled
roads connect Karnal town and Kaithal, Thanesar and Ladwa, and the
grand trunk road traverses the District from north to south ; but the
unmetalled roads are bad, especially in the Nardak, and in the flooded
tract bordering on the Saraswati and Ghaggar the tracks are often
impassable for weeks together during the rains.

Including the chalisa famine of 1783, the District has been visited by
famine thirteen times in 120 years, one of the most terrible perhaps
being that of 1833. Relief works seem first to have Famine
been established in the famine of 1861, when 22,237
persons were relieved in one month. In 1869 the famine was more
severe in Karnal than in any other part of the Punjab, and hundreds
of people were reduced to .semi-starvation. The expenditure was 1*7
lakhs, and the highest daily average of persons relieved was 13,934.
Cattle to the number of 65,000 died. From 1875 to 1877 there was
not a single good harvest, and, though the scarcity hardly deepened into
famine, the cattle suffered terribly. There was another grass famine in
1883-4. In 1896-7 the highest daily average relieved was 12,361, and
the expenditure barely 2 lakhs. The areas affected were the Nardak
tracts of Karnal and Kaithal and the Naili tract of Kaithal. In
1899-1900 the Nardak in Karnal and part of that in Kaithal were
protected by the Nardak irrigation channel, constructed as a relief
work in 1897 ; the tracts affected were chiefly the Naili and Kutgar
tracts of Kaithal and parts of Thanesar. The highest daily average
relieved was 14,075, and the expenditure was 2-6 lakhs.

KARNAL DISTRICT

The District is divided into the four tahsils of Karnal, Panipat,
Thaxesar, and Kaithal, each under a tahsllddr and a naid - tahsllddr .

Administration s^uhdahsil of Gula is also in charge

of a fiaib - tahsilddr . The tahsil of Kaithal forms
a subdivision. The Deputy-Commissioner holds executive charge of
the District, aided by three Assistant or Extra-Assistant Commissioners,
of whom one is subdivisional officer in charge of Kaithal and one in
charge of the District treasury.

The Deputy-Commissioner as District Magistrate is responsible for
the criminal justice of the District, and civil judicial work is under
a District Judge. Both officers are supervised by the Divisional and
Sessions Judge of the Delhi Civil Division. There is one Munsif, who
sits at head-quarters. There are also six honorary magistrates. Cattle¬
stealing, the normal crime of the District, is now less prevalent than
formerly, owing to the increase of cultivation made possible by the
development of the canals. P'ormerly heads of families of respectable
birth would demur to giving a daughter in marriage to a man who had
not proved his ability to support a family by cattle-lifting.

The tract which passed to the British in 1803, and formed part of
the old Panipat District, was summarily assessed in the years 1817-24,
with the exception of the estates assigned to the Mandal family in
exchange for the lands they held in the United Provinces. In accord¬
ance with the spirit of the time, the summary settlement was
oppressive, and the methods of assessment and collection were vexa¬
tious and extortionate ; a revision of assessments was necessitated by
the famine of 1824, and by degrees a more reasonable system was
evolved. The regular settlement, made in 1842, was both moderate
and fairly distributed. In the khddar the assessment on the whole
worked well; in the bdtigar the deterioration of soil caused by the
canal brought absolute ruin to many villages, and in 1859-60 large
reductions of revenue were made and principles laid down for annual
relief to be afforded when necessary. Meanwhile, in the Mandal
estate, the assignees struggled to realize their revenue in kind from
a lawless and independent Rajput peasantry till 1847, '^hen their
oppression and mismanagement necessitated the tract being brought
under settlement. The assessment was revised in 1852 and again in
1856. The revised settlement of 1872-80 comprised both these
tracts; the revenue rate for irrigated land varied from Rs. 1-14 to
Rs. 2-14, and for unirrigated land from 8 annas to Rs. 1-12; pasture
was rated at 8 pies an acre ; and canal lands were as.sessed at ‘ dry ’
rates varying from Rs. 1-5 to Rs. 1-13.

The rest of the District, comprising the tahsils of Kaithal, Thanesar,
and the Indri tract of Karnal, formed part of the territories of the
Cis-Sutlej chiefs, who were taken under protection by the proclamation

ADAfINISTRA TION

of 1809. These territories as they escheated were summarily assessed.
Thanesar and Indri were regularly settled in 1848-56 and Kaithal in
1853-6. The whole of this portion of the District came under the
Karnal-Ambala revision in 1882-9. The average assessment on ‘ dry’
land is R. 0-14-3 (maximum Rs. 1-6, minimum R. 0-6-6), and on
‘wet’ land Rs. 2-14 (maximum Rs. 3-12, minimum Rs. 2). The
total demand for 1903-4, including cesses, was 12 lakhs. The average
size of a holding cultivated by the owner is 5-3 acres. The whole
District came under settlement in 1904, the present assessment
expiring in 1908.

The collections of land revenue alone and of total revenue are shown
below, in thousands of rupees : —

1880-1.

i8q<>-i.

1900-1. j

1903-4.

Land revenue .

<5,36

6>95

8,20

12,68

8,29

Total revenue .

7-65

8 ,SS

'3.45 1

The District contains six municipalities: Karnal, PaxIpat, Kai¬
thal, Shahabad, Thanesar, and Ladwa. Outside these, local affairs
are managed by the District board, whose income amounted to nearly
lakhs in 1903-4. The expenditure in the same year was 1*2 lakhs,
education forming the largest item.

The regular police force consists of 683 of all ranks, including
147 municipal police, under a Superintendent, assisted by 4 inspectors.
Village watchmen number 1,540. The District contains 22 police
stations, i outpost, and 5 road-posts. The Sansis, Balochs, and
Tagas are proclaimed under the Criminal d'ribes Act ; and 55 Sansis,
447 Balochs, and 237 Tagas were registered in 1903 under the Act.
The District jail at head-quarters has accommodation for 155 prisoners.

Karnal is the most backward District in the Province in the matter
of education, and in 1901 the j^roportion of literate persons was only
2*4 per cent. (4*3 males and 0‘i females), as compared with 3-6 for
the whole Province. The number of pupils under instruction was :
1,961 in 18S0-1, 2,242 in 1890-1, 5,902 in 1900-1, and 5,365 in
1903-4- Ill the last year the District contained 9 secondary and
90 primary (public) schools, besides 12 advanced and 62 elementary
(private) schools, with 53 girls in the public and 72 in the private
schools. The only high school is at Karnal. The indigenous Arabic
school at Panipat, supported by the voluntary contributions of wealthy
IVIuhammadans, is attended by about Jo boys, chiefly from the middle-
class IMuhammadan families of the town. The District has three
primary schools for girls, and the ladies of the Karnal branch of the
Zanana ^Mission teach ivomen and children in the town. The total

karxAl district

expenditure on education in 1903-4 was Rs. 47,000, the greater part
of which was met from Local funds, though Government contributed
nearly Rs. 1,600, and fees brought in Rs. 10,000.

Besides the Karnal civil hospital the District has 9 dispensaries, one
at Karnal and 8 at out-stations, at which 117,370 out-patients and
1,626 in-patients were treated in 1904, and 6,849 operations performed.
The income and expenditure amounted to Rs. 21,000, Local and
municipal funds contributing Rs. 11,000 and Rs. 9,000 respectively.
The Society for the Propagation of the Gospel also maintains a female
hospital at Karnal.

The number of successful vaccinations in 1903-4 was 20,090?
representing 23 per 1,000 of population.

[A. Kensington, Customary Laiv of A mba I a District (1893) (for the
Thanesar tahsil)\ J. M. District Gazetteer (1890), Settkfnent

Report of Karfidl-Ambala (1891), and Riwaj-i-dm of Tahsil Kaithal
and Pargana Indri, District Karndi ) D. C. J. Ibbetson, Settle¬

ment Report of the Fanlpat Tahsil and Karnal Pargana (1883).]

Karnal Tahsil.—Central tahsil of Karnal District, Punjab, lying
between 29° 26' and 30° o' N. and 76° 40' and 77° 13' E., on the west
bank of the Jumna, with an area of 838 square miles. The population
in 1901 was 248,544, compared with 241,369 in 1891. It contains
the town of Karnal (population, 23,559), head-quarters; and

380 villages. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
3*2 lakhs. On the east lie the Jumna lowlands, fertile but unhealthy,
and varying in width from 5 to 10 miles. The western boundary of
this tract is the old high bank of the Jumna, and from the crest of this
bank the country slopes imperceptibly away into the Nardak. The
upland portion of the tahsil is irrigated by the Western Jumna Canal;
but in the Nardak the people have not entirely abandoned their pas¬
toral traditions, and still retain ample grazing-grounds for their cattle.

Karnal Town.—Head-quarters of the District and tahsil of Karnal,
Punjab, situated in 29° 41' N. and 76® 59' E., on the old bank of the
Jumna, about 7 miles from the present course of that river, and on
the Delhi-Umballa-Kalka Railway ; distant 1,030 miles by rail from
Calcutta, 1,056 from Bombay, and 895 from Karachi. Population
(1901), 23,559. Its name is derived from Kama, the rival of Arjuna
in the epic of the Mahabharata, by whom it is said to have been
founded. It would seem to have been a place of little impor¬
tance in early historical times, as no mention of it occurs until
towards the end of the Pathan period. Karnal was plundered
in 1573 by Ibrahim Husain -Mirza in his revolt against Akbar,
and its neighbourhood laid waste by Banda Bairagi in 1709. In
1739 it was the scene of the defeat of IMuhammad Shah by Nadir
Shah. After the fall of Sirhind in 1763 the town was seized by Gajpat

karxAlt

Singh, Raja of Jind, but in 177/5 recovered by Najaf Khan,

governor of Delhi. It again fell into the hands of Gajpat Singh, but
his son Bhag Singh lost it to the Marathas in 1787, and it was sub¬
sequently made over by them to George Thomas. It then came into
the hands of Gurdit Singh of Ladwa, from whom the British took it in
1805. A cantonment was formed at Karnal, which was abandoned
in 1841 owing to the unhealthiness of the station. The place is still
unhealthy, though drainage and sanitation have done much to improve
its condition. There is a fine marble tomb, built by the emperor
Ghiyas-ud-din to the memory of the saint Bu-Ah Kalandar. The
Society for the Propagation of the Gospel has a mission at Karnal.
The municipality was created in 1867. The income and expenditure
during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 32,500 and Rs. 32,100
respectively. The income in 1903-4 was Rs. 33,800, mainly derived
from octroi; and the expenditure was Rs. 33,500. The chief manu¬
factures are country cloth for local consumption, and shoes. The
principal educational institution is the Anglo-vernacular high school,
managed by the Educational department. There is a civil hospital,
with a branch in the town. The Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel also maintains a female hospital and dispensary.

Karnala (or Funnel Hill).—Fort and hill in the Panvel talukd of
Kolaba District, Bombay, situated in 18° 53' N. and 73° 7' E., a few
miles north-west of the Vegavati river, and 8 miles south of Panvel;
elevation 1,560 feet above sea-level. Population (1901), 1,327. Karnala
commands the high road between the Bor pass and the Panvel and
Apta rivers. The hill has an upper and lower fort. In the centre of
the upper fort is the ‘ funnel,’ an almost inaccessible basalt pillar about
125 feet high, locally known as the Pandu’s tower. From the south¬
west of the hill can be seen the island-studded harbour of Bombay.

The fort was often taken and retaken during the turbulent period
of Indian history. Under the Muhammadans, Karnala was garrisoned
to overawe the North Konkan. Troops from Ahmadnagar took it in
1540. The Portuguese captured it soon after, but gave it up on
receiving a ransom of Rs. 17,500 a year. Sivaji, the Maratha leader,
seized it in 1670, driving out the Mughals. On the death of Sivaji,
Karnala was recaptured by Aurangzeb’s generals, and was held by the
IMughals till at least 1735. Shortly afterwards it must have again
come into the hands of the Marathas, for in 1740 the Peshwas power
was established over the whole of the Deccan. In 1818 the fort was
captured, and passed into British possession, together with the whole
remaining territory held by the Peshwa. It is now in ruins.

Karnali. —River of Nepal and the United Provinces. See
Kauriala.

Karnali. —Village in the Baroda prdnf^ Baroda State, situated in

VOL. XV. E

KARNALI

21^^ 59' N. and 73° 28' E., on the right bank of the Narbada at its
junction with the Orsang river. Population (1901), 1,126. Thousands
of pilgrims repair annually to this holy place in order to perform their
ablutions in the Narbada.

Karnaphuli. — River of Eastern Bengal and Assam. It rises in
a lofty range of hills beyond the border of the Chittagong Hill Tracts,
in 22° 53' N. and 92° 27' E., and, after following a generally south¬
westerly course of 121 miles, falls into the Bay of Bengal in 22° 12' N.
and 91° 47' E., 12 miles below the town and port of Chittagong, which
is situated on its right bank. As far up as Chittagong it is navigable
by sea-going vessels, and by shallow-draught steamers as high as
Raxgamati, the head-quarters of the Chittagong Hill Tracts. Large
native boats go up as high as Kasalang, while small craft ply 14 miles
farther up to the Barkal rapids. In the Hill Tracts it is known as the
Kynsa Khyoung. The chief tributaries are the Kasalang, Chingri,
Kaptai, and Rankhiang rivers in the Hill Tracts, and the Halda in
Chittagong District ; the latter empties itself into the main river from
the north, and is navigable by native boats for 24 miles throughout the
year. Besides those already mentioned, the principal river-side villages
are Chandraghona and Rangonia. The Karnaphuli is largely used for
floating cotton and forest produce from the Hill Tracts to Chittagong.
The approaches to the mouth are lit by lighthouses at Kutubdia and
Norman’s Point, and the channels are buoyed by the Port Com¬
missioners of Chittagong.

Karnaprayag.—One of the five sacred confluences of the Alak-
nanda, where this river is joined by the Pindar (see Pindar!) in
Garhwal District, United Provinces. The village is situated at a height
of 2,300 feet above the sea, in 30° t6' N. and 79° 15' E. Population
(1901), 243. It contains a number of temples and also a dispensary,
and during the summer a police station.

Kama Suvarna.—Ancient kingdom in Bengal, which lay west of
the Bhagirathi river, and comprised the modern Districts of Burdwan,
Bankura, Western Murshidabad, and Hooghly. The best-known king
was Sasanka or Narendra, the last of the Guptas, who was a fanatical
worshipper of Siva. He invaded Magadha, and cut down the sacred
bodhi tree, early in the seventh century. The capital of this kingdom
was probably at Raxgamati in Murshidabad District.

Karnatak. — Tract in Peninsular India. See Carnatic.

Karnul. — District, subdivision, and town in Madras. See Kurxool,

Karol. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Karond. — Native State in Bengal. See KalahaxdI.

Karor. — Former name of the pargajia and fahsll^ now called
Bareilly. See Bareilly Tahsil.

Karor. — Town in Multan District, Punjab. See Kahror,

KARUNGULI

Karor Lai Isa [Kahro )').—Town in the Leiah taJistl of Mianwali
District, Punjab, situated in 31® 13'' N. and 70° 57' R., on the high
bank of the Indus east of that river. Population (1901), 3,243.
Founded by Makhdum Lai Isa, Kureshi, a descendant of Bahawal
Hakk, the saint of Multan, in the fifteenth century, the town still
preserves the massive tomb of its founder, and a large fair is held
yearly in his honour. It is first mentioned in history as included in
the government of Multan under Sultan Husain in 1469. The muni¬
cipality was created in 1887. The income during the ten years ending
1902-3 averaged Rs. 3,600, and the expenditure Rs. 3,900. The in¬
come in 1903-4 was Rs. 3,400, chiefly derived from octroi; and the
expenditure was Rs. 3,600. The town contains a dispensary, a muni¬
cipal board school (primary), a private Anglo-vernacular middle school,
and two municipal girls’ schools.

Karsiang.—Subdivision and town in Darjeeling District, Bengal.
See Kurseoxg.

Kartarpur.—Town in the District and tahsll of Jullundur, Punjab,
situated in 31® 26' N. and 75° 30' E., on the North-Western Railway
and grand trunk road, 9 miles from Jullundur town. Population (1901),
10,840. Founded by Arjun, the fifth Sikh Guru, it is a place of great
sanctity, as the seat of the line of Gurus descended from him, and as
possessing his original Adi Granth or scripture. It was burnt by Ahmad
Shah in 1756. Kartarpur is a flourishing grain mart, with a market
outside octroi limits. Chains, boxes, tables, and native flutes are made ;
also cotton twill (s/ 7 sl). The cantonment established here after the first
Sikh War was abolished in 1854. The municipality was created in
1867. The income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged
Rs. 7,500, and the expenditure Rs. 6,goo. In 1903-4 the income was
Rs. 7,300, mainly from octroi; and the expenditure was Rs. 10,600.
The town has an Anglo-vernacular middle school, maintained by the
municipality, and a Government dispensary.

Karunguli.—Village in the Madurantakam /aM of Chingleput Dis¬
trict, Madras, situated in 12° 32' N. and 79° 54' E., on the South Indian
Railway and on the southern trunk road, 48 miles from Madras city.
Population (1901), 4,065. It was the head-quarters of the District from
1795 to 1825, and subsequently continued for some years to be the head¬
quarters of a /ciM, Karunguli fort was occupied as a strategic point
during the wars between the English and the French, being regarded
as an outpost of Chingleput, from which it is 15 miles distant to the
south-west. These two places, with Wandiwash and UttaramerOr, formed
a sort of quadrilateral on the line of attack between the seats of the
two Governments of Madras and Pondicherry. As early as 1755 it was
a point of dispute. In 1757 it was evacuated by the English in the fiice
of advancing French troops. 'Fhe following year the English attempted

KARUNCrULI

to recover it by .surprise, but were repulsed with loss, a failure which
was repeated in 1759. But some months later Colonel Coote, after
a few days’ bombardment, captured the fort. This was the first de¬
cisive action in the successful campaign of 1759-60, which led to the
victory at Wandiwash. The circumference of the fort is 1,500 yards,
enclosing the remains of what were apparently huge granaries for the
storage of grain, the tribute to the Muhammadan government out of
the produce of the neighbourhood. The Karunguli tank, which is fed
from the overflow of the Madurantakam tank, usually receives a plenti¬
ful supply of water. A travellers’ bungalow stands in the village, a
handsome old building in a grove of fine mango-trees.

Karur Taluk.—South-eastern taluk of Coimbatore District, Madras,
lying between 10® 38' and 11° 6' N. and 77° 45' and 78° 14' E., with
an area of 612 square miles. It is an open and undulating plain,
with no hills or forests of note, bounded on the north by the Cauvery
river and traversed by the Amaravati. It is poorly wooded and suffers
from an unusually trying hot season. It has one town, the municipality
of Karur (population, 12,769), the head-quarters; and 95 villages.
The population in 1901 was 220,843, compared with 211,794 in 1891,
the increase having been slower than elsewhere in the District. The
demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 3,49,000.
The soil is mostly of an inferior red or grey variety, and is generally
lightly assessed. The area irrigated by channels is larger than in any
tiiluk except Satyamangalam. These lead from the Amaravati and the
Cauvery, and this is the first taluk in the Presidency in which the water
of the latter is used to any considerable extent. The rainfall (averaging
26 inches annually) is fairly plentiful and regular, and the crops are
generally good. Cambu is by far the most common cereal.

Karur Town.—Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name in
Coimbatore District, Madras, situated in 10° 58' N. and 78° 6' E., on
the South Indian Railway, 48 miles from Trichinopoly, and on the
Amaravati river not far from its junction with the Cauvery. Population
(1901), 12,769. The town is called Tiruvanilai or Pasupati (Dhe place
of the sacred cow ’) in vernacular writings. The name Karur means
‘ embryo town,’ and is said to have been given because Brahma began
his work of creation here. For the same reason it is often called
Brahmapuri in legendary records. It was apparently a place of some
importance as far back as the early centuries of the Christian era, for
coins of the emperors Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius were found
near by in 1806. Situated near the point where the territories of the
rival Chera, Chola, and Pandya dynasties met, it probably played a
part in their ancient struggles. On the dissolution of the Vijayanagar
empire in 1565, Karur fell under the Naiks of Madura; but it was
frequently attacked and occupied by the Mysore armies, and towards

KARVA.X

the end of the seventeenth century it was finally annexed to the latter
kingdom and became its most important frontier post. In 1639 the
Jesuits established a mission here. In later years the place constantly
changed hands. In 1736 Chanda Sahib besieged it unsuccessfully.
In 1760 it was captured by the British, in revenge for the assistance
given by Haidar to the French. Orme describes the siege in detail.
Karur was held by them till 1768, when it was retaken by Haidar,
whose possession was confirmed by treaty in the following year. In
1783 Colonel Lang took and held the fort for a few months. There
is a monument on the south bank of the river to the British troops who
fell in this siege. It was a third time captured in 1790 by Ceneral
Medows, and restored at the peace of 1792. It was garrisoned by the
Company as a military station until ^801, and portions of the old fort
still remain.

Karur was formerly the head-quarters of the Sub-Collector. Besides
the iahsi/dar^ a District Munsif and a stationary sub-magistrate are now
stationed here. Being on the railway and at the junction of several
roads, it possesses a considerable trade. Its chief drawback is its
crowded site, which is surrounded entirely by rice-fields and the river.
The only industry worth mention is the manufacture of brassware on
a small seale. There are, however, two tanneries in the neighbourhood.
The principal temple is a considerable edifice of some antiquity,
containing numerous inscriptions on stone.

Karur was constituted a municipality in 1874. During the ten years
ending 1903 the annual income and expenditure averaged about
Rs. 20,000. In 1903—4 the receipts and expenditure were Rs. 29,000
and 28,000 respectively, the former being chiefly derived from school
fees, the house and land taxes, and tolls. It is a station of the
Wesleyan Mission, which maintains two industrial schools here, one
for boys and the other for girls. A drainage scheme estimated to cost
Rs. 95,850 has been framed for this municipality; but its execution
has been postponed pending the introduction of a proper water-supply,
plans for which are still under preparation.

Karvan.—Village in the Baroda prdnt^ Baroda State, situated in
22° 5' N. and 73° 15' E., with a station on the Dabhoi-Miyagam State
Railway. In olden times it was probably very important as a place
of pilgrimage. The local tradition is that the sage Vishvamitra, in
consequence of a dispute with Vasishta, desired to create another
Benares in this village. He therefore fashioned a thousand lingams
and then wrestled to bring the Ganges here, till Vishnu was weary
of his importunities. The god was forced to make himsell visible to
the saint, who then ceased from vexing him, and in return Vishnu
promised that the village should be as holy as Benares. Many temples,
some old, some in ruins, are to be seen at this sacred s[)ot.

KAR VE EVA GAR ZAMLVDARI

Karvetnagar Zamindari. — Ancient zaml/iddri in the north-east
of North Arcot District, Madras, lying between 13® 2' and 13® 35' N.
and 79° 14' and 79® 49' E. Area, 943 square miles; number of
villages, 667; population (1901), 341,240, It is held on permanent
tenure under a sa?iad (grant) issued by the British Government in 1802.
The whole of the zamuiddri is hilly except the south-east; penetrating
the hills run numerous picturesque ravines or konas^ which are well
wooded and fairly stocked with game. One of the most charming
of these is the Sadasiva ko 7 ia^ about 10 miles north-east of the Puttur
station on the Madras Railway. Here a perennial stream flows east¬
wards by a succession of cascades, by the sides of which tree-ferns and
other species of water-loving plants grow in profusion. The principal
streams which drain the zamindari are named after the towns of
Narayanavanam, Nagari, and Tiruttani, by which they flow. They
are dry except during the rains, but have excellent underground
springs, the water of which is tapped by means of channels and
irrigates considerable areas on both banks. The soil of the estate
is fertile; but much of it is covered with hill and jungle, and three-
fourths of the area is uncultivable, only about 130,000 acres being
under the plough. Indigo is still largely cultivated, but of late years
the market for the dye has been depressed owing to the competition
of its new chemical rival. From the forests of the zatnltidari much
fuel is exported to Madras by rail. The total peshkash (or permanent
revenue paid to Government) is 1-7 lakhs, and the cesses in 1903-4
were an additional Rs. 50,000. The gross income of the whole
estate averages between 6 and 7 lakhs, but it is heavily encumbered.
Some of the villages have been sold in satisfaction of decrees of the
Civil Courts and now form separate properties; and the estate is so
involved in debt that it was taken under the management of the Court
of Wards for a time. It has now been handed back to the proprietor.
Karvetnagar, 7 miles from Puttur railway station, is the chief town and
the residence of the zanilndd?\ who has the hereditary title of Raja.
Puttur, Narayanavanam, Nagari, and Tiruttani are other important
l)laces.

Karwar Taluka. — North-westernmost ialuka of North Kanara
District, Bombay, lying between 14® 44' and 15® 4' N. and 74® 4' and
74® 32' E., with an area of 281 square miles. It contains one town,
Karwar (population, 16,847), the ialuka and District head-quarters;
and 54 villages. 4'he population in 1901 was 58,460, compared with
53,278 in 1891. The density, 208 persons per square mile, is much
above the District average. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4
was 1*09 lakhs, and for cesses Rs, 7,000. The Kalinadi flows from
east to west through the centre, and as it enters the sea throws up
a bar of sand im[)as.sable to any but small craft. Along both banks

KAJ^IVAJ^ tojvn

of the river broad belts of rice land, broken by groves of palms and
other fruit trees, stretch east to near the ^Vestern Ghats. The soil
on the plains is sandy, and near the hills is much mixed with granite.
On the banks of the Kalinadi, and along the seashore, are large tracts
covered with a black alluvial deposit, charged with salt and liable to
be flooded at high tides. To bring such land under tillage, a strong
and costly wall must be built to keep out the sea. A heavy rainfall
is required to sweeten the land, and then, without much manure and
with due care, rich crops can be raised. Throughout the tdluka the
houses are not gathered into villages, but are scattered along narrow
lanes, standing in shady coco-palm gardens, some tiled and some
thatched, each with its well, bathing-place, and cattle-shed. The annual
rainfall is heavy, amounting at Karwar town to nearly no inches.

Karwar Town (^Kadvdd), —Head-quarters of the tdluka of the same
name and of North Kanara District, Bombay, situated in 14° 49' N.
and 74^^ 8' E., 50 miles south-east of Goa and 295 miles south-east
of Bombay. Population (1901), 16,847, including suburbs. The
municipality, established in 1864, had an average income during the
decade ending 1901 of Rs. 13,000. In 1903-4 the income was
Rs. 12,000.

Old Karwar, on the banks of the Kalinadi, 3 miles to the east of
the new town, was once an important place of commerce. It is first
mentioned in 1510 as Caribal, on the opposite side of the river to
Cintacora or Chitakul. During the first half of the seventeenth century
the Karwar revenue superintendent, or desai^ was one of the chief
officers of the Bijapur kingdom, of which it formed a part. In 1638
the fame of the pepper of Sonda induced Sir ^^hlliam Courten’s
Company to open a factory at Karwar. In 1660 the factory was
prosperous, exporting the finest muslins in AVestern India; the weaving
country was inland to the east, at Hubli and other centres, where as
many as 50,000 weavers were employed. Besides the great export of
muslin, Karwar provided pepper, cardamoms, cassia, and coarse blue
cotton cloth {dungari). In 1665 Sivaji, the founder of the I^Iaratha
power, exacted a contribution of Rs. 1,120 from the English. In 1673
the faujddr^ or military governor of Karwar, laid siege to the factory.
In 1674 Sivaji burnt Karwar town; but the English were treated civilly,
and no harm was done to the factory. In 1676 the factory suffered
from the exactions of local chiefs, and the establishment was withdrawn
in 1679. It was restored in 1682 on a larger scale than before. In
1684 the English were nearly driven out of Karwar, the crew of a small
vessel having stolen and killed a cow. In 1685 the Portuguese stirred
the desais of Karwar and Sonda to revolt. During the last ten years of
the seventeenth century the Dutch made every attempt to depress the
English pepper trade; and in 1697 the Harathas laid Karwar waste.

KARUViR TOJVR

In 1715 the old fort of Karwar was pulled down, and Sadashivgarh was
built by the Sonda chief. The new fort seriously interfered with the
safety of the English factory; and owing to the hostility of the Sonda
chief, the factory was removed in 1720. The English, in spite of their
efforts to regain the favour of the Sonda chiefs, were unable to obtain
leave to reopen their factory at Karwar till 1750. The Portuguese
in 1752 sent a fleet and took possession of Sadashivgarh. As the
Portuguese claimed the monopoly of the Karwar trade, and were in
a position to enforce their claim, the English agent was withdrawn.
In 1801 Old Karwar was in ruins. Very few traces of it remain.

The new town dates from after the transfer of North Kanara District
to the Bombay Presidency, before which it was a mere fishing village.
The present town and neighbouring offices and residences are in the
lands of six villages, and within the municipal limits of the town are
nine villages. A proposal was strenuously urged in Bombay to connect
Karwar by a railway with the interior, so as to provide a seaport for the
southern cotton Districts. Between 1867 and 1874 the hope that
a railway from Karwar to Hubli would be sanctioned raised the value
of building sites at Karwar, and led to the construction of many ware¬
houses and dwellings. The scheme was finally abandoned in favour
of the line through Portuguese territory to Marmagao. The trade of
Karwar has markedly decreased since the opening of this railway.

Karwar is the only safe harbour between Bombay and Cochin during
all seasons of the year. In the bay is a cluster of islets called the
Ov.STER Rocks, on the largest of which, Devgad island, a lighthouse
has been built. There are two smaller islands in the bay (138 and
120 feet above the level of the sea), which afford good shelter to native
craft and small vessels during the strong north-west winds that prevail
from February to April. From the Karwar port-office, on a white
flagstaff, 60 feet from the ground and 65 feet above high water, is
displayed a red fixed shijfs light, visible three miles ; with the light
bearing east-south-east a vessel can anchor in 3 to 5 fathoms. About
5 miles south-west and 2 miles from the mainland, the island of
Anjidiv ri.ses steep from the sea, dotted with trees and the houses
of its small Portuguese settlement. Coasting steamers belonging to
the Bombay Steam Navigation Company call twice a week at Karwar
throughout the fair-weather season. 'Phese steamers generally make
the trip between Karwar and Bombay in thirty-six hours. The value
of the trade at Karwar port during the year 1903-4 is returned as
follows: imports 3-34 lakhs and exports Rs. 82,000. Karwar bay is
remarkable for its beautiful scenery. It possesses a fine grove of
casuarinas, beneath which the sea breaks picturesquely on the long
stretch of white sand, from the mouth of the Kallnadl to the sheltered
inlet of Baitkal cove. Besides the chief revenue and judicial offices,

KARliV TOJF.V 67

the town contains a Subordinate Judge’s court, a jail, a hospital, a high
school with 237 pupils, 2 middle schools, and 8 other schools.

Karwi Subdivision.—Subdivision of Banda District, United Pro¬
vinces, consisting of the Kamasix, Karwi, and Mau tahslls,

Karwi Tahsil.—South-eastern /a/isl/ of Banda District, United
Provinces, conterminous with the pargana of Tarahuwan, lying between
24® 53' and 25° 19' N. and 80® 45' and 81° 16' E., with an area of 567
square miles. Population fell from 87,687 in 1891 to 78,410 in 1901.
There are 189 villages and two towns, including KarwT, the tahsil
head-quarters (population, 7,743). The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was Rs. 77,000, and for cesses Rs. 15,000. The density of
population, 138 persons per square mile, is the lowest in the District.
Roughly speaking, about half the tahsil lies in the plain, while the
other half is situated on a plateau between the crest of the first range
of the Vindhyas and the scarp beyond which extends to the still higher
plateau of Rewah. The latter portion presents beautiful scenery and is
clothed with forest. Near the west the PaisunT river forms part of the
border and then strikes across the tahsil. In 1903-4 the area under
cultivation was 126 square miles, of which only 3 were irrigated.

Karwi Town.—Head-quarters of the subdivision and tahsil of the
same name, in Banda District, United Provinces, situated in 25° 12' N.
and 80® 54' E., near the Paisuni river and on a branch of the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway. Population (1901), 7,743. KarwT was
a British cantonment from 1805 to i8j6 ; and in 1829 it became the
principal residence of a Maratha chieftain who lived in almost regal
state, and built several beautiful temples and large wells. Numerous
traders from the Deccan were thus attracted to Karwi. During the
IMutiny, Narayan Rao, after the murder at Banda of the Joint-Magis¬
trate of KarwT, assumed the government, and retained his independence
for eight months amid the subsequent anarchy. The accumulations of
his family constituted the great treasure afterwards famous as ‘the
Kirwee and Banda Prize Money.’ The Bara, a large building which
formed the palace of Narayan Rao's family, was confiscated, with most
of the other property, and now serves as a tahsili^ police station, and
school. The other public buildings are a jail and dispensary. A Joint-
Magistrate and an Assistant District Su])erintendent of police are
stationed at KarwT, which also contains branches of the Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel and the American Methodist Mission.
The town is administered, together with the adjacent village of
'rarahiiwan, under Act XX of 1856. KarwT declined for a time after
the Mutiny; but the railway, opened in 1899, has caused it to become
the most important trade centre in the District. Cotton, grain, ghl^
and other produce arc largely cx})orted. A cotton-gin, opened in 1900,
employed iSo hands in 1903, and there is a small manufacture of

KARJVI TOJVN

embroidered plush. There are three schools, willi 170 boys and
25 girls,

Kasalpura. — Petty State in Mahi Kantha, Bombay.

Kasaragod Taluk.—Southernmost taluk of South Kanara Dis¬
trict, Madras, lying between 12® 7' and 12® 57' N. and 74® 52'and 75°
26'E., with an area of 762 square miles. It contains 114 villages.
The demand for land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
Rs. 2,42,000. The population in 1901 was 231,280, compared with
210,323 in 1891, showing an increase of 10 per cent. Much of the
surface consists of a bare treeless plateau; but the valleys are deep,
well-watered, and very fertile, and, especially in the northern half of the
talitk^ admirably adapted for areca cultivation. The chief products are
rice, coco-nuts, and areca-nuts. In the coast villages in the south a
considerable amount of tobacco is raised by the Mappilla cultivators.
In eighteen survey villages adjoining Coorg and Malabar the shifting
system of cultivation known as kiimii is still carried on, the crop being
usually a mi.xed one of hill rice, pulse, and cotton. The jungle on
selected spaces on the hill slopes is cut down, usually in December,
and burned when dry three or four months later. The seed is sown
in the ashes, sometimes without ploughing, when the rains come, and
in good years fine crops are secured with little further trouble. A
catch-crop is sometimes raised the following season; and the spot
is then abandoned for a period of from seven to ten years till there
is sufficient fresh growth, when the process is repeated,

Kasarghat.—Pass in Thana District, Bombay. See Thalghat.

Kasauli.—Hill station and cantonment in the Punjab, situated in
30° 53' N. and 76° 58' E., entirely surrounded by Native States, but
attached for administrative purposes to the Kharar tahsll of Ambala
District, It stands on the summit of the long ridge overlooking Kalka,
at an elevation of 6,335 above the sea, and nearly 4,000 feet above
Kalka, from which it is distant about 9 miles. Population (1901), 2,192.
Kasauli was founded in 1842 as a military station, and now serves as
a convalescent depot. It has during the summer months a considerable
civil population, for whose accommodation hotels have been built.
Owing, however, to its nearness to the plains, it is the least attractive
in climate of the Punjab hill stations. The management of the station
is in the hands of a Cantonment Magistrate assisted by a cantonment
committee ; the Cantonment Magistrate proceeds on tour for ten days
in each month of the hot season, and is relieved of the charge of the
treasury by the Assistant Commissioner in charge of the Rupar sub¬
division. The Deputy-Commissioner of Ambala also resides at Kasauli
during part of the hot season. There is an Anglo-vernacular middle
school, 'rhe Lawrence Military Asylum at Sanawar is 3 miles away,
in a portion of territory attached to Simla District. The income and

KASGANJ TAllSlL 69

expenditure of cantonment funds during the ten years ending 1902-3
averaged Rs. 13,000.

The Pasteur Institute at Kasauli was established in 1901 for the
treatment of persons bitten by rabid animals, and now treats patients
from all parts of Northern India. In 1906 a central Research Institute
was founded, which will provide means for the scientific study of the
etiology and nature of disease in India, in addition to the preparation
of curative sera for the diseases of man and the training of scientific
workers. The institution is in charge of a Director, with a staff of
assistants. Kasauli is also the head-quarters of the Punjab Nursing
Association, and contains a dispensary. There is a brewery in the
neighbourhood.

Kasba.—Old name of Jessore Tow^x, Bengal.

Kasba.—Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Purnea District,
Bengal, situated in 25® 51' N. and 87° 32' E., on the road from Purnea
town to Araria, about 9 miles from the former. Population (1901),
7,600. Kasba, which lies on the Eastern Bengal State Railway, is the
chief centre of the rice trade in Purnea District, the paddy being col¬
lected from the north of the District and the submontane portions of
Darjeeling for export to Calcutta. It has also become a large centre
of the jute trade, the annual sales amounting to over 10 lakhs; and
a European firm has an agency there.

Kasegaon.—Village in the Valva tdlitka of Satara District, Bombay,
situated in 17° 8' N. and 74° 14' E., close to the Satara-Kolhapur road,
11 miles south of Karad and 4 miles north of Peth. Population (1901),
5,482. This is one of the most thriving places in the tdluka. It is
inhabited by well-to-do merchants, who traffic with the coast in local
produce, chiefly tobacco, pepper, and sugar-cane. The inhabitants
have an unenviable character for crime and litigiousness—mischief
to crops, cattle poisoning, and arson having been very frequent for
many years.

Kasganj Tahsil.—Northern tahsil of Etah District, United Pro¬
vinces, comprising the parganas of Ulai, Bilrani, Pachlana, Soron,
Sidhpura, Sahawar-Karsana, and Faizpur-Badaria, and lying between
27° 33' and 28"^ 2' N. and 78° 29' and 78° 59' E., with an area of 492
square miles. Population increased from 191,625 in 1891 to 265,216
in 1901. There are 468 villages and six towns, the largest of which are
Kasganj (population, 19,686), the tahsil head-quarters, Soron (i-A 75 )>
and Sahawar (5,079). The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was
Rs. 2,91,000, and for cesses Rs. 44,000. The new settlement will raise
the demand for revenue to Rs. 3,26,000, and for cesses to Rs. 53.000.
The density of population, 539 persons per square mile, is above the
District average. Population increased by nearly 28 per cent, between
1891 and 1900, a higher rate of increase than in any other tahsil in the

/CASGAAJ TAHSIL

United Provinces. I'he hihsii is bounded on the north-east by the
Clanges and on the south-west by the Kali Nadi. It thus lies entirely
in the tarai and in the central dodb^ which are the most precarious
tracts in the District. Heavy rain in 1884-6 led to extensive water¬
logging, and the land which fell out of cultivation was overgrown with
kilns (Saccharum sponfaneiim). Extensive reductions of revenue were
made, and, to prevent further deterioration, the drainage was improved.
The Bilrhiganga, which lies below the old high bank on the southern
edge of the tarai^ has been deepened and straightened. In 1898-9 the
area under cultivation was 347 square miles, of which 108 were irrigated.
'I'he tarai is so moist that irrigation is not usually required, and the
upland area is served by the Lower Ganges Canal and its Fatehgarh
branch. Wells supply about half the irrigated area.

Kasganj Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Etah District, United Provinces, situated in 27° 48' N. and 78° 39' E.,
on the Cawnpore-Achhnera Railway, and also on the road from Muttra
to Bareilly. A short branch railway connects Kasganj with Soron near
the Ganges, and an extension to Bareilly is under construction. This
is the chief trade centre of the District, and population is increasing :
(1891) 16,050, (1901) 19,686. The town is said to have been founded
by Yakut Khan, a eunuch in the service of Muhammad Khan, Nawab
of Farrukhabad. It afterwards came into the hands of Colonel James
Gardner, who was in the employ of the Marathas, and later in British
service. He raised a regiment, now known as Gardner’s Horse, and
acquired a large property which was dissipated by his descendants.
Part of the property fell into the hands of Dilsukh Rai, once an agent
to the Gardner family, and one of his descendants has built a magnifi¬
cent residence near the town. Kasganj stands on an elevated site, its
drainage flowing towards the Kali Nadi, which runs about a mile south¬
east of the town. A new drainage scheme has recently been completed.
'Pile town contains two fine bazars crossing each other at right angles.
At the junction a fine octagonal building, consisting of shops, forms
a suitable centre to the town. The chief public buildings are the town
hail, dispensary, tahsilj^ and viunsifl. There are also branches of the
Church Missionary Society and the American Methodist Mission,
(dose to the railway station is a considerable colony of railway employes.
The town was constituted a municipality in 1868. During the ten
years ending 1901 the income and expenditure averaged Rs. 15,000.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 22,000, chiefly derived from octroi
(Rs. 16,000); and the expenditure was Rs. 23,000. Kasganj is
becoming an important centre for the collection and distribution of
country produce, especially grain, sugar, and cotton. Sugar-refining
is a growing industry, and there were two cotton-gins and a cotton-
press which employed 788 hands in 1903, while another ginning

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

factory was opened in 1904. The town school has about 190 pupils,
and 16 other schools aided by the municipality have 420 pupils.

Kashipur Tahsil.—wSouth-western tahsil and subdivision of Xaini
Tal District, United Provinces, conterminous with the pargana of the
same name, lying between 29® 7' and 29° 22' N. and 78° 43'and 79° 4'
E., with an area of 189 square miles. Population fell from 73.168 in
1891 to 55,632 in 1901, the rate of decrease being the highest in the
District. There are 147 villages and two towns ; Kashipur (popula¬
tion, 12,023), the head-quarters, and Jaspur (6,480). The demand
for land revenue in 1903—4 was Rs. 90,000, and for cesses Rs. 11,000.
The density of population, 294 persons per square mile, is also the
highest in the District. The tahsil resembles the adjoining parts of
Rohilkhand. It lies entirely in the plains, and is not so damp as the
Tarai. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 69 square miles, of
which 10 were irrigated, almost entirely from canals.

Kashipur Town. — Head-quarters of the Kashipur tahsii of
NainI Tal District, United Provinces, situated in 29® 13' N. and 78^58'
E., on a road from Moradabad : a railway from the same place has been
projected. Population (1901), 12,023. Near the town are extensive
ruins of forts and temples, which were identified by General Cunning¬
ham with the capital of the kingdom of Govisana, visited by the Chinese
pilgrim in the seventh century. There are several tanks in the neigh¬
bourhood, one of which is called after Drona, the tutor of the Pandava
brothers. A brick inscribed in characters of the third or fourth century
A. D. was recently found here. The modern town is named after its
founder, Kashi Nath, the governor of the paigana in the sixteenth or
seventeenth century. In the latter half of the eighteenth century Nand
Ram, the governor, became practically independent of the Chand Riija
of Almora; and his nephew, Shib Lai, was in possession at the date of
the cession to the British in i8ot. Kashipur contains a fair-sized bazar
with brick-built houses ; but outside of this the houses are chiefly of
mud. The largest building is the residence of the Raja, who is
descended from an illegitimate branch of the Chand Rajas of Almora.
Besides the usual courts there is a dispensary. Kashipur has been
a municipality since 1872. During the ten years ending 1901 the in¬
come and expenditure averaged Rs. 11,000. In 1903-4 the income was
Rs. 14,000, chiefly from tolls (Rs. 5,000) and a tax on circumstances
and property (Rs. 3,000); and the expenditure was Rs. 12,000. There
is a flourishing trade in cloth, metal vessels, and hill produce. The
municipality supports a school with 75 pupils.

Kashkar,—Capital of Chitral State, North-West Frontier Province.
See Chitral.

Kashmir and Jammu.—The territories of the Maharaja of
Kashmir and Jammu may be roughly described in the ^YOrds of the

KASHMIR AND JAA/^fU

Physical

aspects.

treaty of March i6, 1S46, as ^situated to the eastward of the river
Indus and westward of the river Ravi.’ This country, known to the
English as Kashmir and to the Indians as Jammu, covers an area of
80,900 square miles, extending from 32^17' to 36° 58'N. and from
73° 26' to 80° 30^^ E. It may be likened to a house with many storeys.

The door is at Jammu, and the house faces south,
looking out on the Punjab Districts of Jhelum,
Gujrat, Sialkot, and Gurdaspur. There is just a
fringe of level land along the Punjab frontier, bordered by a plinth
of low hilly country sparsely wooded, broken, and irregular. This is
known as the Kandi^ the home of the Chibs and the Dogras. Then
comes the first storey, to reach which a range of mountains, 8,000 feet
high, must be climbed. This is a temperate country with forests of
oak, rhododendron, and chestnut, and higher up of deodar and pine,
a country of beautiful uplands, such as Bhadarwah and Kishtwar,
drained by the deep gorge of the Chenab river. The steps of the
Himalayan range known as the Pfr Panjal lead to the second storey,
on which rests the exquisite valley of Kashmir, drained by the Jhelum
river. Up steeper flights of the Himalayas we pass to Astor and
Baltistan on the north and to Ladakh on the east, a tract drained by
the river Indus. In the back premises, far away to the north-west,
lies Gilgit, west and north of the Indus, the whole area shadowed by
a wall of giant mountains which run east from the Kilik or Mintaka
passes of the Hindu Kush, leading to the Pamirs and the Chinese
dominions past Rakaposhi (25,561 feet), along the Muztagh range past
K 2 (Godwin Austen, 28,265 feet\ Gasherbrum and Masherbrum
(28,100 and 25,660 feet respectively) to the Karakoram range which
merges in the Kuenlun mountains. Westward of the northern angle
above Hunza-Nagar the mighty maze of mountains and glaciers trends
a little south of east along the Hindu Kush range bordering Chitral,
and so on into the limits of Kafiristan and Afghan territory.

At the Karakoram pass (18,317 feet) the wall zigzags, and to the
north-east of the State is a high corner bastion of mountain plains at
an elevation of over 17,000 feet, with salt lakes dotted about. Little
is known of that bastion; and the administration of Jammu and
Kashmir has but scanty information about the eastern wall of the
property, which is formed of mountains of an elevation of about
20,000 feet, and crosses lakes, like Pangkong, lying at a height of
nearly 14,000 feet. The southern boundary repeats the same
features—grand mountains running to peaks of over 20,000 feet; but
farther west, where the wall dips down more rapidly to the south, the
elevation is easier, and we come to Bhadarwah (5,427 feet) and to
the still easier heights of Basoli (2,170 feet) on the Ravi river. From
Madhopur, the head-works of the Bari Doab Canal, the Ravi river

PHYSTCAL ASPECTS

ceases to be the boundary, and a line crossing the Ujh river and the
watershed of the low Dogra hills runs fairly straight to Jammu. A
similar line, marked by a double row of trees, runs west from Jammu
to the Jhelum river. From the south-west corner of the territories the
Jhelum river forms an almost straight boundary on the west as far as
its junction with the Kunhar river, 14 miles north of Kohala. At that
point the western boundary leaves the river and clings to the moun¬
tains, running in a fairly regular line to the grand snow scarp of Nanga
Parbat (26,182 feet). Thence it runs almost due north to the crossing
of the Indus at Ramghat under the Hattu Pir, then north-west, sweep¬
ing in Punial, Yasin, Ghizar, and Koh, the Mehtarjaos or chiefs of
which claim the Tangir and Darel country, and linking on to the Hindu
Kush and Aluztagh ranges which look north to Chinese territory and
South to Hunza-Nagar and Gilgit.

It is said of the first Maharaja Gulab Singh, the builder of the edifice
just described, that when he surveyed his new purchase, the valley of
Kashmir, he grumbled and remarked that one-third of the country was
mountains, one-third water, and the remainder alienated to privileged
persons. Speaking of the whole of his dominions, he might without
exaggeration have described them as nothing but mountains. There
are valleys, and occasional oases in the deep canons of the mighty
rivers ; but mountain is the predominating feature and has strongly
affected the history, habits, and agriculture of the people. Journeying
along the haphazard paths which skirt the river banks, till the sheer
cliff bars the way and the track is forced thousands of feet over the
* mountain-top, one feels like a child wandering in the narrow and
tortuous alleys which surround some old cathedral in England.

It is impossible within the limit of this article to deal in detail with
the nooks and corners where men live their hard lives and raise their
* poor crops in the face of extraordinary difficulties. There are interest¬
ing tracts like Padar on the southern border, surrounded by perpetual
snow, where the edible pine and the deodar flourish, and where the
sunshine is scanty and the snow lies long. It was in Padar that were
found the valuable sapphires, pronounced by experts the finest in the
world. Farther east across the glaciers lies the inaccessible country of
Zaskar, said to be rich in copper, where the people and cattle live
indoors for six months out of the year, where trees are scarce and food
is scarcer. Zaskar has a fine breed of ponies. Farther east is the
lofty Rupshu, the lowest point of which is 13,500 feet; and even at
this great height barley ripens, though it often fails in the higher places
owing to early snowfall. In Rupshu live the nomad Champas, who
are able to work in an air of extraordinary rarity, and complain bitterly
of the heat of Leh (11,500 feet).

Everywhere on the mass of mountains are places worthy of mention.

KASHMIR AMD JAMMU

but the reader will gain a better idea of the country if he follows one
or more of the better-known routes. A typical route will be that along
which the troops sometimes march from Jammu, the winter capital, past
the Summer Palace at Srinagar in Kashmir to the distant outpost at
Gilgit. The traveller will leave the railway terminus on the south bank
of the Tawi, the picturesque river on which Jammu is built. From
Jammu (1,200 feet) the road rises gently to Dansal (1,840 feet), passing
through a stony country of low hills covered with acacias, then over
steeper hills of grey sandstone where vegetation is very scarce, over
the Laru Lari pass (8,200 feet), dropping down again to 5,150 feet and
lower still to Ramban (2,535 f^et), where the Chenab river is crossed,
then steadily up till the Banihal pass (9,230 feet) is gained and the
valley of Kashmir lies below.

So far the country has been broken, and the track devious, with
interminable ridges, and for the most part, if we except the vale of the
Bichlari, the pine woods of Chineni, and the slopes between Ramban
and Deogol (Banihal), a mere series of flat uninteresting valleys,
unrelieved by forests. It is a pleasure to pass from the scenery of the
outer hills into the green fertile valley of Kashmir—the emerald set in
pearls. The valley is surrounded by mountain ranges which rise to
a height of 18,000 feet on the north-east, and until the end of May
and sometimes by the beginning of October there is a continuous ring
of snow around the oval plain. Leaving the Banihal pass—and no
experienced traveller cares to linger on that uncertain home of the
winds—the track rapidly descends to Vernag (6,000 feet), where a
noble spring of deep-blue water issues from the base of a high scarp.
This spring may be regarded as the source of Kashmir’s great river
and waterway, commonly known as the Jhelum, the Hydaspes of the
ancients, the Vitasta in Sanskrit, and spoken of by the Kashmiris as
the Veth. Fifteen miles north the rive/ becomes navigable; and the
traveller, after a march of no miles, embarks at Khanabal in a flat-bot¬
tomed boat and drops gently down to Srinagar, the capital of Kashmir.

Looking at a map of Kashmir, one sees a white footprint set in
a mass of black mountains. This is the celebrated valley, perched
securely among the Himalayas at an average height of 6,000 feet above
the sea. It is approximately 84 miles in length and 20 to 25 miles in
breadth. North, east, and west, range after range of mountains guard
the valley from the outer world, while in the south it is cut off from
the Punjab by rocky barriers, 50 to 75 miles in width. The mountain
snows feed the river and the streams, and it is calculated that the
Jhelum in its course through the valley has a catchment area of nearly
4,000 square miles. The mountains which surround Kashmir are
infinitely varied in form and colour. To the north lies a veritable
sea of mountains broken into white-crested waves, hastening away in

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

wild confusion to the great promontory of Xanga Parbat (26,182 feet).
To the east stands Haramukh (16,903 feet), the grim mountain which
guards the valley of the Sind. Farther south is Mahadco, very sacred
to the Hindus, which seems almost to look down upon Srinagar; and
south again are the lofty range of Gwash Brari (17,800 feet), and fehe
peak of Amarnath (17,321 feet), the mountain of the pilgrims and very
beautiful in the evening sun. On the south-west is the Panjal range
with peaks of 15,000 feet, over which the old imperial road of the
Mughals passes; farther north the great rolling downs of the Tosh
Maidan (14,000 feet), over which men travel to the Punch country ;
and in the north-west corner rises the Kajin% (12,125 feet), the home
of the markhor.

On the west, and wherever the mountain-sides are sheltered from
the hot breezes of the Punjab plains, which blow across the intervening
mountains, there are grand forests of pines and firs. Down the tree-
clad slopes dash mountain streams white with foam, passing in their
course through pools of the purest cobalt. When the great dark
forests cease and the brighter woodland begins, the banks of the
streams are ablaze with clematis, honeysuckle, jasmine, and wild roses
which remind one of azaleas. * The green smooth turf of the woodland
glades is like a well-kept lawn, dotted with clumps of hawthorn and
other beautiful trees and bushes. It would be difficult to describe the
colours that are seen on the Kashmir mountains. In early morning
they are often a delicate semi-transparent violet relieved against a
saffron sky, and with light vapours clinging round their crests. The
rising sun deepens the shadows, and produces sharp outlines and
strong passages of purple and indigo in the deep ravines. Later on
it is nearly all blue and lavender, with white snow peaks and ridges
under a vertical sun; and as the afternoon wears on these become
richer violet and pale bronze, gradually changing to rose and pink with
yellow or orange snow, till the last rays of the sun have gone, leaving
the mountains dyed a ruddy crimson, with the snows showing a pale
creamy green by contrast. Looking downward from the mountains
the valley in the sunshine has the hues of the opal; the pale reds of
the karezvas^ the vivid light greens of the young rice, and the darker
shades of the groves of trees relieved by sunlight sheets, gleams of
water, and soft blue haze give a combination of tints reminding one
irresistibly of the changing hues of that gem. It is impossible in the
scope of this article to do justice to the beauty and grandeur of the
mountains of Kashmir, or to enumerate the lovely glades and forests,
visited by so few. Much has been written of the magnificent scenery
of the Sind and Liddar valleys, and of the gentler charms of the Lolab,
but the equal beauties of the western side of Kashmir have hardly been
described. Few countries can offer anything grander than the deep-green

VOL. XV.

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

mountain tarn, Konsanag, in the Panjal range, the waters of which
make a wild entrance into the valley over the splendid cataract of Arabal,
while the rolling grass mountain called Tosh Maidan, the springy downs
of Raiyar looking over the Suknag river as it twines, foaming down from
the mountains, the long winding park known as Yusumarg, and lower
down still the little hills which remind one of Surrey, and Niln% with
its pretty lake screened by the dense forests, are worthy to be seen.

As one descends the mountains and leaves the woodland glades, cul¬
tivation commences immediately, and right up to the fringe of the
forests maize is grown and walnut-trees abound. A little lower down,
at an elevation of about 7,000 feet, rice of a hardy and stunted growth
is found, and the shady plane-tree appears. Lower still superior rices
are grown, and the watercourses are edged with willows. The side
valleys which lead off from the vale of Kashmir, though possessing dis¬
tinctive charms of their own, have certain features in common. At the
mouth of the valley lies the wide delta of fertile soil on which the rice
with its varying colours, the plane-trees, mulberries, and willows grow^
luxuriantly; a little higher up the land is terraced and rice still grows,
and the slopes are ablaze with the wild indigo, till at about 6,000 feet
the plane-tree gives place to the walnut, and rice to millets. On the left
bank of the mountain river endless forests stretch from the bottom of
the valley to the peaks ; and on the right bank, wherever a nook or
corner is sheltered from the sun and the hot breezes of India, the pines
and firs establish themselves. P'arther up the valley, the river, already
a roaring torrent, becomes a veritable waterfall dashing down between
lofty cliffs, whose bases are fringed with maples and horse-chestnuts,
white and pink, and millets are replaced by buckwheat and Tibetan
barley. Soon after this the useful birch-tree appears, and then come
grass and glaciers, the country of the shepherds.

AVhere the mountains cease to be steep, fan-like projections with flat
arid tops and bare of trees run out tow^ards the valley. These are
known as kareivas. Sometimes they stand up isolated in the middle of
the valley, but, whether isolated or attached to the mountains, the
kareivas present the same sterile appearance and offer the same abrupt
walls to the valley. The kareivas are pierced by mountain torrents and
seamed with ravines. Bearing in mind that Kashmir was once a lake,
which dried up when nature afforded an outlet at Baramula, it is easy to
recognize in the kareivas the shelving shores of a great inland sea, and
to realize that the inhabitants of the old cities, the traces of which can
be seen on high bluffs and on the slope of the mountains, had no other
choice of sites, since in those days the present fertile valley was buried
beneath a waste of water.

Kashmir abounds in mountain tarns, lovely lakes, and swampy
lagoons. Of the lakes the AVular, the Dal, and the Manasbal are the

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

most beautiful. It is also rich in springs, many of which are thermal.
They arc useful auxiliaries to the mountain streams in irrigation, and
are sometimes the sole sources of water, as in the case of Achabal,
Vernag, and Kokarnag on the south, and Arpal on the east. Islamabad
or Anantnag, ^ the place of the countless springs,’ sends out numerous
streams. One of these springs, the Maliknag, is sulphurous, and its water
is highly prized for garden cultivation. The Kashmiris are good judges
of water. They regard Kokarnag as the best source of drinking-water,
while Chashina Shahi above the Dal Lake stands high in order of merit.

It is time now for the traveller who has been resting in Srinagar to
set out on the great northern road which leads to Gilgit. He will have
admired the quaint, insanitary city lying along the banks of the Jhelum,
with a length of 3 miles and an average breadth of miles on either
side of the river. The houses vary in size from the large and spacious
brick palaces of the Pandit aristocrat and his 500 retainers, warmed in
the winter by hammdms^ to the doll house of three storeys, where the
poor shawl-weaver lives his cramped life, and shivers in the frosty
weather behind lattice windows covered with paper. In the spring and
summer the earthen roofs of the houses, resting on layers of birch-bark,
are bright with green herbage and flowers. The canals with their
curious stone bridges and shady waterway, and the great river with an
average width of eighty yards, spanned by wooden bridges, crowded
with boats of every description, and lined by bathing boxes, are well
worth studying. The wooden bridges are cheap, effective, and pictur¬
esque, and their construction is ingenious, for in de.sign they appear to
have anticipated the modern cantilever principle. Old boats filled with
stones were sunk at the sites chosen for pier foundations. Piles were
then driven and more boats were sunk. When a height above the low-
water level was reached, wooden trestles of deodar were constructed by
placing rough-hewn logs at right angles. As the structure approached
the requisite elevation to admit of chakwdris (house-boats) passing be¬
neath, deodar logs were cantilevered. This reduced the span, and huge
trees were made to serve as girders to support the roadway. The foun¬
dations of loose stones and piles have been protected on the upstream
side by planking, and a rough but effective cut-water made. The secret
of the stability of these old bridges may, perhaps, be attributed to the
skeleton piers offering little or no resistance to the large \’olume of water
brought down at flood-time. It is true that the heavy floods of 1893
swept away six out of the seven city bridges, and that the cumbrous
piers tend to narrow the waterway, but it should be remembered that
the old bridges had weathered many a serious flood. Not long ago two
of the bridges, the Habba Kadal and the Zaina Kadal, had rows of
shops on them reminding one of Old London Bridge ; but these have
now been cleared away.

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

The distance by road from Srinagar to Gilgit is 228 miles, and the
traveller can reach Bandipura at the head of the Wular Lake by boat or
by land. The Gilgit road, which cost the Kashmir State, in the first
instance, 15 lakhs, is a remarkable achievement, and was one of the
greatest boons ever conferred on the Kashmiri subjects of the Maharaja.
Previous to its construction supplies for the Gilgit garrison were carried
by impressed labourers, many of whom perished on the passes, or
returned crippled and maimed by frost-bite on the snow or accident on
the goat paths that did duty for roads. The journey to Gilgit before
1890 has been aptly compared with the journey to Siberia. Now, sup¬
plies are carried on ponies and the name Gilgit is no longer a terror to
the people of Kashmir.

Trom Bandipura a steep ascent leads to the Raj Diangan pass (11,800
feet), a most dreaded place in the winter months, when the cold winds
meiin death to man and beast. Thence through a beautifully wooded
and watered country, past the lovely valley of Gurais, down which the
Kishanganga flows, the traveller has no difficulties till he reaches the
Burzil pass (13,500 feet), below which the summer road to Skardu
across the dreary wastes of the Deosai plains branches off to the north¬
east. This is a very easy pass in summer, but is very dangerous in a
snowstorm or high wind.

Descending from the Burzil the whole scene changes. The forests
and vegetation of Kashmir are left behind, the trees are few and of a
strange appearance, and the very flowers look foreign. It is a bleak and
rugged country, and when Astor (7,853 feet) is left the sense of desola¬
tion increases. Nothing can be more dreary than the steep descent
from Doian down the side of the arid Hattu Pir into the sterile waste of
the Indus valley. It is cool at Doian (8,720 feet); it is stifling at Ram-
ghat (3,800 feet), where one passes over the Astor river by a suspension
bridge. The old construction was a veritable bridge of sighs to the
Kashmir convicts who were forced across the river and left to their fate
—starvation or capture by the slave-hunters from Chilas. A little
cultivation at Bunji relieves the eye; but there is nothing to cheer the
traveller until the Indus has been crossed by a fine bridge, and 30 miles
farther the pleasant oasis of Gilgit is reached.

The Indus valley is a barren dewless country. The very river with
its black water looks hot, and the great mountains are destitute of
vegetation. The only thing of beauty is the view of the snowy ranges,
and Nanga Parbat in the rising sun seen from the crossing of the Indus
river to Gilgit sweeps into oblivion the dreadful desert of sands and
rock. Gilgit (4,890 feet) itself is fertile and well watered. The moun¬
tains fall back from the river, and leave room for cultivation on the
alluvial land bordering the right bank of the Gilgit river, a rare feature
in the northern parts of the Maharaja s dominion.

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

Another route giving a general idea of the country runs from west to
east, from Kohala on the Jhelum to Leh, about 5 miles beyond the
Indus. A good road from Rawalpindi brings the traveller to Kohala,
where he crosses the Jhelum by a bridge, and enters the territories of
Jammu and Kashmir. The cart-road passes from Kohala to Srinagar,
a distance of 132 miles, by easy gradients. As far as Baramula the
road is close to the river, but for the most part at a great height above
it, and the scenery is beautiful. At ^Muzaffarabad the Kishanganga
river joins the Jhelum, and here the road from Abbottabad and Garhi
Habib-ullah connects with the Kashmir route. The road runs along
the left bank of the Jhelum, through careful terraced cultivation, above
which are pine forests and pastures. It carries a very heavy traffic, but
owing to the formation of the country it is liable to constant breaches,
and is expensive to keep in repair.

From Uri a road runs south to the country of the Raja of Punch, the
chief feudatory of the Maharaja, crossing the Haji pass (8,500 feet).
At Baramula the road enters the valley of Kashmir, and runs through
a continuous avenue of poplars to Srinagar. In bygone days this route,
known as the Jhelum valley road—now the chief means of communica¬
tion with India—was little used. The Bambas and Khakhas, who still
hold the country, were a restless and warlike people; and the numerous
forts that command the narrow valley suggest that the neighbourhood
was unsafe for the ordinary traveller. The construction of the road
from Kohala to Baramiila cost the State nearly 22 lakhs.

From Srinagar to Leh is 243 miles. The first part of the journey
runs up the Sind valley, perhaps the most exquisite scenery in Kashmir.
Fitful efforts are made from time to time to improve this important
route, but it still remains a mere fair-weather track. The Sind river
thunders down the valley, and the steep mountains rise on either side,
the northern slopes covered with pine forest, the southern bare and
treeless. At Gagangir the track climbs along the river torrent to
Sonamarg (8,650 feet), the last and highest village in the Sind valley,
if we except the small hamlet of Nilagrar some 2 miles higher up.
Sonamarg is a beautiful mountain meadow surrounded by glaciers and
forests. It is a miserable place in the winter time, but it is of great
importance to encourage a resident population. The chief staples of
cultivation are grim^ or Tibetan barley, and buckwheat. It is good to
turn loose the baggage ponies to graze on the meadow grasses; for in
a few more marches one passes into a region like the country beyond
the Burzil on the road to Gilgit, a land devoid of forests and pastures,

‘ a desert of bare crags and granite dust, a cloudless region always burn¬
ing or freezing under the clear blue sky.’ The Zoji La (11,300 feet) is
the lowest depression in the great Western Himalayas which run from
the Indus valley on the Chilas frontier. Over this high range the rains

KASHMIR AXD JAMMU

from the south hardly penetrate, and the cultivation, scanty and diffi¬
cult, depends entirely on artificial canals. The ascent to the Zoji La
from Kashmir is very steep, the descent to the elevated table-land of
Tibet almost imperceptible. For five marches the route follows the
course of the Dras river, through a desolate country of piled up rocks
and loose gravel. At Chanagund the road to Skardu crosses the Dras
river by a cantilever bridge, 4 miles above the junction of the Dras and
Suru rivers, and about 8 miles farther on the Indus receives their
waters. But the steep cliffs of the Indus offer no path to the traveller,
and the track leaves the Dras river, and turns in a southerly direction
to Kargil, a delightful oasis. Then the road abandons the valleys and
ascends the bare mountains. The dreary scenery is compensated by
the cloudless pale blue sky and the dry bracing air so characteristic of
Ladakh. Through gorges and defiles the valley of Shergol is reached,
the first Buddhist village on the road. Thenceforward the country is
Buddhist, and the road runs up and down over the Namika La {13,000 feet)
and over the Fotu La (13,400 feet), the highest point on the Leh road.
Along the road near the villages are Buddhist monasteries, ?na?ns (walls
of praying stones) and chortens^ where the ashes of the dead mixed with
clay and moulded into a little idol are placed, and at Lamayaru there
is a wilderness of monuments. Later, the Indus is crossed by a long
cantilever bridge; and the road runs along the right bank through the
fertile oasis of Khalsi, then through the usual desert with an occasional
patch of vegetation to Leh (11,500 feet), the capital of Western Tibet
and of Western Buddhism, and the trade terminus for caravans from
India and from Central Asia. It is a long and difficult road from Leh
to Yarkand, 482 miles, over the Khardung La, the Sasser La, and the
Karakoram pass of between 17,000 and 19,000 feet altitude, where the
useful yak {Bos gnaniiois) relieves the ponies of their loads when fresh
snow has fallen, or serves unladen to consolidate a path for the ponies.

A brief description may be given of one more of the many routes
that follow the rivers and climb the mountains—the route from Leh
through Baltistan to Astor on the Gilgit road. At Khalsi, where the
Srlnagar-Leh road crosses the Indus, the track keeps to the right bank
of the Indus, and passing down the deep gorge of the river comes to
a point where the stupendous cliffs and the roaring torrent prevent
farther progress. There the traveller strikes away from the Indus and
ascends the mountains to the Chorbat pass (16,700 feet), covered with
snow even in July. From the pass, across the valley of the Shyok river,
the great Karakoram range, some 50 miles away, comes into view. An
abrupt descent carries the traveller from winter into hot summer; and
by a difficult track which in places is carried along the face of the cliff
by frail scaffolding {pari), following the course of the Shyok river,
smoothly flowing between white sands of granite, and passing many

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

pleasant oases, one conies to the grateful garden of Khapallu, a paradise
to the simple Baltis. Crossing the united waters of the Shyok and the
Indus on a small skin raft, the traveller arrives at Skardu (7,250 feet),
the old eapital of Baltistan. Here the mountains on either side of the
Indus reeede, and the sandy basin, about 5 miles in breadth, is partially
irrigated by water from the pretty mountain lake of Satpura and care¬
fully cultivated. Looking across the Indus to the north, the Shigar
valley, the garden of Baltistan, with its wealth of fruit trees is seen.
There the cultivator adds to his resources by washing gold from the
sands of the river. From Skardu the direct route to Cilgit follows the
Indus, which is crossed at Rondu by a rope bridge so long as to be
most trying to the nerves, but a fair-weather track over the Banak pass
lands the traveller on the Cilgit road at Astor.

It is difficult to give a general idea of a country so diversified as
Kashmir and Jammu. As will be seen in the section on History, a
strange destiny has brought people of distinct races, languages, and
religions, and countries of widely different physical characteristics,
under the rule of the Maharaja.

The Kashmir territory may be divided physically into two areas: the
north-eastern, comprising the area drained by the Indus with its tribu¬
taries; and the south-western, including the country drained by the
Jhelum with its tributary the Kishanganga, and by the Chenab. The
dividing line or watershed is formed by the great central mountain range
which runs from Nanga Parbat, overhanging the Indus on the north¬
west, in a south-easterly direction for about 240 miles till it enters
British territory in Lahul.

The south-western area may, following the nomenclature of Mr. Drew,
in its turn be geographically divided into three sections: the region of
the outer hills, the middle mountains, and the Kashmir Valley.

Approaching Kashmir from the plains of the Punjab, the boundary
is not at the foot of the hills, but embraces a strip of the great plains
from 5 to 15 miles wide, reaching from the Ravi to the Jhelum. As is
generally the case along the foot of the Western Himalayas, this tract
of flat country is somewhat arid and considerably cut up by ravines
which carry off the flood-water of the monsoon. A fair amount of cul¬
tivation is found on the plateaux between these ravines, though, being
entirely dependent on the rainfall, the yield is somewhat precaiioub.
The height of this tract may be taken at from 1,100 to 1,200 feet above
sea-level.

Passing over the plain a region of broken ground and low hills is
reached, running mainly in ridge.s parallel to the general line of the
Himalayan chain. These vary in height from 2,000 to 4,000 feet, and
are largely composed of sandstone, being in fact a continuation of the
Siwalik geological formation. Lying between these parallel ridges are

KASHMIR AND /AMMl/

a series of valleys or df/ns, fairly well populated, in the east by Dogras
and in the west by Chibs. These hills are sparsely covered with low
scrub bushes, the chir (Ri/ius /ongifo/ia) gradually predominating as the
inner hills are reached. Beyond these lower hills rise the spurs of a
more mountainous district.

The scope of this region, as defined by Mr. Drew, has been some¬
what extended, and includes the range which forms the southern
boundary of the Kashmir Valley, known as the Panjal range, and its
continuation eastwards beyond the Chenab. This tract is about
i8o miles long and varies in width from 25 to 35 miles. The portion
lying between the Jhelum and Chenab is formed by the mass of moun¬
tainous spurs running down from the high Panjal range which forms its
northern limit. The Panjal itself, extending from MuzaffarabM on the
Jhelum to near Kishtwar on the Chenab, is a massive mountain range,
the highest central portion to which the name is truly applied having
a length of 80 miles, with peaks rising to 14,000 and 15,000 feet.
From the southern side a series of spurs branch out, which break up
the ground into an intricate mountain mass cut into by ravines or
divided by narrow valleys.

The elevation of these middle mountains is sufficient to give
a thoroughly temperate character to the vegetation. Forests of Hima¬
layan oak, pine, spruce, silver fir, and deodar occupy a great part of the
mountain slopes; the rest, the more sunny parts, where forest trees do
not flourish, is, except where rocks jut out, well covered with herbage,
with plants and flowers that resemble those of Central or Southern
Europe. East of the Chenab river rises a somewhat similar mass
of hills, forming the district of Bhadarwah, with peaks var}nng from
9,000 to 14,000 feet in height. These culminate in the high range
which forms the Chamba and Ravi watershed in Chamba territory.

The third section of the south-western area bears a unique char¬
acter in the Himalayas, consisting of an open valley of considerable
extent completely surrounded by mountains. The boundaries are
formed on the north-east by the great central range which separates
the Jhelum and Indus drainage, and on the south by the Panjal range
already described. The eastern boundary is formed by a high spur
of the main range, which branching off at about 75° 30' E. runs nearly
due south, its peaks maintaining an elevation of from 12,000 to 14,000
feet. This minor range forms the watershed between the Jhelum
and Chenab, separating the Kashmir from the Wardwan valley. It
eventually joins and blends with the Panjal range about 16 miles west
of Kishtwar. On the north and west, the bounding ranges of the
valley are more difficult to describe. A few miles west of the spot
from which the eastern boundary spur branches near the Zoji La,
another minor range is given off. This runs nearly due west for about

P//VS/CAL ASPECTS

TOO miles at an elevation of from t 2,000 to 13,000 feet, with a width
of from 15 to 20 miles. It forms the watershed between the Jhelum
on the south and its important tributary the Kishanganga on the north.
After reaching 74® 15' E. tlie ridge gradually curves round to the south,
until it reaches the Jhelum al)reast of the western end of the Panjal
range. The valley thus enclosed has a length, measured from ridge
to ridge, of about 115 miles with a width varying from 45 to 70 miles,
and is drained throughout by the Jhelum with its various tributaries.
The flat portion is much restricted, owing to the spurs given off by
the great central range, which run down into the plain, forming the
well-known Sind and Eiddar valleys. On the southern side the spurs
from the Panjal range project to to r6 miles into the plain.

The north-eastern section is comprised between the great central
chain on the south and the Karakoram range and its continuation on
the north. It is drained by the Indus and its great tributaries, the
Shyok, the Zaskar, the Sum, and the Gilgit rivers. The chief charac¬
teristic of this region, more especially of the eastern portion, is the
great altitude of the valleys and plains. The junction of the Gilgit
and Indus rivers is 4,300 feet above sea-level. Proceeding upstream,
80 miles farther east at the confluence of the Shyok and Indus, the
level of the latter is 7,700 feet; opposite Leh, 130 miles farther up
the river, its height is 10,600 feet, while near the Kashmir-Tibet
boundary in the Kokzhung district the river runs at the great height
of 13,800 feet above sea-level.

Between the various streams which drain the country rise ranges
of mountains, those in the central portions attaining an elevation of
16,000 to 20,000 feet, while the mighty flanking masses of the Kara¬
koram culminate in the great peak Godwin Austen (28,265 feet). The
difference of the level in the valleys between the eastern and western
tracts has its natural effect on the scenery. In the east, as in the
Rupshu district of Ladakh, the lowest ground is 13,500 feet above
the sea, while the mountains run very evenly to a height of 20,000 or
21,000 feet. The result is a series of long open valleys, bounded by
comparatively low hills having very little of the characteristics of what
is generally termed a mountainous country. To the west as the valleys
deepen, while the bordering mountains keep at much the same eleva¬
tion, the character of the country changes, and assumes the more
familiar Himalayan character of massive ridges and spurs falling steeply
into the deep valleys between.

The central chain commences in the west at the great mountain
mass rising directly above the Indus, of which the culminating peak
is Nanga Parbat. From this point it runs in a south-easterly direction,
forming the watershed between the Indus and the Kishanganga. It
quickly falls to an altitude of 14,000 to 15,000 feet, at which it con-

A'ylS/L]/7A^ AXn /AMAfU

tinues for 50 or 60 miles. It is crossed by several passes, the best
known of which are the Burzil on the road from Kashmir to Gilgit,
and the Zoji La of 11,300 feet, over which runs the road from Srinagar
to Dras and Leh. From the Zoji La the mountains rapidly rise in
elevation, the peaks attaining an altitude of 18,000 to 20,000 feet,
culminating in the Nun Kun peaks which rise to a height of over
23,000 feet. Owing to their altitude these mountains are under per¬
petual snow, and glaciers form in every valley. The range keeps this
character throughout Kashmir territory for a distance of 150 miles to
the Bara Lacha (pass), where it passes into Spiti.

The Karakoram range is of a far more complicated character,
l^roadly speaking, it is a continuation of the Hindu Kush, and forms
the watershed between the Central Asian drainage and the streams
flowing into the Indian Ocean. From its main ridge lofty spurs extend
into Kashmir, .separating the various tributaries of the Indu.s, the result
being a stupendous mountain mass 220 miles long, with a width on the
south side of the watershed of 30 to 60 miles, with peaks averaging
from 21,000 to 23,000 feet, culminating on the west in the well-known
Rakaposhi mountain, north of Gilgit, over 25,500 feet high, and in the
mighty group of peaks round the head of the Baltoro glacier dominated
by the second highest mountain in the world, Godwin Austen, whose
summit is 28,265 feet above the sea. The head of every valley is the
birthplace of a glacier. Many of these arc of immense size, such as
the Baltoro, the Biafo, and Hispar glaciers, the two latter forming an
unbroken stretch of ice over 50 miles long. This great mountain
barrier is broken through at one point by the Hunza stream, a tributary
of the Gilgit river, the watershed at the head of which has the com¬
paratively low elevation of about 15,500 feet. The next well-known
pass lies 150 miles to the east, where the road from Leh to Yarkand
leads over the Karakoram pass at an altitude of about 18,300 feet.

A description of this mountainous region would be incomplete with¬
out a reference to the vast elevated plains of Lingzhithang, which lie
at the extreme north-eastern limit of Kashmir territory. These plains
are geographically allied to the great Tibetan plateau. The ground-
level is from 16,000 to 17,000 feet above the sea, and such rain as falls
drains into a series of salt lakes. Of vegetation there is little or none,
the country being a de.solate expanse of earth and rock. The northern
border of this plateau is formed by the Kuenlun mountains, the
northern face of which slopes down into the plains of Khotan.

An account of the geology will be found in the memoir by Mr. R.
Lydekker, The Geology of the Kash??nr and Chamba Territories and
the British District 0/ Khagan. Mr. l.ydekker differs from Mr. Drew,
also an expert in geology, who held that some of the gravels at
Baramuki were of glacial origin, indicating the existence of glaciers in

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

the valley at a level of 5,000 feet; but he has no doubts as to their
existence on the Pir Panjal range and in the neighbourhood of the
various fuargs or mountain meadows which surround the valley. The
question of the glaciation and the evidences of relative changes of level
within a geologically recent period is fully discussed for the Sind valley
by ]\Ir. R. D. Oldham in Records^ Geological Survey of Itidia^ vol. xxxii,
part ii.

There is abundant evidence that igneous or volcanic agencies were
actively at work, as is proved by the outpouring of vast quantities
of volcanic rocks ; but these are not known to have been erupted
since the eocene period. Subterraneous thermal action is, however,
indicated by the prevalence of numerous hot springs. The burning
fields at Soiyam, of which an account is given by Sir W. Lawrence,
Valley of Kashmir^ pp. 42-3, point to the same conclusion, and the
frequency of earthquakes suggests subterranean instability in this area.

The following table of geological systems in descending order is
given by ^Ir. Lydekker for the whole State:—

European

equivalents.

Alluvial system:

Low-level alluvia, &c..

High-level alluvia, glacial, lacustrine, and karc%va series

Prehistoric.

Pleistocene.

Tertiary system:

1 Outei .......

j Inner .

Siwalik series |

1 Pliocene.

Sirmur series |

f Murree group .....
.Sabathii group )

[ Indus Tertiaries ^ •

Miocene.

Eocene.

Zaskar system :

Chikkim series .... ....

Siipra-Kuling series .......

Killing series ........

Cretaceous.
Jura and Trias.
Carboniferous.

Panjal system :

Not generally siibdiviiled ......

Metam Orphic system :

Metamorphosed Panjals, &c. .....

Central gneiss ........

j .‘Silurian.

\ Cambrian.

) Palaeozoic and
j Archaean.

Under the first of these systems, j\lr. Lydekker has discussed the
interesting question, whether Kashmir was once covered by a great
lake. In this discussion the karewas already described play an impor¬
tant part, and the only ex])lanation of the u[)per karc'ivas is that
Kashmir was formerly occupied by a vast lake of which the existing
lakes are remnants. Mr. Drew estimated that at one jieriod this lake

KAS,HMlR AND JAMMU

must have reached a level of nearly 2,000 feet above the present
height of the valley, but this estimate is considered far too high by
Mr. T.ydekker, No very satisfactory conclusions can be drawn at
present as to the barrier which dammed the old lake, or as to the
relative period of its existence.

A full account of the flora of Kashmir is given by Lawrence, Valley
of Kash 7 ni 7 \ chap, iv. The valley has an enormous variety of plants,
and the Kashmiri finds a use for most of them. Among condiments
the most important is the z'lra siydh {Ca 7 'n 77 i spj or carraway. Under
drugs, Ca 7 i 7 iabis saliva^ the hemp plant, and A 7 ie 77 iisia or tehva 7 i may
be mentioned, Asafoetida is found in the Astor iahsiL Numerous
plants yield dyes and tans, of which Datisca ca 7 i 7 iahi 7 ia^ Ruhia
co 7 'difolia^ and G€ra 7 iiu 77 i 7 iepale 7 is€ are the most familiar. Kashmir
is rich in fibres, and the people make great use of them. The two
best are the Aba/i/077 Avice 777 iae and the Ca 7 i 7 iabis sativa. Bin-za
(Befiila the paper birch, is a most important tree to the natives.

The bark is employed for various purposes, such as roofs of houses,
writing paper, and packing paper. Many of the ancient manuscripts
are written on birch bark. The Kashmiri neglects nothing which can
be eaten as fodder. The willow, the Indian chestnut, the cotoneaster,
the hawthorn, and the poplar are always lopped to provide fodder for
cattle and sheep in the winter.

Excellent grasses abound, and the swamps yield most nutritious
reeds and other plants. There is an abundance of food-plants, too
numerous to be enumerated here. Euryale f€ 7 -ox^ Ny 77 iphaea stellaia^
N, a/biiy Xelii 77 ibiii 77 i speciosi/771^ the exquisite pink water-lily, Acorns
Cala 77 ius^diw([ Typha sp,^ the reed mace, all contribute to the Kashmiri’s
sustenance. Wild fruits are in profusion, and many fungi are eaten by
the people. The mushroom is common, and the 77 ior€l {Morc/iella sp.)
abounds in the mountains and forms an important export to India.
There are plants that are useful for hair-washes, and the herbs with
medicinal properties are almost innumerable. Macroto 77 iia Be 7 iiha 77 ii
is one of these peculiarly esteemed by the Kashmiris as a remedy for
heart-affections. Among the scents may be noted Gogal dhup {Jiiriiiea
77 iac 7 'Ocephala)y which is largely exported to India, where it is used by
Hindus. The most important of the aromatic plants is the Saussu7‘ea
Lappa, This grows at high elevations from 8,000 to 9,000 feet.
The root has a scent like orris with a blend of violet. It is largely
exported to China, where it is used as incense in the joss houses.
It has many valuable properties, and is a source of considerable
revenue to the State. There is a great variety of trees, but the oak,
the holly, and the Himalayan rhododendron are unknown. Among
the long list of trees may be noticed the deodar^ the blue pine, the
spruce, the silver fir, the yew, the walnut, and the Indian horse-chestnut.

PH VSICAL A SPE CTS S 7

In the valley itself the exquisite plane-tree, the mulberry, the apricot,
and the willow are perhaps the most familiar.

Kashmir offers great attraction to the sportsman, and for its size the
valley and the surrounding mountains [)Ossess a large and varied animal
kingdom. A full account of the animals and birds will be found in
The WjUey of Kashmir^ chap. v. Since that book was written game
preservation has made great strides, and has prevented the extinction
of the bdrasiugha [Cervus duvaiiceli) and the ha?igal or Kashmir stag
(C. cashmiriaiius). Among the Ceixndae^ the musk deer {Moschus
moschiferus) is common and its pod is valuable. Of the family Ursidae^
the black bear, or bomba hdpat {Ursus torquatiis)^ is very common,
being a great pest to the crops and a danger to the people, I'he
brown bear, or Idl hdpat {Ursus arctus or isabettiuus)^ is still far from
rare. It is partly herbivorous and partly carnivorous. Of the family
Bovidae^ the markhor {Capra falco 7 ieri) and the ibex {C. sibuica) are
still to be met with. The Kashmir md?'khor has from one to two com-
l)lete turns in the spirals of its horns. The tahr or jagla (Hemi/ragus)
is found on the Pir Panjal, and the serow or 7 ‘dmu {Xemorhaedus
bubali?ius) is fairly common. The goral {Cemas goral^ also occurs.

There is a considerable variety of birds. The blue heron {Ardea
cinered) is very common, and fine heronries exist at several places.
The heron^s feathers are much valued, and the right to collect the
feathers is farmed out. Among game-birds may be noticed the snow
partridge {Lerwa le 7 'iva\ the Himalayan snow cock {Tetraogallus
himalayeusis)^ the chikor partridge {Caccabis chukar), the large grey
quail {Coiurjiix), the monal pheasant {Lophophorus pr/u/gepis)^ the Simla
horned pheasant {Tragopapi ipielapiocephaluppi)^ and the Kashmir Pucras
]iheasant {Piicrasui biddulphi). The large sand-grouse {Ptepvc/es arepi-
artiis) is occasionally seen. Pigeons, turtle-doves, rails, grebes, gulls,
plovers, snipe, cranes, are common, and storks are sometimes seen.
Geese are found in vast flocks on the AVular Lake in the winter, and
there are at least thirteen kinds of duck. The goosander and smew
are also found on the Wular Lake. There are six species of eagles,
four of falcons, and four of owls. Kingfishers, hoopoes, bee-eater^,
night-jars, swifts, cuckoos, woodpeckers, parrots, crows in great variet)-,
choughs, starlings, orioles, finches (12 species), buntings, larks, wag¬
tails, creepers, tits, shrikes, warblers (14 species), thrushes (20 species),
dippers, wrens, babbling thrushes, bulbuls, fly-catchers, and swallows
are all familiar birds.

Among the reptiles there are two poisonous snakes, the gupias and
the pohur^ the bite of which is often fatal.

Fish forms an important item in the food of the Kashmiris. \ igne
noticed only six different kinds, but Lawrence enumerated thirteen.

As the elevation varies from 1,200 feet at Jammu and 3,000 in the

KAS//MIR AXD JA.yA/U

Indus valley at lUinji and Chilas to 25,000 and 26,000 feet on the
liigliest iiiountain })eaks, the State presents an extraordinary variety of
climatic conditions. The local variations of temperature depend chiefly
upon situation (i.e. whether in a valley or on the crest of a mountain
range), elevation, and the amount of the winter snowfall and the period
and depth of the snow accumulation. The effect of position in a valley
or a mountain crest is shown by comparing the temperatures of Murree
and Srinagar. The Murree observatory is about t, 2 oo feet liigher than
the Srinagar observatory. The mean maximum day temperature in
January at Murree is 7° higher than at Srinagar, and the mean minimum
night temperature 9° higher. On the other hand, in the hottest month
(June) the maximum day temperature is 1° lower at Murree than at
Srinagar, while the minimum night temperatures are almost identical.
The diurnal range is 2° less in January, 7° less in June, and 14° less in
October at Murree than at Srinagar. The slow movement of the air
from the higher elevations into valleys more or less completely shut in
by mountains tends to depress temperature at valley stations both by
day and night considerably below that at similar elevations on the crest
of the Outer Himalayas, and to increase the diurnal range most largely
in the dry clear months of October and November, when the sinking
down of the air from the adjacent mountains has its greatest effect, and
is supplemented by rapid radiation from the ground. The effect of
snow accumulation in valleys in reducing temperature is very marked.
At Dras and Sonaniarg, where the accumulation is usually large, the
solar heat on clear fine days in winter is utilized in melting the snow
and hence exercises no influence on the air temperature. At Leh,
where the ground is only occasionally concealed under a thin covering
of snow, the sun even in winter usually warms the ground surface
directly and thence the air. The cooling influence of snow accumula¬
tion at Dras and Sonamarg is largely increased by tlie rapid radiation
from the surface. The mean daily temperature is lowest in January
and highest in June or July. At Srinagar the mean temperature of
January is 33-1°. The mean temperature of the hottest month (July)
at Srinagar is 74‘6° The mean temperature in January and August
ranges from 25-3° to 75® at Skardu, from 3-4° to 64-5® at Dras, from
17-7® to 6 j. 8° at Leh, and from 36-6° to 85" (in July) at Gilgit. The
most noteworthy features of the annual variation are the very rapid
increase in March or A})ril at the end of the winter, and an equally
rajiid decrease in October, when the skies clear after the south-\vest
monsoon. The diurnal range is least at Gilgit (19-8°) and Srinagar
(22-4°) on the mean of the year, and greatest at Dras (31-4^) and
Leh (26-3^).

d'he i)recipitation is received during two periods, the cold season
from December to April, and the south-west monsoon period from June

P//ySICAL ASPECTS

lo September. The rainfall in October and November is small in
amount, and November is usually the driest month of the year. ’’Hie
cold-season precipitation from December to March is chiefly due to
storms which advance from l^ersia and Baluchistan across Northern
India. 'Fhese disturbances occasionally give very stormy weather in
Kashmir, with violent winds on the higher elevations and much snow,
d'he fall is large on the Pir Fanjal range, being heaviest in January or
February. In the valley and the mountain ranges to the north and
east this is the chief precipitation of the year, and is very heavy on the
first line of permanent snow, but decreases rapidly eastwards to the
Karakoram range. The largest amount is received at Srinagar, Dras,
and Anantnag in January. In the Karakoram region and the 1 'ibetan
plateau the winter fall is much later than on the outer ranges of the
Himalayas, namely from March to May, and the maximum is received
in April. The average depth of the snowfall at Srinagar in an ordinary
winter is about 8 feet. The snowfall at Sonamarg in 1902 measured
13 feet and in 1903 about 30 feet. In April and May thunderstorms
are of occasional occurrence in the valley and surrounding hills, giving
light to moderate showers of rain. This hot-season rainfall is of con¬
siderable importance for cultivation in the valley. From June to
November heavy rain falls on the Pir Panjal range, and in Jammu
chiefly in the months of July, August, and September. The rainfall at
Jammu and Punch is comparable with that of the submontane Districts
of the Punjab. It is more moderate in amount in the valley, which
receives a total of 9-4 inches, as compared with 35-7 inches at Punch
and 26*8 inches at Domel. The precipitation is very light to the cast
of the first line of the snows bordering the valley on the east, and is
about 2 inches in total amount at Gilgit, Skardu, Kargil, and Leh.
Thus the south-west monsoon is the predominant feature in Jammu
and Kishtwar, while in Ladakh, Gilgit, and the higher ranges the cold-
season precipitation is more important. Tables I and II on p. 144
show the average temperature and rainfall at Srinagar and Leh for
a series of years ending with 1905.

Earthquakes are not uncommon, and eleven accompanied by loss of
life have been recorded since the fifteenth century. In 1885 shocks
were felt from the end of May till the middle of August, and about
3,500 people were killed ; fissures oi)ened in the earth, and landslips
occurred. Floods are also frequently mentioned in the histories of
the country, the greatest following the obstruction of the Jhelum by
the fall of a mountain in A.n. 879. The great flood of 1841 in the
Indus caused much loss of life and damage to property. In 1893
serious floods took place in the Jhelum owing to continuous rain for
52 hours, and much damage was done to Srinagar. An inundation of
a yet more serious character occurred in 1903.

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

The early history of Kashmir has been preserved in the celebrated
Rajataranginl^ by the poet Kalhana, who began to write in 1148. He
History gives a connected account of the history of the valley,
which may be accepted as a trustworthy record from
the middle of the ninth century onwards. Kalhana’s work was con¬
tinued by Jonaraja, who brought the history through the troubled times
of the last Hindu dynasties, and the first Muhammadan rulers, to the
time of the great Zain-ul-abidin, who ascended the throne in 1420.
Another Sanskrit chronicler, Srivara, carries on the narrative to the
accession of Fateh Shah in i486; and the last of the chronicles, the
Rajavalipataka^ brings the record down to 1586, when the valley was
conquered by Akbar.

The current legend in Kashmir relates that the valley was once
covered by the waters of a mighty lake, on which the goddess Parvati
sailed in a pleasure-boat from Haramukh mountain in the north to the
Konsanag lake in the south. In her honour the lake was known as
the Satisar, or ‘ lake of the virtuous woman.’ The country-side was
harassed by a demon popularly known as Jaldeo, a corruption of
Jalodbhava. Kasyapa, the grandson of Brahma, came to the rescue,
but for some time the amphibious demon eluded him, hiding under the
water. Vishnu then intervened and struck the mountains at Baramula
with his trident. The waters of the lake rushed out, but the demon
took refuge in the low ground near where Srinagar now stands, and
baffled pursuit. Then Parvati cast a mountain on him, and so de¬
stroyed the wicked Jaldeo. The mountain is known as Hara Parbat,
and from ancient times the goddess has been worshipped on its slopes.
^Vhen the demons had been routed, men visited the valley in the
summer; and as the climate became milder they remained for the
winter. Little kingdoms sprang up and the little kings quarrelled
among themselves, with the usual result that a bigger king was called
in to rule the country.

The Rajataranginl opens with the name of the glorious king of
Kashmir, Gonanda, ‘ worshipped by the region which Kailasa lights up,
and which the tossing Ganga clothes with a soft garment.’ Nothing is
known of the founder of the dynasty, though the genealogists of Jammu
trace a direct descent from Gonanda to the present ruler. Mention is
made of the pious Asoka and of his town, Srinagar, with its ninety-six
lakhs of houses resplendent with wealth. This town probably stood in
the neighbourhood of the Takht-i-Sulaiman. Next come the three
kings, Hushka, Jushka, and Kanishka, to be identified with Huvishka,
Vasudeva, and Kanishka, the Kushan rulers of Northern India at
the beginning of the Christian era. According to the chronicles, in
the days of these kings Kashmir was in the possession of the Buddhists,
and Buddhist tradition asserts that the third great council held by

HIS TOR Y

Kanishka took place in Kashmir. The Buddhist creed and the Brah-
manical cult seem to have existed peaceably side by side ; but five
hundred years later Hiuen Tsiang found the mass of the people Hindu,
and the monasteries few and partly deserted. There is good reason
to believe that the Kashmiris were, from the earliest period, chiefly
Saivas.

About A.D. 528, Mihirakula, the king ‘cruel as death,’ ruled over
Kashmir. He was the leader of the White Huns or Ephthalites. The
people still point to a ridge on the Pir Panjal range, Hastivanj, where
the king, to amuse himself, drove one hundred elephants over the
precipice, enjoying their cries of agony. King Gopaditya was a
pleasing contrast to the cruel king, and did much to raise the Brah¬
mans, and to advance their interests.

Pravarasena II reigned in the sixth century and, returning from his
victorious campaigns abroad, built a magnificent city on the site of the
‘present capital of Kashmir. The city was known as Pravarapura, and
is mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang at the time of his visit (a.d. 631) as the
‘ new city.’ The site chosen has many advantages, strategic and com¬
mercial, but it is liable to floods. Many subsequent rulers endeavoured
to move the site of the capital, but their efforts failed. Among these
was the celebrated Lalitaditya, who ruled in the middle of the eighth
century, and received an investiture from the emperor of China. A
great and victorious soldier, he subdued the kings of India and invaded
Central Asia. After twelve years of successful campaigning he returned
to Kashmir, enriched with spoil and accompanied by artisans from
various countries, and built a magnificent city, Paraspur (Parihasapura).
To give this new town pre-eminence, he burnt down Pravarapura.
Lalitaditya also built the splendid temple of Martand. Before leaving
for further conquests in Central Asia, from which he never returned,
the .king gave his subjects some excellent advice. He warns them
against internal feuds, and says that if the forts are kept in repair and
provisioned they need fear no foe. In a country shut in by mountains,
discipline must be strict, and the cultivators must not be left with grain
more than sufficient for a year’s requirements. Cultivators should not
be allowed to have more ploughs or cattle than are absolutely neces¬
sary, or they will trespass on their neighbours’ fields. They should
be repressed, and their style of living must be lower than that of the
city people, or the latter will suffer. These words spoken some 1,200
years ago have never been forgotten; and rulers of various races and
religions have followed Lalitaditya’s policy, and sternly subordinated
the interests of the cultivators to the comfort of the city.

Sankara Varman (883-902) was another great conqueror; and it is
stated that, though Kashmir had fallen off in population, he was able
to lead out an army of 900,000 foot, 300 elephants, and 100,000 horse.

VOL, XV, G

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

Sankara Varman was avaricious and profligate. He plundered Paraspur
in order to raise the fame of his own town, now known as Pattan.

There were signs of decay, and the last of the strong Hindu rulers
was queen Didda (950-1003). Then followed the Lohara dynasty.
Central authority was weakened, the country was a prey to civil war
and violence, and the Damaras, skilled in burning, plundering, and
fighting, harassed the valley. The last of this line was Jaya Simha,
or Simha Deva (1128); and in his reign the Tartar, Khan Dalcha,
invaded Kashmir, and after great slaughter set fire to Srinagar. He
subsequently perished in the passes on his retreat from Kashmir, over¬
taken by snow. Ram Chand, the commander-in-chief of the Kashmir
army, had meanwhile kept up some semblance of authority in the
valley, and had routed the Gaddis from Kishtwar. With Ram Chand
were two soldiers of fortune, Rainchan Shah from Tibet and Shah
IMirza from Swat.

Rainchan Shah quarrelled with Ram Chand, and with the assistance
of the Ladakhis attacked and killed him. He married Kuta Rani,
the daughter of Ram Chand, and embracing Islam became the first
Muhammadan king of Kashmir, but died after a short reign of two
and a half years. At this juncture Udayanadeva appeared, who was
the brother of Raja Simha Deva and had fled to Kishtwar. He
married the widow, Kuta Rani, and reigned for fifteen years. On his
death Kuta Rani assumed power for a short time, and committed
suicide rather than marry Shah Mirza, who now declared himself king.
He was the first of the line known as Salatin-i-Kashmir, and took the
name of Shams-ud-din. In 1394 Sultan Sikandar, known for his fierce
zeal as Buishikan or ‘iconoclast,’ was king of Kashmir. He was
a gloomy fanatic, and destroyed nearly all the grand buildings and
temples of his Hindu predecessors. To the people he offered death,
conversion, or exile. Many fled; many were converted to Islam ;
many were killed, and it is said that Sikandar burnt seven maunds
of sacred threads worn by the murdered Brahmans. By the end of
his reign all Hindu inhabitants of the valley, except the Brahmans,
had probably adopted Islam.

In 1420 Zain-ul-abidin succeeded. He was wise, virtuous, and
frugal, and very tolerant to the Brahmans. He remitted the poll-tax
on Hindus, encouraged the Brahmans to learn Persian, repaired some
of the Hindu temples, and revived Hindu learning. Hitherto in
Kashmir Sanskrit had been written in Sarada, an older sister of the
Devanagari character. The introduction of Persian, as the official
language, divided the Brahmans into three subdivisions: the Karkuns,
who entered official life ; the Bachabatts, who discharged the function
of the priesthood ; and the Pandits, who devoted themselves to
Sanskrit learning. Towards the end of this good and useful reign the

HISTORY

Chakks sprang into mischievous prominence. Zain-ul-abidin drove
them out of the valley, but in the time of his weak successors they
returned and eventually seized the government of Kashmir. Turbulent
and brave, the Chakks were not fitted for administration. Yakub
Khan, the last of the line, offered a stubborn resistance to Akbar, and
with the help of the Bambas and Khakhas routed the Mughal on his
first attempt on the valley (1582). But later, not without difficulty
and some reverses, Kashmir was finally conquered (1586) k

Akbar visited the valley three times. He built a strong fort on the
slopes of the Hara Parbat, paying high wages, and dispensing with
forced labour. His revenue minister, Todar Mai, made a very summary
record of the fiscal conditions of the valley. Jahangir was greatly
attached to Kashmir. He laid out lovely pleasure-gardens ; around
the Dal Lake were 777 gardens, yielding a revenue of i lakh from roses
and bed mmsk. Much depended on the character of the governors.
All Mardan Khan, the best of these, built a splendid series of sarais
on the Pir Panjal route to India, and grappled with a famine with
energy and success. Aurangzeb visited the valley only once; but in
that brief time he showed his zeal against the unbelievers, and his name
is still execrated by the Brahmans. Then followed the disorder of
decay, and in 1751 the Subah of Kashmir was practically independent
of Delhi.

From the following year the unfortunate Kashmiris experienced the
cruel oppression of Afghan rule, the short but evil period of the
Durranis. Governors from Kabul plundered and tortured the people
indiscriminately, but reserved their worst cruelties for the Brahmans,
the Shiahs, and the Bambas of the Jhelum valley. In their agony the
people of Kashmir turned with hope to the rising power of Ranjit
Singh of Lahore. In 1814 a Sikh army advanced by the Pir Panjal,
Ranjit Singh watching the operations from Punch. This expedition
miscarried; but in 1819 Misr Diwan Chand, Ranjit Singh’s great
general, accompanied by Gulab Singh of Jammu, overcame Muhammad
Azim Khan, and entered Shupiyan. In comparison with the Afghans,
the Sikhs came as a relief to the unfortunate Kashmiris, but their rule
was harsh and oppressive.

Sher Singh, the reputed son of Ranjit Singh, was a weak governor,
and his name is remembered in connexion with the terrible famine
which visited the valley. The best of the Sikh governors was Colonel
Mian Singh (1833), who is still spoken of with gratitude, and did his
best to repair the ravages of the famine. He was murdered by

^ Kashmir had been attacked from the side of Ladakh by Mirzii Haidar qhe author
of the Tdrikh-i-Rashidt) in 1532, and again invaded from the south in 1540, and
ruled by him (nominally on behalf of the emperor liumayun) until his death eleven
years later.

KASHMIR AXD JAMMU

mutinous soldiers, and was succeeded by Shaikh Ghulam Muhbud^din
in 1842. During his government the Bambas, under Sher Ahmad,
inflicted great losses on the Sikhs. In 1845 In-jam-ud-din succeeded
his father as governor.

The history of the State, as at present constituted, is practically the
history of one man, a Dogra Rajput, Gulab Singh of Jammu. Lying
off the high roads of India, and away from the fertile plains of the
Punjab, the barren hills of the Dogras had not attracted the notice
of the Mughal invaders of India. Here lived a number of petty Rajas,
and it appears that from very early times the little kingdom of Jammu
was locally of some importance. Towards the end of the eighteenth
century the power of the Jammu ruler had extended east as far as the
Ravi, and west to the Chenab; but the power waned and waxed
according to the fortunes of petty and chronic warfare. To the east,
at Basoli and Kishtwar, were independent Rajput chiefs, while to the
north-west were the Muhammadan rulers of Bhimbar and Rajaori,
descendants of Hindu Rajputs. These two states lay on the Mughal
route to Kashmir, and so came under the influence of Delhi. Up the
Jhelum valley, the country was held by small independent Muham¬
madan chiefs, whose title of Raja suggests their Hindu origin.

About the middle of the eighteenth century Raja Ranjit Deo was
the ruler of Jammu. He was a man of some mark, and his capital
flourished; but at his death about 1780, his three sons quarrelled.
The Sikhs were invoked, and Jammu was plundered. From Ranjit
Dec’s death to 1846, the Dogra country became tributary to the Sikh
power. Gulab Singh, Dhyan Singh, and Suchet Singh were the great-
grandsons of Surat Singh, youngest brother of Ranjit Deo. They were
soldiers of fortune, and as young men sought service at the court of
Ranjit Singh of Lahore. They rapidly distinguished themselves; and
Gulab Singh, for his service in capturing the Raja of Rajaori, who
was fighting the Sikhs, was created Raja of Jammu in 1820. Dhyan
Singh obtained the principality of Punch, a hilly country between the
Jhelum and the Pir Panjal range, north of Rajaori; while Suchet Singh
received Ramnagar, west-by-north of Jammu.

Ranjit Singh had found that the control of the Dogra country was
a difficult task, and his policy of enlisting the services of able Dogras
was at once obvious and prudent. The country was disturbed, each
man plundered his neighbour, and Gulab Singh’s energies were taxed
to the utmost in restoring order. He was a man of extraordinary
power, and very quickly asserted his authority. His methods were
often cruel and unscrupulous, but allowances must be made. He
believed in object-lessons, and his penal system was at any rate
successful in ridding the country of crime. He kept a sharp eye on
his officials, and a close hand on his revenues. Rapidly absorbing the

HISTORY

power and possessions of the feudal chiefs around him, after ten years
of laborious and consistent effort he and his two brothers became
masters of nearly all the country between Kashmir and the Punjab,
save Rajaori. Bhadarwah fell easily into the hands of Gulab Singh
alter a slight resistance. In Kishtwar, the minister, W'azir Lakhpat,
quarrelled with the Raja and sought the assistance of Gulab Singh,
who at once moved up with a force, and the Raja :>urrendered his
countr)' without fighting.

His easy successes in Kishtwar, which commanded two of the roads
into Ladakh, probably suggested the ambitious idea of the conquest
of that unknoTO land. The difficulties of access offered by mountains
and glaciers were enormous; but the brave Dogras under Gulab
Singh’s officer, Zorawar Singh, never hesitated, and in two campaigns
the whole of I^dakh passed into the hands of the Jammu State. It is
interesting to notice that the Dogras did not pillage the rich monastery
of Himis, which saved itselt by allowing the army in ignorance of
its locality to pass the gorge leading to the Himis valley, and then
sending a deputation with an offer of free rations while in I^dakh
territory. The agreement made was respected by both parties.

A few years later, in 1840, Zorawar Singh invaded Ealtistan, captured
the Raja of Skardu, who had sided with the Ladakhis, and anne.xed
his country. The follo^ig year (1841) Zorawar Singh while invading
Tibet was overtaken by winter, and, being attacked when his troops
were disabled by cold, perished with nearly all his army. Whether
it was policy or whether it was accident, by 1840 Gulab Singh had
encircled Kashmir.

In the winter of 1845 war broke out between the British and the
Sikhs. Gulab Singh contrived to hold himself aloof till the battle of
Sobraon (1846), when he appeared as a useful mediator and the
trusted adviser of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treaties were concluded.
By the first the State of I^hore handed over to the British, as equiva¬
lent for one crore of indemnity, the hill countries between the rivers
Beas and the Indus; by the second the British made over to Gulab
Singh for 75 lakhs all the hilly or mountainous country situated to the
east of the Indus and west of the Ravi. Kashmir did not, however,
come into the Maharajas hands without fightmg. Imam-ud-dln, the
Sikh governor, aided by the restless Bambas from the Jhelum ^■alley,
routed Gulab Singh's troops on the outskirts of Srinagar, killing Wazir
Lakhpat. Owing, however, to the mediation of Sir Henry Hrwrence,
Imani-ud-din desisted from opposition and Kashmir passed without
further disturbances to the new ruler. At Astur and Gilgit the Dogra
troops relieved the Sikhs, Xathu Shah, the Sikh commander, taking
service under Gulab Singh. Not long afterwards the Hunza Raja
attacked Gilgit territory. Nathu Shah retorted by leading a force to

KASHMIR AMD JAMMU

attack the Hunza valley ] he and his force were destroyed, and Gilgit
fort fell into the hands of the Hunza Raja, along with Punial, YasTn,
and Darel. The Maharaja sent two columns, one from Astor and one
from Baltistan, and after some fighting Gilgit fort was recovered. In
1852, partly by strategy, partly by treachery, the Dogra troops were
annihilated by the bloodthirsty Gaur Rahman of YasTn, and for eight
years the Indus formed the boundar}’ of the iMaharaja^s territories.

Gulab Singh died in 1857: and when his successor, RanbTr Singh,
had recovered from the strain caused by the ^Mutiny, in which he had
loyally sided with the British, he determined to recover Gilgit, and to
rehabilitate the reputation of the Dogras on the frontier. In i860
a force under Devi Singh crossed the Indus, and advanced on Gaur
Rahman’s strong fort at Gilgit. Gaur Rahman had died just before
the arrival of the Dogras. The fort was taken ; and since then the
Maharajas of Jammu and Kashmir have held it, to their heavy cost
and somewhat doubtful advantage.

RanbTr Singh was a model Hindu: devoted to his religion and to
Sanskrit learning, but tolerant of other creeds. He was in many ways
an enlightened man, but he lacked his father’s strong will and deter¬
mination, and his control over the State officials was weak. I'he latter
part of his life was darkened by the dreadful famine in Kashmir,
1877-9; September, 1885, he was succeeded by his eldest son,

the present ^Maharaja Pratap Singh, G.C.S.I. He bears the hereditary
title of Maharaja, and receives a salute of 19 guns, increased to 21 in
his own territory.

Through all these vicissitudes of goveinment and changes in religion
the Kashmiri has remained unaltered. Mughal, Afghan, Sikh, and
Dogra have left no impression on the national character; and at heart
the people of the valley are Hindus, as they were before the time of
Sikandar Shah. The isolation from the outer world accounts for this
stable unchanging nationality, and passages in the Rdjatarangini show
that the main features of the national character were the same in the
early period of Hindu rule as they are now.

The valley of Kashmir is holy land, and everywhere one finds
remains of ancient temples and buildings called by the present inhabi¬
tants, though without historical foundation, Pandavlari, ‘ the houses of
the Pandavas.’ These ancient buildings, though more or less injured by
iconoclasts, vandal builder.s, earthquakes, and, as Cunningham thinks,
by gunpowder, are composed of a blue limestone capable of taking the
highest polish, and of great solidity, d'hey defy weather and time,
while the later works of the Mughals, the mosques of Aurangzeb and
the pleasure-places of Salim and Nur Mahal, are crumbling away and
possess little or none of their pristine beauty.

The Hindu buildings of Kashmir have been described by Sir

HISTORY

i\lexander Cunningham and Mr. F. S. Growseh They exhibit traces
of the influence of Grecian art, and are distinguished by the graceful
elegance of their outlines, by the massive boldness of their parts, and
by the happy propriety of their decorations. Characteristic features
are the lofty pyramidal roofs, trefoiled doorways covered by pyramidal
pediments, and the great width of the space between columns.

Among the numerous temples two may be noticed—Martand and
Payech—the first for its grandeur, and the second for its excellent
preservation. Martand, the Temple of the Sun, stands on a sloping
karewa^ about 3 miles east of Islamabad, overlooking the finest view
in Kashmir. The great structure was built by Lalitaditya in the eighth
century. Kalasa came here at the approach of death and expired at
the feet of the sacred image (1089). In the time of Kalhana the
chronicler, the great quadrangular courtyard was used as a fortification,
and the sacred image is said to have been destroyed I)y Sikandar, the
iconoclast.

The building consists of one lofty central edifice, with a small
detached wing on each side of the entrance, the whole standing in a
large quadrangle surrounded by a colonnade of eighty-four pillars with
intervening trefoil-headed recesses. The length of the outer side of
the wall, which is blank, is about 90 yards; that of the front is about
56 yards. The central building is 63 feet in length by 36 feet in
width, and, alone of all the temples of Kashmir, possesses, in addition
to the cella or sanctuary, a choir and nave, termed in Sanskrit the
antardla and arddhamandapa ; the nave is 18 feet square. The
sanctuary alone is left entirely bare, the two other compartments being
lined with rich panellings and sculptured niches. As the main build¬
ing is at present entirely uncovered, the original form of the root can
be determined only by a reference to other temples and to the general
form and character of the various parts of the ^lartand temple itself.
It has been conjectured that the roof was pyramidal, and that the
entrance chamber and wings were similarly covered. 1 here would
thus have been four distinct pyramids, of which that over the inner
chamber must have been the loftiest, the height of its pinnacle above
the ground being about 75 feet.

The interior must have been as imposing as the exterior. On
ascending the flight of steps, now covered by ruins, the votary entered
a highly decorated chamber, with a doorway on each side covered by
a pediment, with a trefoil-headed niche containing a bust of the Hindu
triad, and on the flanks of the main entrance, as well as on those ot
the side doorways, were pointed and trefoil niches, each ot which held
a statue of a Hindu deity. The interior decorations of the roof can
only be determined conjecturally, as there do not appear to be any
^ Calcutta Review^ No. CVII.

KASHMIR AMD JAMMU

ornamented stones that could with certainty be assigned to it. Baron
Hiigel doubts whether ]Martand ever had a roof; but as the walls of the
temple are still standing, the numerous heaps of large stones that are
scattered about on all sides suggest the idea that these belonged to
the roof. Fergusson, however, thought that the roof was of wood.

Payech lies about 19 miles from Srinagar under the Naunagri
karewa^ about 6 miles from the left bank of the Jhelum river. On the
south side of the village, situated in a small green space near the bank
of the stream surrounded by a few walnut and willow trees, stands an
ancient temple, which in intrinsic beauty and elegance of outline is
superior to all the existing remains in Kashmir of similar dimensions.
Its excellent preservation may probably be explained by its retired
situation at the foot of the high table-land, which separates it by an
interval of 5 or 6 miles from the bank of the Jhelum, and by the mar¬
vellous solidity of its construction. The cella, which is 8 feet square,
and has an open doorway on each of the four sides, is composed of only
ten stones, the four corners being each a single stone, the sculptured
tympanums over the doorways four others, while two more compose
the pyramid roof, the lower of these being an enormous mass, 8 feet
square by 4 feet in height. It has been ascribed by Sir Alexander
Cunningham, on grounds which, in the absence of any positive
authority either way, may be taken as adequate, to Narendraditya,
who reigned from 483 to 490. Fergusson; however, considered that
the temple belongs to the thirteenth century. The sculptures over
the doorways are coarsely executed in comparison with the artistic
finish of the purely architectural details, and are much defaced, but
apparently represent Brahma, Vishnu, Siva, and the goddess Durga.
The building is said to be dedicated to ^ 4 shnu as Surya or the Sun-
god. Inside the cupola is rayed, so as to represent the sun; and at
each corner of the square the space intervening between the angle and
the line of the circle is filled up with a or attendant, who seems

to be sporting at the edge of its rays. The roof has been partly
displaced, which is said to have been the result of an attempt made to
take it down and remove it to the city. The interior is still occupied
by a large stone lingam.

Table III at the end of this article (p. 145) shows the distribution of
population in 1901. An estimate of the number of inhabitants was
^ , , made in 1873, but the first regular Census was taken

in 1891. In that year the population was 2,543,952,
and it rose to 2,905,578 in 1901, or by 14 per cent. To a considerable
extent the increase was due to improved enumeration, as for examiile
in Gilgit, where the number recorded rose from 16,769 to 60,885. "^'he
increase amounted to 22 per cent, in the Kashmir province, compared
with only 6 per cent, in Jammu. The density of population in the

POPULA TION

whole State is 36 persons j^er square mile. Details of the area of sub¬
divisions are not available, but the density per square mile of land
under cultivation varies from 64 in Muzaffarabad district to 1,295 in
Gilgit, where cultivable land is scarce. There arc only two towns of
any size, Jammu (36,130) and Srinagar (122,618); but the State con¬
tains 8,946 villages. Nearly half the total population live in villages
with a population of less than 500 each. Formerly, considerable num.
bers of Kashmiris emigrated to the Punjab, but the census results in
that Province show that only 83,240 persons born in Kashmir were
enumerated there in 1901, compared with 111,775 1881. Statistics

of age are, as usual, unreliable, and need not be referred to in detail.
In the whole State there are 884 females to 1,000 males, the pro¬
portion being highest in the frontier tracts (933) and lowest in Kashmir
province (876). These results point to defective enumeration of
females. Marriage is comparatively late, and less than i per cent,
of the males under fifteen years, and about 2 per cent, of the females
of the same age, are married. Taking the whole population, 53 per
cent, of males and 39 per cent, of females are married. Polyandry
is prevalent in Ladakh. About 34 per cent, of the population speak
Kashmiri, and 15 per cent. Dogri, while Punjabi is the tongue of
nearly 30 per cent. A great variety of languages are used, in various
parts of the State, by comparatively small numbers. Agriculture sup*
ports 54 per cent, of the total, and weaving and allied arts 2 per cent.

The total population includes 2,154,695 Muhammadans, 689,073
Hindus, 25,828 Sikhs, and 35,047 Buddhists. The Hindus are found
chiefly in the Jammu province, where they form rather less than half
the total. In the Kashmir province they represent only 524 in every
10,000 of population, and in the frontier wazarats of Ladakh and
Gilgit only 97 out of every 10,000 persons.

Among the Hindus of the Jammu province, who number 626,177,
the most important castes arc the Brahmans (186,000), the Rajputs
(167,000), the Khattris (48,000), and the Thakkars (93,000). Each
caste is subdivided into many sub-castes; but for practical {purposes
the Dogra Rajputs do not regard the finer divisions of the ethnologist,
but draw a broad distinction between the Mian Rajputs who engage in
neither trade nor agriculture, and the other Rajputs who have con¬
descended to work for their living. The Mians will marry the daughters
of the latter class, but will not give their own daughters in marriage
to them. They have territorial names, such as Janiwal and Jasrotia,
signifying that the family is connected with Jammu and Jasrota. They
mostly hold land on pepper-corn rents, cultivated by others, who take
a share of the crops. The Mian Rajjmt gladly serves as a soldier, by
choice in the cavalry, and if there is not room for him in the Maharaja's
forces, he will enlist in the Indian army. In the Hunza-Nagar campaign

lOO

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

and at Chitral the Dogra Rajput worthily maintained his ancient repu¬
tation. As a soldier he is admirable, but as a landowner evil days are
in store for him. The agriculture of the Dogra country is uncertain,
and not over-profitable; and in the course of years the proud, gallant,
and thriftless Rajput will be ousted by the sturdy Thakkars and Jats
(Musalman, 123,000; Hindu, 25,000). The Rajputs are a handsome
race, wiry and active. They observe caste rules very strictly. Female
infanticide was the common rule in the memory of men still middle-
aged, and the sail of Raja Suchet Singh’s ladies is still remembered by
the old men. The KhattrTs are an important people, keen and clever.
They are the financiers and officials of the State, and some of the best
servants of the Maharaja have been Dogra Khattris.

The origin of the word ‘ Dogra ’ is commonly stated by the people
themselves to have arisen from the fact that the cradle of the Dogra
race lies between the two holy lakes, Saroin Sar and Man Sar, not far
from Jammu. Drigartdesh, or the ‘country of the two hollows,’was
corrupted into Dugar, and Dugra became Dogra. From Jammu
stretching east along the plains of the Punjab the country is Dogra;
and all who live in that tract, whether they be Hindus, Musalmans,
or Sikhs, whether high-born Rajputs or low-born menials, are known
as Dogras, and have certain national characteristics and a common
tongue, which differentiate them from any of the other peoples of India.
Some authorities doubt this derivation, and say that Dogra is a cor¬
ruption of the Rajasthani word for ‘ hills ’ {liuitgar)^ and that when
the Rajputs forced their way up north they gave this name to the
hilly country.

The Dogras hold the tract of lowland country along the British
border, and the outer ranges of hills from the Manawar or Malikani
Tawi on the west to the Ravi river on the south-east, which is bounded
towards the higher mountains by a line drawn along the hills to the
south of the Budil ilaka through Batoti and thence to the Ravi river
north-east of Basoli. From the Manawar Tawi to the Jhelum is the
country known as Chibhal, the home of the Chibs. The Chibs are
mostly Musalman, but there are Hindu Chibs as well. Both trace
their origin to a Rajput chief, named Jassu. Dharam Chand, a
descendant of Jassu, was versed in medicine, and was summoned
to Delhi to attend Jahangir. The fee in case of success was the
emperor’s daughter. Dharam Chand was successful; he married
the Mughal princess, and was known henceforth as Shadi Khan.
But he longed for his country and left his bride, and the next year
the Mughals invaded his country and slew Shadi Khan.

The Hindu Chibs are descended from Shadi Khan by his Hindu
wife, while the Muhammadan Chibs are the progeny of his family
subsequent to their acceptance of Islam. Both Hindu and Musal-

POPULATION

lor

man Chibs repair annually to the tomb of Shadi Khan at a place in
the Kali Dhar hills in the Naoshera tahs'iL Like the Dogra Rajputs,
the Chibs look upon service as the sole career for a man, but both
Hindus and Musalmans till the soil. They are a fighting people, and
the spirit of adventure takes them out of their own country. They
follow the caste rules of the Hindu Rajputs, but are perhaps stronger
and more muscular than the Dogras to the east. Besides the Chibs,
there are ]\Iusalman Rajputs to the west of the Chenab—the
Jarals, the Bhaos (unfavourably known in Akhnur), the Gakhars,
and many others. It should be noticed that the Hindu Chibs give
their daughters in marriage to the ruling family of Jammu and
Kashmir.

Drew, in his book Javimu and JLashmlr Territories^ suggests that the
Bambas and Khakhas of tbe Jhelum valley might be classed under the
head Chibhali. Very little is known as to when these people migrated
into iSIuzaffarabad and Uri districts, or whence they came; but it is
generally admitted that they had a foreign origin. It is probable that
the Khakhas have occupied the country on the left bank of the Jhelum
for 300 years or more, and that the Bambas, who live on the right bank
of the river, came in yet earlier. The Khakhas, who enjoy the proud
title of Raja, are, like the Chibs, Miisalman Rajputs, and trace their
descent to Raja Mai Rathor. They regard themselves as belonging to
the Janjuah tribe. The Bambas, who are styled Sultans, deprecate
a Hindu origin. They claim to belong to the Kureshi tribe, and say
that the name Bamba is a corruption of Bani-Hashim, and that they
are descended from All, the son-in-law of IMuhammad. The Khakhas
and Bambas have a privileged status in the Jhelum valley, and their
power has varied according to the weakness or strength of the central
authority. Under the Afghans, the Khakhas and Bambas paid little
to their overlord, and were practically independent. The Sikhs tight¬
ened their hold over the Jhelum valley, but the Khakhas and Bambas
retained certain privileges.

Numerically the Gujars are of some importance, both in Jammu,
where they number 151,700, and in Kashmir, where they are returned
at 125,650. Some of them have settled down to agriculture; but tbe
great majority are herdsmen, and in the summer months move up to
the splendid grazing-grounds above the forests with their buffaloes and
goats. They are Musalmans by religion, and many of the Gujar tribes
speak a dialect of their own known as Parimu. They are a fine tall
race of men, with rather stupid faces and large prominent teeth, d hey
sacrifice every consideration for their buffaloes, and even in tbcir culti¬
vation, chiefly maize, their first thought is for these animals. They are
ignorant, inoffensive, and simple, and their good faith is proverbial.
Kashmir and its mountains have especial attractions for the Gujars :

102

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

but as forest conservancy extends, these born enemies of the forest will
find Kashmir less attractive.

Another pastoral semi-nomad people are the Gaddis (5,927) of
Kishtwar. They graze large flocks of sheep and goats, moving up the
mountains as the summer draws on, and returning to the low country
when the first snow falls. Their homes are in the high pastures, but
they are for most part of the year roving, though in some places there
are regular settled villages of Gaddis. They are Hindus. They wear
duffel clothes and a very peculiar hat of stiff cloth. All speak well of
the Gaddis, and they are a popular people, welcome everywhere.

In the Kashmir province, out of a total population of i,i 57 j 394 j
M uhammadans number 1,083,766, Hindus 60,682, and Sikhs 12,637.
The Census, however, was taken in the winter, when many of the
resident population were away working in the Punjab.

The Kashmiri is unchanged, in spite of the splendid Mughal, the
brutal Afghan, and the bully Sikh. IVarriors and statesmen came and
went; but there was no egress, and no wish on the part of the Kash¬
miris in normal times to leave their home. The outside world was far,
and from all accounts inferior to the pleasant valley, and at each of the
gates of the valley were soldiers who demanded fees. So the Kashmiris
lived their self-centred life, conceited, clever, and conservative.

Islam came in on a strong wave, on which rode a fanatical king and
a missionary saint, and history records that the Kashmiris became
Musalmans. But close observers of the country see that the so-called
Musalmans are still Hindus at heart. Their shrines are on the exact
spots where the old Hindu sthdns stood, and these receive an attention
which is not vouchsafed to the squalid mosques and the mean mullds.
The Kashmiris do not flock to Mecca, and religious men from Arabia have
spoken in strong terms of the apathy of these tepid Musalmans. There
are many shrines, shrines of the Rishis, the Babas, and the Makhdiim
Sahib Pirzadas, known as the \Vami or ‘ national,’ as distinguished from
the Saiyids and Saiyid Pirzadas who are foreigners. And as in religion,
so in social evolution, there has been little change up to recent times
in the people of Kashmir. Peculiarities noticed in the Rdjataranginl
still mark the national character. AVitchcraft and sorcery are rampant
now as they were in the times of the Hindu kings.

The Musalmans of Kashmir may be divided into four divisions:
Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans. The Shaikhs, who are by far
the most numerous, are the descendants of Hindus, but have retained
none of the caste rules of their forefathers. They have clan names
known as krdm ; but a man of the Tantre krdm may marry a girl of the
same krdm^ or a maiden of some other krdm^ provided she be one
of the agricultural families. The only line drawn is that a man of the
Shaikh krdm may not marry a Saiyid girl, nor must he demean himself

POPULATION

103

by an alliance with the daughter of a market-gardener or a menial.
Some hold that the krdms known as Pandit, Kol, Bat, Aitu, Rishi,
Mantu, and Ganai are descended from the Brahmans, and that the
Magres, Tantres, Dars, Dangars, Rainas, Rathors, Thakurs, and Xaiks
are sprung from a Kshattriya origin. The Lon krCim is assigned a
Vaisya descent, and the Damars are connected with Sudras. There
may be some foundation for these theories; but the krdms are now’
mixed, and confusion is increasing owing to the fashion of the lower
castes who arrogate the krdms of the respectable families. Thus the
Dums, the gardeners, and the butchers have begun to call themselves
Ganais, much to the annoyance of the true Ganais. And the boatmen,
a most disreputable community, have appropriated the krdm name of
Dar. The social system is very plastic, and prosperity and a very little
w’ealth soon obliterate a humble origin.

The Saiyids may be divided into those who follow the profession of
religion and those w’ho have taken to agriculture and other pursuits. In
appearance, manners, and language there is nothing to distinguish them
ffom other Kashmiri Musalmans. Their k?'dm name is Mir. While
a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir is a prefix ; if he has taken to
agriculture, Alir is an affix to his name., The Saiyid !Makar fraternity
are fraudulent fakirs who pretend to be Saiyids and wander about
Kashmir and India, cheating the public. Many have now taken to
trade. They intermarry among themselves.

The Mughals are not numerous. Their krdm names are Mir (a cor¬
ruption of Mirza), Beg, Bandi, Bach, and Ashaye.

The Pathans are more numerous than the Mughals, and are found
chiefly in the south-west of the valley, where Pathan colonies have from
time to time been founded. The most interesting of these colonies is
that of the Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, W'ho retain all the old
customs and speak Pashtu. They wear a picturesque dress, and carry
sw’ords and shields. They pride themselves on their bravery, and in
the absence of the nobler foe engage the bear on foot w’ith the sw’ord
or spear him from their plucky little ponies. The Afridis and the
Machipurias w’ho belong to the Yusufzai tribe are liable to military
service, in return for which they hold certain villages free of revenue.
The Pathans chiefly came in under the Durranis, but many w’ere
brought by Maharaja Gulab Singh for service on the frontier. They
are rapidly adopting Kashmiri habits.

Several villages are held by fakirs or professional beggars. They
w’ork as agriculturists in the summer, and beg in the winter. They are
proud of their profession and are liked by the people. They intermarry
with other beggar families or Bechdnwols, These various tribes are scat¬
tered broadcast over the valley and possess no marked distinctive features.

The dividing line in society is betw’een the zammddrs or agricultural

104

KASm/m AND JAMMU

families and the taifaddrs, that is, the market-gardeners, herdsmen,
shepherds, boatmen, minstrels, leather-workers, and the menial servants
of the villagers. No zaminddi’ would intermarry with a taifadd 7 \ For
the most part it is difficult to trace any difference in physiognomy
between the two classes, though there is often a difference in dress.
But the Dum, the Galawan, and the Batal or Watal are easy to dis¬
tinguish from other tribes. They have a darker skin, and the Dum
has the restless, furtive eye so characteristic of the thief.

The Du ms are a very important people in Kashmir, for they are the
watchmen of the villages and formerly used to look after the State
share of the crops. As a private citizen the Dum is not an admirable
person, and he loses no opportunity of annoying the villagers, by whom
he is feared and disliked. But as officials they are trustworthy, and
have never been known to steal the State treasure which passes through
their hands. The Dums claim descent from a Hindu king, who from
fear of his numerous sons scattered them over the valley, but some say
that they are descendants of the Chakks, mentioned under History.

The Galawans or horse-keepers are also credited with a descent
from the Chakks, and their violent restless character may be hereditary.
Originally they earned their liv;ing by grazing ponie.s, but found it more
lucrative to steal them. At last they became an established criminal
tribe, and during Sikh rule were a terror to the country. Khaira
Galawan, the hero of many a legend, was killed by the Sikh governor
Mian Singh. Gulab Singh hunted down the tribe, and their end was
transportation to Bunji.

The Batals or Watals have been called the gipsies of Kashmir, and
are a peculiar people with a patois of their own. They may be divided
into two classes. Those who abstain from eating carrion and are
admitted to the mosque and to the Musalman religion form the first
class; those who eat the flesh of dead animals and are excluded from
the mosque form the second. They are wanderers, and though they
sometimes settle in wattled huts on the outskirts of a village, they soon
move on. Their chief occupation is the manufacture of leather. The
first class make boots and sandals : the second class make winnowing
trays of leather and straw, and do scavenger’s work. They also rear
poultry and rob hen-roosts. Their women are of fine stature and hand¬
some, and they often drift into the city, where they become singers and
dancers. Once a year the Batals from all parts of the valley flock to
Lala Bab’s shrine near the Dal Lake, and many matters affecting the
tribe are then settled.

The Bhands or minstrels are a peculiar people. They combine the
profession of singing and acting with that of begging; and they travel
great distances, often visiting the Punjab, where they perform to
Kashmiri audiences. They are excellent actors, clever at improvi-

POPULA TION

105

sation and fearless as to its results. They are a very pleasant people,
and their mirth and good humour form an agreeable contrast to
the chronic gloom of the Kashmiri peasant.

The Hanz or boatmen claim a Vaisya origin, and even now when
blaming one of the crew for his bad paddling the captain will say :
‘You are a Sudra.’ They always claim Noah as their ancestor; but
some accounts point to a gipsy origin. The father of the family is an
autocrat, and his discipline on board is often of a violent character.
There are many sections of the tribe. First rank the half-amphibious
paddlers of the Dal Lake (Demb Hanz), who are really vegetable
gardeners, and the boatmen of the Wular Lake, who gather the suighdra
nut (Gari Hanz). Next in status come the men of the large barges
known as bahats and ivdr^ in which cargoes of 800 maunds of grain or
wood are carried. Then the Dunga Hanz, who paddle the passenger
boats, not a respectable class, for they prostitute their females ; next
the Gad Hanz, who net fish, and are said to surpass even the Dunga
Hanz in their power of invective ; and last the Hak Hanz, who collect
drift-wood in the rivers. The Hanz or Hanjis are a hardy muscular
people, but are quarrelsome and mendacious. Half the stories to the
discredit of Kashmir and its inhabitants are due to the fertile imagina¬
tion of the Hanji, who after the manner of the Irish car-driver tells
travellers quaint scandals of the valley and its rulers. The Hanji
ashore is a great rascal, and European travellers would be wise to leave
him in his boat. The chief k 7 ‘dm names of the Hanjis are Dangar,
Dar, and Mai.

The menial servants (Nangar) of the villages are carpenters, black¬
smiths, potters, weavers, butchers, washermen, barbers, tailors, bakers,
goldsmiths, carriers, oil-pressers, dyers, milkmen, cotton-cleaners, and
snuff-makers. Many of the Nangars have taken to agriculture, and
most of them are extremely independent of their so-called masters.
The only class of menials who apparently cannot take to agriculture
are the weavers. Their soft hands and weak knees make field-work
an impossibility.

The Hindus are with few exceptions Brahmans, and are commonly
known as Pandits. They fall into three classes : astrologers {Jyotish'i),
priests (Guru or Bdchabatt\ writers and clerks (Karkun), The priest
class do not intermarry with the others, but the Jyotishi and Kdrkun
classes intermarry.

The astrologers are learned in the shasiras and expound them, and
they draw up the calendars in which prophecies are made as to the
events of the coming year. The priests perform the rites and cere¬
monies of the Hindu religion. But the vast majority of the Brahmans
belong to the Kdrkun class. Formerly they obtained employment
from the State, but recently they have taken to business, and some

io6 KASHMIR AND JAMMU

work as cooks, bakers, confectioners, and tailors. The only occupa¬
tions forbidden to a Pandit are those of the cobbler, potter, corn-frier,
porter, boatman, carpenter, mason, and fruit-seller. Many Pandits
have taken to agriculture; but the city Brahmans look do^^Tl on any
profession save that of writing, and they would never think of marrying
a daughter to a Pandit cultivator. They have no real aptitude for
business, or they might have found great openings in trade at SrTnagar
under the new regime. They cling to the city, and if they obtain
employment outside they leave their wives and families behind them.
They are a handsome race of men, with fine well-cut features, small
hands and feet, and graceful figures. Their women are fair and good-
looking, more refined than the Musalmans. The children are extremely
pretty.

The Pandits are broken up into numerous gotras ; but though the
Pandit repeats the name of his gotra seven times as he performs his
ablutions, the outside world knows him only by his krdm. Marriage
within the goira is forbidden, and the Kashmiri Pandits do not inter¬
marry with the Brahmans of India. Among the leading krdms may be
mentioned the following: Tiku, Razdan, Kak, Munshi, Mathu, Kachru
Pandit, Sapru, Bhan, Zitshu, Raina, Dar, Fotadar, Madan, Thusu,
Wangnu, Mujju, Hokhu, and Dulu. The descendants of the Brahmans,
said to be only eleven families, who survived the persecutions of
Sikandar Shah and remained in the valley, are known as Malmas. The
others, descended from returned fugitives, are called Banamas.

There are a few Khattris, known as Bohras in Srinagar, engaged in
trade and shop-keeping. They enjoy no caste fellowship with the
Pandits, though in old days instances are known of a Khattri being
admitted to caste by the Brahmans.

The Sikhs of Kashmir were probably Punjabi Brahmans who
embraced Sikhism when the valley passed into the hands of Ranjit
Singh, but the Sikhs of Trahal declare that their ancestors came to
Kashmir in the time of Afghan rule. They are not in a flourishing
eondition. They look to service as their chief means of livelihood,
and are not good eultivators. They are ignorant and troublesome,
and quarrel with the Musalman Kashmiris and very often among
themselves.

In 1901 the State contained 202 native Christians, but, although
converts are so few, important work has been done by various missions.
Chief among these is the Church Missionary Society at Srinagar,
established in 1865, which maintains an excellent hospital. Owing to
its example, the first State dispensary and school were opened. Other
missions have been founded by the ^Moravians and the Roman Catholics
at Leh.

The beautiful turf and greensward of Kashmir are so suggestive

AGRICULTURE

107

of splendid playgrounds that one naturally expects to find some
national game in the valley, and the legendary feast of roses conjures
up a vision of a happy laughing people who were skilled in the battle
of flowers long before modern Europe dreamed of such carnivals.' But
in reality there is no game and no pastime in Kashmir proper.
Baltistan, Gilgit, and Astor are the homes of polo, and Ladakh has
its devil-dance : but Kashmir has nothing distinctive save its actors,
the Bhands or Bhagats, already referred to. Sometimes we find in the
villages a wandering minstrel (Shair), who sings to the accompaniment
of a guitar, or recites verses, often extempore, full of local allusions
and usually full of flattery, if an official or person of influence be
present. Like most Orientals, the Kashmiris regard amusement as
passive rather than active. They are glad to look on at a race or
a game, but it is extremely difficult to induce them, athletic and
powerful as they are, to take a part in any sport. They are not
altogether to blame. In former days pastime was at a discount, and
small mercy would have been shown to the serf who suggested that
life should not be all labour. Even in the pampered city of Srinagar
the effen’escence of youth was checked by Gulab Singh, who sternly
repressed the old ward fights with slings and stones. The professional
shikaris are often keen sportsmen ; and the boatmen of Kashmir will,
when challenged, paddle till they drop rather than be beaten by
a rival crew.

As already explained, the Jammu province consists of a fringe of
level land bordering on the Punjab Districts of Jhelum, Sialkot, and
Gurdaspur, gradually rising by a succession of ranges Agriculture
of hills to the high uplands bounded by the moun¬
tains of the Himalayan range, beyond which lie Kashmir, Baltistan, and
Ladakh. The variations of climate are great, and the staples cultivated
naturally vary to some extent with the climate. Thus the lower tracts
yield all the usual crops of the Punjab, while in the higher tracts
saffron, buckwheat, and mountain barley are grown. In the warmer
parts the mango and shisham are found in large quantities; but these
give place to apple and pear-trees, to the picturesque deodar and shady
Oriental plane (chuidr) in the colder parts.

The province may be roughly divided into three main divisions.
The plains and kandi hills consist of the iahsils of Kathua, Jasmirgarh,
Samba, Ranbirsinghpura, Jammu, Akhnur, Hanawar, and Mirpur. In
the hot moist tracts, such as those irrigated from the Ravi and Ujh
in the Jasrota district to the south-west, malaria is so rampant that
the resident population is too small for the cultivation of the soil,
which is chiefly tilled by iidarach cultivators—men from the low
hills who descend to the plain for short periods to sow, tend, and reap
crops, and return again to their healthier homes.

VOL. XV. H

io8 KASHMIR AND JAMMU

North of this lie the thirsty lowlands, sheltered by the hills from the
cooler inland breezes, seamed with many channels {kadhs)^ which carry
off the drainage of the uplands and become roaring torrents for a few
hours after heavy rainfall, but at other times are broad stretches of
burning sand. This tract depends for a full harvest on timely and
well-distributed rainfall.

The parched ka?idi hills are composed of a red loam, thickly strewn
with round stones and covered with stunted growth of garna sa?iatan
and bahaikar bushes, broad-leaved species of trees, acacias, and in
parts bamboos. The tor {Euphorbia) is used to hedge the fields and
cobble-paved paths, and to keep the fiilgai from damaging the crops.
The soil is thirsty and dries quickly, as the land slopes and drainage
is rapid. Frequent rainfall is necessary to ripen the crops, chiefly
wheat, barley, and sarshaf (rape) in the spring, and millet and maize
(on manured land) in the autumn; but rain washes away the soft earth
and leaves the surface of the soil a mass of stones.

W’here the kandi hills end, and before the first limestone ridge is
crossed, there is a narrow belt of cool land lying in the valleys trav’ersed
by the clear streams which carry the drainage of the middle hills on
the lower side. When the depth of soil is sufficient, excellent crops
are raised and much of the land is irrigated; but on the slopes where
the depth of earth is small, and the limestone crops up to the surface
{prdt)^ cultivation is precarious. Too much rain causes the soil to
become waterlogged, as percolation is stopped by the rock bed; and
during a continued spell of hot weather the rock surface becomes so
heated as to burn the roots of the crops, which wither.

In this portion of the province wells are few, owing to their cost.
Except in the lowland bordering on the streams deep boring is neces¬
sary, and it is common to find that the water is from 70 to 100 feet
below the surface. The cultivators are not as a rule sufficiently well-to-
do to undertake the expenditure necessary to sink such wells, and risk
the failure of finding water. Since the introduction of the regular
settlement, the Darbar has done much to encourage the sinking of
wells by the grant of advances on easy terms.

In this tract, however, are found the only considerable areas pro¬
tected by irrigation. The natural difficulties to be overcome are great,
as the lie of the land makes projects costly and difficult to execute.
The lines of irrigation have to cross the drainage of the country, and
it is not easy to secure the channels against damage from the kadhs
when in flood. Owing to this difficulty, the more ambitious projects
of former days—the Kashmir canal taking off from the Ravi above the
Madhopur weir, the Shahi Nahr taking off from the left bank of
the Chenab opposite Akhnur, and the Katobandi or Dalpat Nahr
taking off from the Chenab on the right bank—failed to render

AGRICULTURE

109

permanent help to the country. Something has recently been done
to remedy the apathy displayed in the past. Two old irrigation works
taking-off from the Tawi in the Jammu iahsil —the Jogi Darwaza canal
irrigating the land immediately below Jammu city, and the Satwari
canal irrigating the villages round Satwari cantonment—have been
realigned and put in order ; and the Dalpat canal, taking off from
the right bank of the Chenab and irrigating a large portion of the
AkhnUr tahs'il immediately north of the Bhajwath Andar, has been
reconstructed.

Under agreement with the Government of the Punjab the right of
the State to take water from the Ravi, above the Madhopur weir, for
the irrigation of spring crops in the Kathua iahsil has been surrendered
in consideration of an annual payment of Rs. 5,000. The restoration
of the old Kashmir canal, which takes off abo\'e the weir, is thus not
financially attractive. Probably the low-lying portion of the Mirpur
iahsil^ known as the Khari ilCika^ could be irrigated from the Jhelum;
but this source of irrigation has not been tapped.

There are many drawbacks to agriculture. The administration in
the past was bad and shortsighted. There are practically no roads,
and in the kandi tract even drinking-water is obtained with difficulty.
2^Iuch damage is done by nilgai^ hog, and monkeys, the first-named
animal, though an antelope, being regarded as sacred like the cow.
Cattle turned loose, either as likely to die and of no further use, or
devoted to the deity, have become quite wild and do much damage to
crops.

Above the first limestone range lies a country of wide valleys and
high hills, consisting of Basoli, Ramnagar, Udhampur, Naoshera, and
part of Riasi. This has a more temperate climate than the tract just
described. The supply of water from perennial streams is constant, but
the stream beds are deep and irrigation is not easily effected. Being
nearer the Himalayan range, rainfall is usually heavy and fairly
regular, so that the people do not trouble themselves much about irri¬
gation, except where this can be contrived at little expense. The crops
are much the same as in the plains, but bdjra gives way to maize, and
sugar-cane and turmeric disappear. The seasons are shorter. The
areas of prdti land, where the limestone bed penetrates or approaches
the surface of the soil, are considerable. Communications are back¬
ward and prices generally rule low. Trade is carried on by lelis, who
keep droves of pack-bullocks or ponies. Grazing is good and the tract
is frequented by Gujars, goatherds, and shepherds. A considerable
export of ghl takes place. Wild hog and monkeys do damage, but no
antelope are found. Autumnal fevers are very rare.

The higher uplands, including Bhadrawar, Kishtwar, Ramban, part
of Riasi, and Rampur Rajaori, have a really cold climate, and in the

H 2

110

KASHMIR AXD JAMMU

winter snow falls. The cultivators are a different class from those in
the plains and lower hills, and Kashmiri settlers are found. Here the
mango-tree gives place to the apple; and the pear, the Oriental plane
{chinar). and the deodar are found. The climate approximates to that
of the valley of Kashmir, and cultivation is on much the same lines.
The specialities are saffron in Kishtwar, and poppy in Dodar, Kishtwar,
and Bhadrawar. This tract is healthy, and only in the more shut-in
valleys do fevers trouble the people. Irrigation is general and the
rainfall heavy. Grazing lands are plentiful and Gujars numerous.
Early snowfall and cold winds from the mountains affect the crops in
the parts adjoining the Himalayan range, and prevent these coming to
maturity in certain years. Bears, hog, and monkeys do some damage.

Owing to its system of rivers, Kashmir proper possesses a large area
of alluvial soil, which may be divided into two classes ; the new alluvium,
found in the bays and deltas of the mountain rivers : and the old allu¬
vium, lying above the banks of the Jhehim and extending as far as the
kareivas. The first is of great fertility, and every year is renewed and
enriched by silt from the mountain streams. Up to the present, in
spite of the lax system of forest conservancy, the silt of the mountain
streams is rich and of dark colour; but the Sind river brings down an
increasing amount of sandy deposit, which is partly due to the reckless
felling of trees in its valley.

The Kashmiris, so far, have considered no crop worthy of attention
save rice ] by irrigation and manuring an artificial mould has been ob¬
tained for the rice-fields, and it is rare to hear anything said about the
original soil. But they recognize four classes which require peculiar
treatment when under rice cultivation. These are known as grutu^
bahil, sekil^ and dazanlad. GrutTi soil contains a large proportion of
clay. It holds water, and in years of scanty rainfall is the safest land
for rice. But if the rains be heavy, the soil cakes and the out-turn of
rice is poor. Bahil is a rich loam of great natural strength ; and there
is always a danger that by over-manuring the soil will be too strong,
and the plant will run to blade. Sekil is a light loam with a sandy
subsoil; and if there be sufficient irrigation and good rains, the out-turn
of rice is always large. Dazanlad soil is chiefly found in low-lying
ground near the swamps, but it sometimes occurs in the higher villages.
Special precautions are taken to run off irrigation water when the rice
plant shows signs of a too rapid growth ; and if these are taken in time,
the out-turn in dazanlad land is sometimes very hea\7. A peculiarity
of this soil is that the irrigation water turns red in colour. Near
the banks of the Jhelum, and in the vicinity of the AVular Lake,
is found a rich, peaty soil {?iambal\ which in years of fair rainfall
yields enormous crops of rapeseed and maize. This will not pro¬
duce rice and requires no manure. It is, however, the custom to

AGRICUL TURE

[ 11

burn standing weeds and the stubble of the last year’s crop before
ploughing.

The curious plateaux known as kcweivas^ which form so striking a
feature in the scenery, are for the most part oigruiu soil, with varieties
distinguished by colour. The most fertile is the dark blackish soil
known as surhzamhi, the red grutu is rhe next best, while yellow soil
is considered the worst of all. Other classes are recognized, and there
are many local names.

The Kashmiris are fortunate in possessing ample manure for their
fields, and are not compelled, like the natives of India, to use the
greater part of the cattle-dung for fuel. The rule is that all dung,
whether of sheep, cattle, or horses, dropped in the winter, when the
animals are in the houses, is reserved for agriculture, while the summer
dung is dried, and after being mixed with chinar leaves and willow twigs
is kept for fuel. But the ashes are carefully stored and the fires are
chiefly fed with wood, the dung aiding and regulating combustion.
The dung-heaps which one sees in early spring show that the Kashmiri
wastes nothing that is useful in agriculture; but he has other resources.
When the flocks commence to move towards the mountains, the sheep
are folded on the fields, and the Kashmiri considers turf clods to be
a far more effectual renovator of rice-fields than farmyard manure.
These are cut from the sides of watercourses and are rich in silt; and
a dressing of clods will strengthen a field for three years, whereas farm¬
yard manure must be applied every year. The strongest farmyard
manure is that of poultry, and this is reserved for onions. The next
best is the manure of sheep, which is always kept for the rice nurseries.
Next comes cattle-dung, and last of all horse-dung. The value of night-
soil is thoroughly understood. Near Srinagar and the larger villages
the garden cultivation is excellent, and the only manure used is pou-
drette, or night-soil mixed with the dust of the city alleys and pulverized
by the action of the sun.

Agriculture in the valley practically depends on irrigation. Thanks
to the formation of the country, this is easy and in ordinary years abun¬
dant. If normal snows fall in the winter and the great mountains are
well covered, the water-supply for the rice will be sufficient. The snows
melt into various mountain streams, which ru.sh down to the Jhelum.
From both sides of the river the country rises to the mountains in bold
terraces, and the water passes quickly from one village to another in
years of good snowfall. At convenient points on the mountain streams
temporary weirs or projecting spurs are constructed; and the water is
taken off in main channels, which pass into a network of small ducts
and eventually empty them.selves into the Jhelum, or into the large
swamps which lie along its banks. Lower down, where the streams
flow gently, dams are erected. All villages which depend lor their

I r 2

KASmrlR AXD JAMMU

irrigation on a certain weir are obliged to assist in its construction
and repair. The weir consists of wooden stakes and stones, ^^^th
grasses and willow branches twisted in between the stakes, the best
grass for this purpose being the fikal. The channel often has to be
taken over ravines and around the edges of the kareiva cliffs, and
irrigation then becomes very difficult. In former days, when the State
took a share of the crop, it was to the interest of the Darbar to look
after irrigation and to assist in repairs. But since 1880, when an
attempt was made to introduce a fixed assessment, the villagers have
had to attend to repairs themselves, and where the channel passes
through difficult ground the irrigation has become very uncertain. If
a ravine has to be crossed, a flat-bottomed boat, similar to those in
ordinary use, is erected on high trestles, and the water flows over in a
quaint-looking aqueduct. When a kaf'eiva has to be passed or skirted,
a tunnel will sometimes be made; but as a rule the channel is cut along
the face of the cliff, and great loss is caused by the frequent breaches.
In old days over every main channel there was a mlrab —one of the
villagers—whose duty was to see to repairs and to call out labour.
The 7 ?iirdbs had not received pay for years, and the channels had fallen
into great disorder; but the office has now been revived. The system
of distribution is rough and simple : but it has the advantage that quar¬
rels between villages rarely arise, and disputes between cultivators of
the same village are unknown. Besides the irrigation derived from the
mountain streams, an important auxiliary supply is obtained from nume¬
rous springs. Some of these afford excellent irrigation, but they have
two drawbacks. Spring water is always cold, and it does not carry with
it the fertilizing silt brought down by the mountain streams, but bears
a scum which is considered bad for rice. The Jhelum in its long,
gentle course through the valley gives no irrigation at present, but as
the population increases water will probably be lifted by the Persian
wheel. The only lift-irrigation at present takes the form of the simple
and inexpensive pot and lever and in Srinagar and the small

towns some splendid garden cultivation depends wholly on this system.
On some of the kareivas the spring-level is not very deep; and when all
the land commanded by flow-irrigation has been taken up, it is hoped
that wells may be sunk. The bucket and rope will be found more
suitable than the Persian wheel, as the spring-level is more than 18 feet
in depth. In the north-west of the valley there are a few tanks, and
tank-irrigation might be introduced into many parts.

The agricultural implements are few and simple. The plough is of
necessity light, as the cattle are small, and is made of various woods,
the mulberry, the ash, and the apple being perhaps the most suitable
materials. The ploughshare is tipped with iron. For clod-breaking
a wooden mallet is used and the work is done in gangs. Sometimes

AGRICULTURE

a log of wood is drawn over the furrows by bullocks, the driver standing
on the log. But as a rule, frost, snow, water, and the process known as
khushaba are considered a sufficient agency for the disintegration of
clods. The spade is made of wood, has a narrow face, and is tipped
with iron. It is chiefly employed by the cultivator for digging out turf
clods and for arranging his fields for irrigation. For maize and cotton,
a small hand hoe is used to extract weeds and to loosen the soil. The
pestle and mortar for husking rice and ])ounding maize must also be
mentioned. The mortar is made of a hollowed-out bole of wood. The
pestle is of light, hard wood, and the best and hardest of woods for the
purpose is the hawthorn.

Agricultural operations are carefully timed so as to fall within
a certain period before or after the nauroz^ the spring day of the
Musalmans, and the meza 7 t^ or commencement of autumn. If the
period is exceeded there will be a certain failure in the crop, which
is calculated in a most precise manner. The circumstance which
interferes with punctuality in ploughing and sowing is the absence
of irrigation water at the right time j and in the spring there is great
excitement among the villages if water is stopped by some natural
cause, such as the late melting of snow, or by other reasons, such as
the greediness of some privileged person who defies the local official
and takes more than his just share of water. Up to recent times,
the cultivator was often seized for forced labour and could not plough
or sow at the proper time. And though there is no doubt that rice
ought to be sown within forty days after the fiauroz^ sowing often
continues up to the middle of June.

In March the rice-fields, which have remained undisturbed since the
last crop w^as cut, are hard and stiff. The soil has perhaps been worked
by the frosts and snow; but if, as is sometimes the case, no snow has
fallen, it will be difficult work for the plough-bullocks, thin and poor
after the long winter, to break up the soil. If rain does not fall, a special
watering must be given and ploughing then commences. In certain
villages the soil is so damp that ploughing has to be done perforce
W’hile the soil is wet, and the out-turn is always poorer than from fields
where the soil is ploughed in a dry condition. All the litter of the
village and the farmyard manure is carried out to the fields by women
and ploughed in, or is heaped in a place through which the irrigation
duct passes and so reaches the fields as liquid manure. Sometimes
manure is placed in heaps on the fields, and when the field is covered
with water it is scattered about by hand. Later on in April, ns the
weather opens, turf clods are cut from the banks of streams and irri¬
gation channels, and flung broadcast over the wet fields. When four
ploughings have been given and the clods have been crumbled with
mallets, the soil is watered and sowing can commence in April. The

KASHMIR AXD JAMMU

114

rice seed, which has been carefully selected at threshing-time and has
been stored away in grass bags, is again examined and tested by win¬
nowing. It is then put back into the grass bags and immersed in
water until germination commences. Sometimes the seed is placed
in earthen vessels through which water is passed. Rice is grown up
to an altitude of 7,000 feet; and in the higher villages it is convenient
to sow earlier than in the lower villages, as the cold season comes on
quicker and it is essential to harvest the crop before snow falls. In
certain lower villages also, where it is the custom to sow rice earlier
than ordinary, the out-turn is always heavy. The ploughing for maize
and the autumn millets is not so careful as for rice, and two or three
ploughings are considered ample. A watering is sometimes given to
maize-fields to start the seed, but no manure is put in. Cotton alone
receives manure in the form of ashes mixed with the seed. All Kash¬
miris recognize that the greater the number of ploughings the greater
will be the out-turn of the crop, but holdings are large and the cattle
are small and weak.

In June and July barley and wheat are cut and threshed. The ears
are trodden out by cattle or sometimes beaten by sticks, and when
there is no wind a blanket is flapped to winnow the grain. Anything
is good enough for the spring crops, which are regarded by the Kash¬
miris as a kind of lottery in which they generally lose their stakes. At
the same time comes the real labour of rice weeding, the khushdba^
a word for which there is no English equivalent. It involves putting
the rice plants in their right places, and pressing the soft mud gently
around the green seedling. No novice can do the work, as only an
expert can detect the counterfeit grasses which pretend to be rice, and
khushdba must be learnt young. The operation is best performed by
hand, but it may be done by the feet {lat)^ or, in a fashion, by cattle
splashing up and down the wet fields of mud {gnpan 7 iind), Sometimes
when the rice is two feet high the whole crop is ploughed up (sele).
When rice has bloomed and the grain has begun to form, the water is
run off the fields, and a short time before harvest a final watering is
given which swells the ears. Often, while the rice is standing, rapeseed
is cast into the water. No ploughing is given, and a crop of rape is
thus easily obtained. Before the harvest of the autumn crops com¬
mences, about the first half of September, rain may fall and it is very
beneficial. It improves the rice crop, and it also enables the cultivator
to plough and sow for the spring crops. Such rain is known as kainbar
ka^ and there is great rejoicing when these timely showers occur. Before
September, if rain has fallen, a large area of land will be ploughed up
and sown with rapeseed; and both this and the early sowings for barley
and wheat are of importance, as they come at a time when the culti¬
vator and his cattle have some leisure, for then the khushdba is over

AGRICULTURE

115

and harvest has not commenced. There are no carts in the valley,
save in the flat plain around the Wular Lake, where a primitive trolly
is used; and as the Kashmiris will not use plough-bullocks for carriage,
the sheaves of rice and of other crops are slowly and laboriously carried
by men to the threshing-floor. When the ricks are thoroughly dry,
threshing commences. Seizing a bundle of rice plants in his two
hands, the cultivator beats them over a log of wood and detaches the
ears from the stalk. The straw is carefully stored, as it is considered
the best fodder and the best thatching straw of all.

When the weather is favourable, from October to December, the
cultivator is busy ploughing ‘dry’ land for wheat and barley; but
by the end of December ploughing must cease, and the Kashmiris
occupy themselves with threshing and husking the rice and other crops
and with domestic work, such as the tending of sheep and cattle and
the weaving of blankets. It is difficult in mid-winter to tempt a Kash¬
miri out of his reeking house. The ploughings for wheat and barley
are very few and very slovenly. For wheat three at the most, for
barley two, are considered sufficient. No labour is spent in weeding
or manuring, and the standing crops of wheat and barley would shock
a Punjabi farmer. The fields are choked with weeds, and it is wonder¬
ful that there should be any crop at all. Two years of barley or wheat
would ruin any land, and the Kashmiris have the sense to follow a
spring crop by an autumn crop. Some day more attention may be
paid to their barley and wheat, but two facts prevent either of these
crops being largely produced in the valley. The rainfall is scanty and
very uncertain, and if irrigation were attempted the water in the spring¬
time would prove too cold for plant growth.

The principal crops are rice, maize, cotton, saffron, tobacco, hops,
millets, amaranth, buckwheat, pulses, and sesamum in the autumn;
and wheat, barley, poppy, rape, flax, peas, and beans in the spring.

The most important staple is rice, and the cultivator devotes all his
energy to this crop. The soil is porous, and water must be kept
running over the fields from sowing time almost to harvest; for if once
the land becomes hard and caked, the stalks are pinched and the plant
suffers, while the work of khiishdba is rendered impossible. It is
dangerous to leave the fields dry for more than seven days, and the
cultivator should always be present to watch the water. The growth
of weeds is very rapid; and once they get ahead of the rice, it is
extremely difficult to repair the injury caused and to eradicate the
grasses, which none but an expert can distinguish from the rice. There
are two systems of cultivation. Under the first the rice is sown broad¬
cast ; under the second it is first sown in a nursery and then planted
out. The broadcast system gives the best out-turn per acre, but the
labour entailed is far heavier than that required in the nursery system.

Ii6

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

Two khushdbas are sufficient for the latter, while four khushdbas are
essential in broadcast sowings. Provided the soil is good and irrigation
is fairly abundant, the cultivator will choose the broadcast system, but
in certain circumstances he will adopt the nursery method. If water
comes late, rice can be kept alive in the nursery plots, and the young
seedling need not be planted out till forty days after sowing.

Just as there are two methods of sowing the rice, so there are two
methods of preparing the soil. The one is known as tao, the other
as ke7ialu. An old proverb says that for rice cultivation the land
should be absolutely wet or absolutely dry. In tao cultivation the soil
is ploughed dry; and when the clods are perfectly free from moisture
and do not lose weight when placed over the fireplace at night, irriga¬
tion is given and the seed is sown. In ke^ialu cultivation the soil is
ploughed wet ; and when three ploughings are made and the soil
is half water and half mud, the out-turn of ke 7 ialii is sometimes equal
to that of tao. But as a rule the tao system gives the better results and
ke 7 ialu involves the heavier labour.

The rices are infinite in variety. In one tahsil fifty-three varieties
have been counted. They may be roughly divided into two classes,
the white and the red. As a food the white rice is the more esteemed,
and the best of the white rices are bds 7 nati and ka 7 iyn 7 i. These germi¬
nate very quickly and ripen more rapidly than any other. But they
are very delicate plants and cannot stand exposure to cold winds.
They give a small crop and require very careful husking. The white
rice, though esteemed as a food, is from a cultivator's point of view
less popular than the red rice, which is more hardy, gives a larger
out-turn, can be grown at higher elevations, and is less liable to
damage from wild animals.

For a good rice harvest the following conditions are necessary:
heavy snows on the mountains in the winter to fill the streams in the
summer ; good rains in March and the beginning of April ; clear,
bright, warm days and cool nights in May, June, July, and August,
with an occasional shower and fine cold weather in September. All
Kashmiris assert that $irdd 7 ia, or full grains, depend on cold dew
penetrating the outer husk and swelling and hardening the forming
grain.

Next in importance comes maize. The best soil is reclaimed swamp,
and enormous crops are raised in good years from the black peaty
land which lies under the banks of the Jhelum. In the high villages
occupied by the Gujar graziers very fine crops of maize are grown,
and the out-turn is due to the heavy manuring given to the field by
buffaloes and cattle. But with this exception maize receives no
manure, and the system of harvesting renders it unnecessary. A large
part of the stalk is left on the fields, and in the winter the stalks rot

agriculture

with the snow and rain into the soil. Ordinarily two to three plough-
mgs are given, and a final ploughing covers over the seeds. A month
after sowing, \Yhen the maize is about a foot high, women w’eed the
fields with a small hand hoe and loosen the soil about the roots. As
a rule, maize is grown on ‘dry^ land, and it is rare to find it irrigated.
For a really good crop of maize fortnightly rains are required, but
in the swamp-lands the natural moisture of the soil produces fair crops
even if the rains are delayed.

Kangm or sko/ {Setaria italica) is an extremely useful plant ; and
when it is apparent from the lock of the mountains that snow water
wall be scarce, a large area of rice land is at once sown w'ith it. The
land, if a good crop is hoped for, must be carefully ploughed about
four times, and the seed is sown in April and May about the same
time as rice. Some w^eeding is done, but as a rule the crop is left
until it ripens in September. Chhia or (^Panicitm yfiiliaceum)
is very like rice in appearance, but is growm on ‘dry’ land. The field
is ploughed three times, and after sownng cattle are turned on to the
land to tread the soil dowm. The seed is sowm in June, and the crop
is harvested in September. It is occasionally weeded : but like kangni,
w’ith which it is ahvays associated as a cheap food-stuff, chhm does not
receive much attention.

The most beautiful of all the crops is the gafiha?', or amaranth, with
its gold, coral, and crimson stalks and flow’ers. It is frequently sown
in row’s among the cotton-fields or on the borders of maize plots, and
the sulphur blooms of the cotton and the coral of the ganhar form
a delightful combination of colour. Ganhar is sow’n in May after two
or three ploughings. No manure or irrigation is given, and with timely
rains a large out-turn is harvested in September. I'he minute grain
is first parched, then ground and eaten wu'th milk or w’ater. It is con¬
sidered a heating food by the people, and Hindus eat it on their fast-
days. The stalks are used by w^ashermen, who extract an alkaline
substance from the burnt ashes.

Trn7nha^ or buckwFeat {Fagopyrinn escule^itum), is a most useful
plant, as it can be sow’n late in almost any soil, and when the cultivator
sees no hope of w’ater coming to his rice-fields he w’ill at once sow
the sw’eet trumba. There are two varieties. The sw’eet frn/nba, w'hich
has w^hite, pinkish flow’ers, is often grow’n as a substitute for rice when
W’ater is not forthcoming ; it can be sow’n up to the middle of July,
and w’ith good rains it gives a fair crop. The bitter frumba^ which
has yellow^ flow’ers, is not a mere makeshift, but in the higher villages
often forms the only food-grain of the people. The unhusked grain
is black in colour, and is either ground in mills and made into bread
or is eaten as porridge. The sw’eet trutnba is said to be a good food
for horses and for poultry.

ti8

KASNMm AND JAMMU

Pulses are not considered of much importance by the people, and
Punjabis do not regard the Kashmir dal in a favourable light. Gram
is unknown, and the best pulse is mung (Phaseo/us Mufigd), The land
is ploughed three times and the seed is sown in May. No irriga¬
tion is given, and mung is often sown in rice lands which require
a rest. The roots run deep and air the soil. The other pulses are
mail {^Phaseohis i^adiatus) and mothi i^P, aconitifolius).

The oilseeds of Kashmir are of some importance, and now that
Kashmir is linked with the outer world they are assuming a greater
value as a trade staple. The Kashmiris do not use ghi (clarified
butter) in their food, but they require vegetable oils ; and at present
they use these for lighting as well as for cooking, owing to the expense
of mineral oil.

The chief oilseed is rape, of which there are three varieties. The
first is li/gog/u, which is sown in September and October on ' dry ’ lands,
and especially on the soft reclaimed swamp land. As a rule there
is no weeding, except where the wild hemp is very vigorous. Timely
rains from February to May are required, and the crop is harvested
in May and June. The second variety is known as taruz or sarshaf^
and is sown in the spring. It ripens at the same time as the tilgoglu^
but gives a smaller amount of oil from its seed. Three maunds of
seed per acre would be an average yield for tilgoglu. The other
varieties of rape give less. The third kind is known as sandijz) and
is sown in the standing rice when the last watering is being given. It
yields a small crop, but as no labour is expended the cultivator counts
even the small crop as gain.

Linseed is cultivated all over the valley, but the best fields are on
the lower .slopes of the mountains. The land is ploughed twice, and
a third ploughing is given when the seed is sown in April. The crop
is harvested towards the end of July. Timely rains are required in
May or the plant withers. The crop is said to exhaust the land. An
average yield would be to 2 maunds of linseed per acre, but with
proper cultivation the produce could be increased. No manure is
given and the fields are not weeded, and as a rule the linseed crop has
a very dirty and slovenly appearance. As one ascends the slopes of
the mountains the plant has a longer stem, and some time ago a fitful
attempt was made to grow flax for fibre. Like other excellent schemes
for introducing new staples and industries into Kashmir, the experiment
failed as there was no one to supervise or encourage the cultivators.

Til (Sesaznum indicuzn), which is a very common crop, is sown in
April. The land is ploughed four time.s, and a fifth ploughing is given
at sowing. No manure is applied, but III requires a rich soil and
gentle and timely rains. The crop is weeded with the hand hoe,
and is more carefully looked after than any of the other oilseed plants.

AGRICULTURE

119

The plant is very delicate and is injured by cold winds. The crop
ripens shortly after rice, and blankets are spread under the jdants at
harvest-time to catch the seeds, which fall out of the pods with the
slightest movement. In Kashmir the oil, which is sweet, is valued as
an ointment. An average yield would be about i\ maunds of seed
per acre.

This will be a convenient place to give a brief description of oil
production. Formerly oil was taken by the State in payment of
revenue ; but this practice has now ceased, and the cultivator either
sells his oilseeds to Punjabi traders or e.xpresses oil for his own
consumption or for sale. There are Telis or professional oil-pressers
all over the valley; and they charge for their services a small amount
of oil and keep the whole of the oil-cake, which they sell to the villagers
for cattle-food. 1 he press is made of plane-wood, and is worked by
a single bullock, blindfolded, the driver sitting perched u]) at a great
height on the beam which crushes the seed and is carried backwards.
The press is fed with seed by a man who stands below. The Kash¬
miris say that rapeseed gives the best oil for lighting purposes, and
linseed for eating; but as a matter of fact one never gets a pure oil
from the press, as the various seeds are mixed by the oil-presser, and
kernels of the walnut and apricot are added. The natives give as
a reason for mixing the various seeds, that a much larger amount of
oil is obtained by crushing together various sizes and kinds of seed
than could be obtained from crushing each separately. The walnut
is an important oil-producer, but this and the apricot are not con¬
sidered to give good oils for lighting. Walnut oil is said to clog, and
does not give half the burning power of other oil.

Cotton is grown all over Kashmir up to a certain elevation ; and, as
a rule, where the white rices cease to be cultivated owing to the cold¬
ness of the air, there too the cotton plant disappears. It is cultivated
on the karewas^ and also in low-lying land which is irrigable but
requires a rest from rice. The soil should be ploughed frequently,
and never less than three ploughings are given, after which the clods
are well pulverized by mallets. The seed is soaked in water and mixed
with ashes before sowing, but the plant receives no manure. Sowing
takes place at the end of April and in May, and the fields are often
watered at sowing time.

Wheat and barley are the two spring crops of the valley, and of these
the barley crop is the more important, if area alone be considered.
The barley commonly grown in the valley is not of a good quality, and
no pains are taken in its cultivation. One ploughing is given, and when
the seed is sown from October to December the land is again ploughed.
The fields are neither weeded nor manured, and probably have not their
match in the world for bad and slovenly cultivation. It is sometimes

120

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

difficult to distinguish the barley in the mass of chirman weed^
culus sp,). The grain is not esteemed as a food, but is very often mixed
by millers with wheat. In the higher villages, at an elevation of 7,000
feet, there is a peculiar kind of barley known as gnm^ or Tibetan barley,
which is an important food-staple among the mountain people. The
villagers always speak of it as ‘bastard wheat/ The grain has not the
chaff scales adhering to it, but is naked like wheat. The people say
that, if this is grown at a lower altitude, it reverts to the type of ordi¬
nary barley. It is sown in I\Iay and June, and ripens in August and
September.

Wheat receives better treatment than barley, but two ploughings,
with a third at seed-time, are considered sufficient. The land is neither
manured nor weeded, and as a rule no irrigation is given. Seed is
sown in September and October, and the crop ripens in June. The
common variety is a red wheat with a small hard grain, and Punjabis
consider the flour to be very inferior. Just as the grain of barley, and
to a certain extent the grain of wheat, are looked down upon as a food
by the rice-eating Kashmiri, so too the valuable straw of these cereals
is neglected as a cattle-food, and it is common to see large ricks of
wheat-straw left to rot on the land. On the other hand, rice-straw,
which is not used for fodder until all else fails in Northern India, is the
most popular fodder in Kashmir. It may be that the high elevation
renders the rice-straw less flinty and more succulent here than in
India.

The saffron {Crocus sativus) of Kashmir is famous for its bouquet,
and is in great request as a condiment and as a pigment for the sect-
marks of Hindus. Various substitutes, such as turmeric, are now used
for the latter purpose by Kashmiri Pandits; but if a man can afford it
he will use the bright saffron colour, mixed with red lead and pounded
with a piece of deodar-wood. The cultivation is peculiar, and the
legend about its introduction shows at any rate that it is an ancient
industry.

At present cultivation is extending as fast as the local method of
seed-production will allow. But that this method is slow may be
inferred from the fact that, at measurement of a total area of 4,527
acres of saffron land, only 132 acres were actually cultivated with the
crocus. In former days^ the saffron cultivation was a large source of
revenue to the State; but in the famine the people in their distress ate
up the bulbs, and although seed has been imported from Kishtwar, and
every year land is set apart for the production of seed, the process of
reproduction is slow. P'or seed purposes a particular aspect and sloping
ground is required, and it takes three years before the bulbs can be

‘ ‘There are 10,000 or 20,000 dighas of land covered with saffron, which afford
a prospect that would enchant those who are most difficult to please.'— Ain-i-Akbarl.

AGRICULTURE

I2I

planted out in the small square plots where the saffron is to be grown.
1 hese plots must remain fallow for eight years, and no manure can be
applied to them and no assistance given in the way of water. When
once the bulb has been placed in the square it will live for fourteen
years without any help from the cultivator, new bulbs being produced
and the old ones rotting away. The time for planting out is in July
and August; and all that the cultivator has to do is to break up the
surface gently a few times, and to ensure the proper drainage of the
plot by digging a neat trench on all four sides, d'he flowers appear
about the middle of October; and the purple blooms and the delicious
though somewhat overpowering scent of the saffron turn the dry, unin¬
viting plateau above Pampur into a rare and wonderful garden. Saffron
is at present limited to the karewas in the neighbourhood of Pampur,
but there is no peculiar property in the soil there which does not exist
in other kareivas, though it is of exceptionally good quality.

In former days men came from all parts to cultivate saffron on the
Pampur kdreivas ; but now, with the exception of a few people from
Srinagar, the industry is in the hands of local cultivators. At harvest-
time the whole flower is picked and put into bags and then taken to
the farmer, who takes one bag for himself and gives the other bag
to the cultivator. The bags are never opened, and it has been found
by experience that the cultivator never attempts to foist a bad bag on
the farmer. When the flowers have been collected the real work of
extracting saffron commences. The flowers are dried in the sun, and
the three long stigmas are picked out by hand. The stigma has an
orange-red tip, and this tip forms the shdhi zafardn^ the first quality
saffron. The long white base of the stigma also makes saffron, but it
is of inferior quality to the tips. The article thus collected in a dry
condition is known to the trade as mongla^ and sells for one rupee per
lola. When the mongla saffron has been extracted, the sun-dried
flowers are beaten lightly with sticks and winnowed. Then the whole
mass is thrown into water, when the petals swim and the essential parts
of the flower sink. The parts which have sunk {niwar) are collected,
and those which have risen to the top are dried and again beaten with
sticks and then plunged into water. The process is repeated three
times, and each time the niwal becomes poorer. One form of adul¬
teration is to mix niival of the third with nhmil of the first process.
The saffron obtained in this way is lighter in colour and of fainter
scent than the mongla, and is known to the trade as /acha, and sells at
12 annas per tola. The saffron when made is exported by post.

Next to the saffron cultivation in interest come the floating gardens
of the Dal Lake, which resemble the ‘ chinampas ’ of Old Mexico.
The whole cultivation and vegetation of the lake is full of interest and
of great importance to the people. The nidh or floating garden^s are

122

J^ASm/lR AND /AMMU

made of long strips of the lake reed, with a breadth of about six feet.
These strips can be towed from place to place, and are moored at the
four corners by poles driven into the lake bed. When the rddh is
sufficiently strong to bear the weight of a man, heaps of weed and mud
are extracted from the lake by poles, formed into cones, and placed at
intervals on the rddh. The cones are known as pokar,^ and each cone
accommodates two seedlings of melons or tomatoes, or four seedlings
of water-melons or cucumber. Everything that plant life requires is
present. A rich soil and ample moisture, with the summer sun, help
to produce vegetables in surprising abundance and of excellent quality.
Not inferior to the floating gardens in fertility are the demb lands, which
are formed along the sides and sometimes in the middle of the lake
when the water is shallow. The cultivator selects his site, and plants
willows and sometimes poplars along its four sides. Inside these he
casts boatloads of weed and mud until his land is above the flood-level,
and year by year he adds a new dressing of the rich lake weed and mud.
Around the demb plot run little water-channels from the lake, so that
moisture is always present; and on the demb a great variety of crops
are raised. Rapeseed, maize, tobacco, melons and other Cuairbifaceae^
potatoes, onions, radishes, turnips, egg-plants, white beans, peaches,
apricots, and quinces flourish on this rich soil; and if it were not for
the constant liability to forced labour, and for the curious system under
which revenue is collected daily from the half-amphibious dwellers on
the Dal Lake, the cultivators of the de?iib lands might be the most
prosperous people in Asia. The system is of importance, as it is not
confined to the Dal Lake; all over Kashmir the people who live by the
great swamps have begun to construct these curious oblong patches.

Tobacco is cultivated in many parts, but is chiefly grown in and
around Srinagar and the smaller towns. The ordinary cultivator does
not grow the plant, and it is almost entirely in the hands of the
gardener class which exists in the city and the towns. The plant
yielding the most esteemed tobacco grows in one part of Srinagar, and
is known as brewari {AUcotiana Tabacum), It has pinkish flowers, and
its product, which is of a bright yellow colour, is extremely mild and less
pungent than the childsi variety, introduced from the Punjab. The
childsi is A\ rus/ica, a plant with pale yellow flowers. Tobacco is sown
in April, and is picked about the end of August. It requires very rich
soil, and is irrigated by the pot and lever system. Formerly the State
took tobacco as revenue and allowed a high commutation rate for the
crop \ but of late years tobacco has not been accepted in payment of
revenue, and it is thought that the cultivation is not increasing. The
local use of tobacco passed out of fashion at the great famine, and the
narcotic is now chiefly taken in the form of snuff, which is imported
from Peshawar.

AGRICULTURE

123

In the same rich land, black with poudrette, which the gardener
class of the city and towns cultivate so carefully and well, the opium
poppy h raised, and its dried capsules are used in medicine. Ajwain
and kald zira {Canim sp.) are two garden spring crops, cultivated
for local use as condiments for improving the condition of horses
and cattle. They are largely exported to India, Ladakh, and Afghan¬
istan. Vegetables are of great importance, and every villager has his
small garden plot, where he raises a wealth of food with very’ small
effort. In the neighbourhood of Srinagar some care is taken in the
selection of seed, and the villager often buys his seed from the city;
but in the remote corners of the valley very little attention is paid to
this class of cultivation, and the vegetables are poor, fibrous, and small.

The national vegetable is the knol-kohl. It is a hardy plant, and in
years of favourable rains large crops are raised without much labour.
The green variety is the commonest; in the summer the leaves are
eaten as spinach, while the root is kept for the winter. Next in impor¬
tance is the turnip, which is largely cultivated. The root is cut into
slices and dried for the winter. Vegetable marrows abound, and they
too are dried in the sun and festooned on ropes for winter use. They
are grown in raised cones of earth, through which the air passes easily
to the roots. Tomatoes are a popular vegetable, but the plant is
allowed to lie on the ground, and the fruit is small and ugly. It is
cut into rings and dried in the sun for winter use. Chillies are chiefly
grown by the regular gardening cultivators, and very large crops are
raised in the neighbourhood of the city and the towns. Cucumbers of
a large size are grown in abundance on the Dal Lake, but they are not
common elsewhere. The egg-plant is well-known in the valley; and
last, but not least, the potato is gradually extending. On the hill
slopes of the Trahal i/dka, in Naubug, and in one or two other places,
excellent potatoes are raised; and now that the old fear that anything
good would either be seized or would lead to an enhancement of
revenue is passing away, they will be a common crop throughout the
valley. The soil of the valley is well drained, friable, and loamy, and
every condition requisite to successful potato cultivation is present.
Nature is so bountiful that the Kashmiri cares little for vegetables in
the spring or the summer, and his one idea is to grow something that
will last him through the winter.

Various herbs are eaten as vegetables in the spring and summer:
thistles, nettles, the wild chicory, the dandelion—in fact, every plant
which is not poisonous goes into the cooking-pot, and even the stalk
of the walnut catkin is not despised. In the hills a dainty dish of the
wild asparagus can be easily obtained, and wild rhubarb cooked in
honey has its charms.

Kashmir is a country of fruits ; and perhaps no country has greater

VOL. XV.

124

KASHMIR AND JAMMl

facilities for horticulture, as the indigenous apple, pear, vine, mulberry,
walnut, hazel, cherry, peach, apricot, raspberry, gooseberry, currant, and
strawberry can be obtained without difficulty in most parts of the valley.
The fruits are a great help to the people as a food, and they come in
a pleasant and changing succession. When the first days of summer
arrive, the mulberry-trees are surrounded by villagers with their out¬
spread blankets, and by cattle, ponies, and dogs, who all munch the
sweet black or white fruit. There are grafted varieties, the best of
which is shahtut^ purple and juicy, and much esteemed as a preserve.
^Vith an eye to the winter the provident cultivator stores away the mul¬
berries wdiich he cannot eat, and they retain their sweetness long. The
apricot ripens next, and they too are quickly eaten or stored away for
the winter; but the Kashmiri looks on the apricot as intended to give
oil rather than fruit. This fruit is also used by the silversmith for clean¬
ing his metal, and by dyers as an astringent. The cherry is usually of
the black morella variety, sour in taste, yet appreciated by the people;
but in places the delicious whiteheart (an introduction from Europe via
Arabia, Persia, and Afghanistan) is cultivated. Its Ka.shmiri name,
gihis^ is a corruption of Cerasus. People say that it is indigenous, and
it is found in places where one might almost imagine it was self-grown.
'Fhe wild plums are excellent, and the cultivated plums are often very
fine. The peach that has extended its area from cultivation is small
but refreshing, and a wild raspberry is as good and as delicate in flavour
as the cultivated raspberry of England. The gooseberry is small and
flavourless, but the wild strawberry and black currant are excellent.

The most popular apple is the anbrii or amri^ which has a large
round red and white sweet fruit, ripening in October and keeping its
condition for a long time. This is exported in large quantities, and it
finds favour with the natives of India for its sweetness and handsome
appearance. To an English taste it would seem woolly and flavourless.
The mohi am?'i is like the amn\ but is more acid and redder. It is
largely exported. The khuddu sari apple is said to have been intro¬
duced from Kabul. It is long in shape, and is Juicy and rather acid,
ripening early and not keeping. But the best apple, so far as flavour
goes, is the little Z/r/, which abounds in the neighbourhood of Sopur.
There are three common kinds : the nabadi trel^ which is yellow; the
jambiisi trel^ which turns red; and the sil trel^ which is rather larger
than the nabadi and jambdsij and of a deep red colour. When ripe
these little apples have the most delicious taste, half sour, half sweet,
and when they rot they are exactly like the medlar in flavour. From
this variety, when picked at the right time, excellent cider has been
made. A sujDerior variety of the trd is the khaioni frei, which is larger
but possesses all the flavour of the smaller kind. There are many other
kinds, but the Kashmiri would give the palm to the dud amri^ which

AGRICULTURE

1^5

is the sweetest and finest of the amri. Many of the wild apples, such
as the iei shakr and malmu, are very refreshing, and it is a curious fact
that the greater part of the orchards consist entirely of wild trees.
About the beginning of September the j^eople pick the wild apples
and the /n’/apples, and having cut them in half dry them in the sun.

The pear is as yet of secondary importance, and does not form
a large article of export. But several very good pears are cultivated,
the best of which are the nak satanvati^ which has a beautiful shape
and a sweet juicy flesh, and the iiak gulabi, which has a j)retty red skin
and is a very pleasant fruit. The Kashmiris, though they think it
essential to peel an apple, never peel pears, d'hey also hold that it is
dangerous to eat pears in the winter. Cold in the head and the eyes
is the result of such indulgence. The early pear is kncjwn as the gosh
bug and is very refreshing, and the later fruit is called iang. None of
these will keep for long, and late pears are required. From the State
nurseries a splendid French pear has been sent out all over the valley,
but unless these are most carefully packed and quickly transported they
cannot reach India. The wild pear is found all over the valley, and
it often resembles the perry pear of Herefordshire.

'Fhe quinces, sour and sweet, are famous, and in the gardens of the
Dal Lake splendid specimens of this fruit are to be seen. 'I'he tree
is grown for its seed, which is exported to the Punjab. Pomegranates
are common, but are not of any especial merit.

In old days Kashmir was celebrated for its grapes; but now, if a few
vineyards at the mouth of the Sind valley be excluded, it is difflcult
to obtain a good dessert grape in the country. Everywhere one sees
giant vines climbing up poplars and other trees, but they are often wild,
and their fruit is poor and tasteless. The people say that they cut
down their good vines in order to avoid the exactions of officials. 'Fhe
grapes, white and red, from the State vineyard at Raipur in the Sind
valley are delicious, and efforts are being made to reproduce the Raipur
vines in other parts of the valley. With the decline of the eating grape
there has been an attempt to introduce the wine grape, and at present
there are 389 acres of vineyards on the shore of the Dal Lake. The
vines were introduced from Bordeaux in Maharaja Ranbir Singh’s time,
and no expense was spared to make the scheme a success. Perhaps
the vines of Burgundy would have been more suitable. Costly dis¬
tillery plant was imported and set up at Gupkar on the Dal Lake, and
wines of the Medoc and Barsac varieties, as well as brandy, have been
manufactured year by year. The only market at present is Srinagar, as
the long road carriage and the duties levied at the frontier make it
difficult to deliver wine in India at a moderate price. In 1900-1 the
gross receipts were Rs. 33,000, and the net profit had averaged about
Rs. 11,000 during the preceding four years.

126

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

Hops were also introduced by Maharaja Ranbir Singh, and the hop
garden at Dubgam below Sopiir yields a handsome return to the State.
In 1900-1 the total produce was 25,000 lb. The crop is sold at from
12 annas to a rupee per pound, and fetched Rs. 21,000, while the
expenses were only Rs. 5,600.

The walnut-tree is indigenous to the country, and is known by the
vernacular name voni dun (Miard walnut^), as under ordinary circum¬
stances one is unable to break the shell. The fruit is useless, but the
bark used to be a large export to the Punjab, The fruit of the culti¬
vated tree is an important aid to the villagers, though they seem to
be somewhat indifferent to its reproduction. The tree is found all
over the valley, from an elevation of about 5,500 feet to 7,500 feet.
It is propagated from seed; and although grafting is not unc.ommon,
the general idea seems to be that the three varieties—the kdghazi\ the
hurzal^ and the ^vaniu —reproduce themselves from seed. Hitherto
walnuts have been grown for oil and not for eating, and the 7vaniu^
in spite of its thick hard shell, is the largest fruiter and gives the most
oil. The Inu'zal stands half-way between the kdghazi and the wayifu^
and is like the ordinary walnut of England. Some of the trees reach
an enormous size, and the finest .specimens are to be found as one
ascends the mountain valleys. In former times the State accepted
walnut oil in payment of revenue, and it was more profitable to the
villager to give oil as revenue than to sell the nuts to Punjabi traders.
Now no oil is taken as revenue, and the export of walnuts is rapidly
increasing. The Kashmiris do not care for the nut as a food, as it is
heating, but it always forms part of the New YeaPs presents among
Hindus and Musalmans. Not long ago the walnuts were exposed to
a very serious danger. In Paris there was a demand for the huge warts
which grow on the walnut stem, the wood of which is used by cabinet¬
makers for veneer work, and a Frenchman obtained from the State the
right to saw off these warts. Countless trees were destroyed, for life
went with the wart. Another danger to which walnuts, like other fruit
trees, are liable is the occurrence of the kut kushu^ an icy mist which
settles over the valley in severe winters, and freezes out the life of
the trees.

Large almond orchards are scattered over the valley, and many of
the hill-sides might easily be planted with this hardy and profitable
tree. It is a somewhat uncertain crop, but very little attention is paid
to its cultivation, and as a rule the almond orchards are unfenced.
There are two kinds, the sweet and the bitter; the former is worth
double the latter in the market. Ruined almond gardens in all parts
of the valley attest the fact that State enterprise cannot succeed in
horticulture.

There are several varieties of the shighdra (Trapa bispinosa)^ but all

AGRICULTURE

127

seem to have white flowers floating on the surface of the water on
stems supported by air vessels. When the fruit ripens, the nuts sink
to the bottom of the lake. The singhara is found on the Dal Lake
and in other localities, but its home is the Wular Lake. Of the chief
varieties the best is called bds?nati\ in honour of the rice of that name.
This is a small nut with a thin skin, and gives one-third of kernel for
two-thirds of shell. The dogru is a larger nut with a thicker shell; and
the hangar has a very thick shell with long projecting horns, and gives
the least kernel of all. Attempts have been made to propagate the
bdsmatiy but it is found that after one year the inferior varieties assert
themselves.

The cattle of Kashmir are small but hardy, rather bigger than Brit¬
tany cattle. They have humps, and their prevailing colour is black or
grey. Very little attention is paid to selection in breeding, but a strain
of Punjab blood has entered the valley, and the dairymen favour cows
of this type. The improvement of the local breeds has been recently
considered by a committee. As summer approaches, all cattle, save
the requisite plough-bullocks and the cows in milk, are driven off to the
mountain pastures, returning in the autumn to the villages. Great pains
are taken to store fodder for the winter, and there are many excellent
grasses and fodder trees. The Gujars, who live on the fringe of the
forests, keep a large number of buffaloes and produce a considerable
quantity of ghL

Sheep are largely kept. They supply warmth, clothing, and manure,
and are of great importance to the villagers. As the da)’s grow warmer,
the sheep move up to the grand pastures above the forests, and return
in the autumn. 'I'hc sheep are made over to professional shepherds
when they go to the mountains. In the winter they are penned
beneath the dwelling-rooms of the villagers, and much of the Kash¬
miri’s comfort in the cold months depends on the heat given out by
the sheep. The wool is excellent, but it varies in quality. Roughly
speaking, the finest wool is found in the north of the valley where the
grasses are good. Tor winter fodder the Kashmiri depends on willow
leaves and the sweet dried leaves of the flag {Ins). Salt is always
given to the sheep.

Goats are not numerous in the valley, but every year enormous
flocks are brought up to the mountains. Ihey do much injury to
the forests.

The ponies arc small, but wiry and of groat endurance. E^•ery
village has its brood mares, but no care is taken in the ^election ot
sires. There is a great future for rational breeding, and also for mule¬
breeding.

Poultry is abundant, d'he best breed of ft)wls is found in the Lolab
valley. Geese and ducks are common, and there is a large export ot

128 KASHMIR AXD JAMMU

the latter to the Punjab. Turkeys have not yet succeeded in
Kashmir.

Honey is produced in the higher villages of the valley. One house
will often contain many hives, and in a good year a hive will give 8
seers of comb. The hive consists of two large concave clay plates let
into the wall of the house, and in the outer plate there is a small hole
through which the bees enter. The honey is clear and excellent.

It is believed that the silk industry of Kashmir is of very ancient
date, and that the valley furnished yjart of the Bactrian silk which
found its way to Damascus. In 1869 Maharaja Ranbir Singh, who
was an enthusiast in new industries, organized sericulture on a very
large and e.xpensive scale. But the industry was unpopular, as it was
conducted on purely official lines in which coercion played a great
part. There was no real skilled supervision; disease attacked the
silkworms, and the enterprise languished. But in spite of mistakes
and failure, it was proved that Kashmir could produce a silk of high
quality. In the Kothar valley to the south the industry lingered on,
and the Settlement officer, Mr. (now Sir) ^\’alter Lawrence, fostered
it, but avoided any large outlay. Excellent silk was produced in 1894,
and was placed on the English market with satisfactory results. Later,
in 1897, an expert was employed, and the State started sericulture
on approved European principles with Italian reeling machinery. All
attempts to raise local seed were abandoned, and seed was imported
annually on a large scale. The results have been surprising. The
industry is no longer confined to Kothar, but has spread all over the
valley, and its further progress depends on the maintenance and
extension of mulberry-trees.

Ten filatures have been built, containing 1,800 basins for reeling
cocoons, fitted with Italian machinery and giving employment to over
5,000 people in Srinagar. The quality of the silk steadily improves,
and it now commands a price very slightly below Italian silk. In
1897 only 406 ounces of eggs were imported, while in 1906 the import
was 27,500 ounces. The number of zam;i{/drs taking se^d has risen
in the same period from 150 to 14,000, and the weight of cocoons
reared from 375 to 21,400 maunds, while the payments to the rearers
increased from Rs. 4,300 to Rs. 3,28,500, all the eggs and mulberry
leaf being given free of cost. The total production in 1905-6 was
109,072 lb. of raw silk, and 43,349 lb. of silk waste. The profits
since 1897, when the industry was started on a scientific basis, have
been 15-4 lakhs, of which 4*6 lakhs was made in 1905-6. The total
capital outlay has been Rs. 7,25,000, while the working expenses are
about 7 lakhs a year.

The forests of the State are extensive and valuable, and their
conservation is of great importance in the interests of the country

FORESTS

129

drained and irrigated by the rivers passing through them. Including
the Bhadarwah jdgir^ which contains the finest quality of timber,
the area is reported as 2,637 square miles of all Forests
kinds, comprising deodar^ firs, pines, and broad¬
leaved species. This may be divided into the drainage areas of the
Jhelum (1,718 square miles), Chenab (806), and Ravi (113). The
deodar, which is the most valuable species, extends between 5,000 and
9,000 feet above sea-level, and is at its best between 6,000 and 9,000
feet. The blue pine appears at about 6,000 feet, and extends to nearly
10,000 feet, the finest specimens being found mixed with deodar.
A zone between 8,000 to ir,ooo feet is occupied by silver fir, which
occurs pure in dense forests at the lower elevation and is mixed at
greater heights, first with maple and then with birch. Tree vegetation
above 11,000 feet consists of dwarf rhododendron and juniper.

The total area under deodar is about 543 square miles. In the
Kashmir Valley it is found principally, indeed almost entirely, in the
north-west—that is, the district known as Kamraj—and the largest
areas are in the Utr !Machipur fa/islL In Udhanipur district, which
includes the Kishtwar and Padar tahsils, there are 198 square miles of
deoddr-hearlng tracts situated on the Chenab and its affluents. These
forests are of a very good class, containing many fine trees of 12 to 18
feet girth, and the reproduction is mostly good. In the Muzaffarabad
district, which contains the valley of the Kishanganga river and that
of the Jhelum from Kohala nearly up to Baramula, there are estimated
to be 158 square miles oi deodar forest. Ramnagar, formerly the jdglr
of the late Sir Raja Ram Singh, K.C.B., contains a very small propor¬
tion of deodar forest, and it has been generally overworked. Finally,
the Jasrota district, situated on the right bank of the Ravi river,
contains a small area of deoddr in the Basoli tahsil. I hese forests also
were formerly held in jdglr and were practically denuded of all mature
trees, so that no fellings can take place for many years to come.

Pines and firs occupy about r,ioo square miles, and chil
longifolia) 473 square miles. The last is lound in lower altitudes
below the blue pine and deodar, existing in practically pure forests in
Muzaffarabad, Bhimbar, Ramnagar, Udhanipur, Jammu, and Jasrota,
The Kashmir Valley, having a lowest elevation of 5,200 feet above
sea-level, contains no chil. dhe Bhimbar horest division (and district)
has the greatest area under chil (220 square miles), situated principally
in the Kotli and Naoshera tahslls. Some of these forests are of very
fine quality, and will in time give a large number of mature trees for
sale, but at present they are not being worked. Next to this comes
the Ramnagar division, which includes part of the Jammu district, but
these forests are badly stocked and have been overfelled, and will take
many years before they can be of much value as a commercial asset.

130

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

The Chenab division, which also comprises part of the Jammu district,
has some forest of poor quality. In Udhampur most of the forest is
too far from a market to be profitable. A\Ten good cart-roads or light
railways have been made, it may be possible to utilize the Bhimbar
and Jammu cJiil forests for the distillation of turpentine, but at pre¬
sent the cost of carriage is prohibitive.

Next come the fir forests. Owing to their altitude, it would natu¬
rally cost more to extract their timber ; and the selling price of fir
being very low, these forests are unworkable except in the Kashmir
Valley, where the timber is used as firewood mainly for the silk factory
at Srinagar. Perhaps in the future, when artificial preservation of the
timber in the form of sleepers, &c., by creosoting, has been resorted
to, these forests will prove of great value.

Lastly, there are the forests of broad-leaved species, and these are
at present only of value in the Kashmir Valley for the supply of fire¬
wood to the city of Srinagar. Bamboos are found mainly in the
Jasrota district on the Ravi river, where there are about 3,200 acres
of mixed forest which contain the so-called male kind {De?idrocaIamus
strictus). They are saleable at a good price, but are at present subject
to much injury from the Gujar tribes, who hack them for fodder for
their cattle. The grass areas are mostly blanks inside deodar and
other forests, which are used as grazing-grounds by the villagers.

In the Kashmir Valley the forests supply timber and firewood for
local use and also logs for export. During the past few years deodar
sleepers have been exported down the Jhelum river, the sleepers paying
very well, though the quality is not so good as in other districts. Little
deodar is used in Srinagar in comparison with blue pine, which, being
both very durable and cheaper than deodar^ is the favourite building
material. From Udhampur both logs and sleepers of deodar are
exported down the Chenab to Wazirabad. The trees being of better
quality, higher prices are obtained for the produce than for that of
Kashmir. From Muzaffarabad timber in the log and sawn into
sleepers is exported down the Jhelum. The sleepers are entirely
of deodar^ but logs of both blue and long-leaved pine are also sent
down in small quantities. These three districts, Kamraj, Udhampur,
and Muzaffarabad, give the greater part of the forest revenue, which
in 1904-5 amounted to 9-8 lakhs, while the expenditure was 3 lakhs.

Up to the present, owing to the weakness of the forest establishment,
little has been done in the matter of artificial reproduction of deodar^
nor is it necessary. Owing to the protective measures already taken, the
three important species— deodar^ blue pine, and the long-leaved pine—
are rapidly filling up blanks in the forests. The reproduction of deodar
by natural means, whether in Kashmir, Udhampur, or any other district,
is remarkable, nor is the blue pine at all backward, while in the

MINES AND MINERALS

13 *

Kotli and Naoshera tahsils of Bhimbar district the restocking of
blanks inside and outside the forests is all that can be desired. Since
the last great seed year of 1897 myriads of self-sown chll have appeared
and are now fine healthy plants, ranging from 6 to 9 inches in height,
so that unless destructive fires occur there is little or nothing to be
done in the matter of restocking denuded areas or blanks. So far
fire protection has been unnecessary and hardly anything has been
expended on it, and the only parts protected are the Kotli tahsll
forests. The greatest need at present is protection from the damage
done by graziers.

* About three-quarters of the State forests have been demarcated ; but
before really scientific forestry can be introduced, it will be necessary
that a regular survey should be made and a settlement of the forests
elfected, and the great task of drawing up working-plans for future
guidance must be undertaken.

Before 1891 there was no proper management of the forests, and
much damage was done by allowing traders to cut in the forests on
payment of royalty without any supervision, while \'illagers also did
immense injury to the forests in various ways, the State gaining little
or no revenue. In 1891 the first attempts were made to put matters
on a proper basis, with the result that, while most forms of forest injury
except grazing have ceased, the profits have increased largely. Thus
the net revenue in 1904-5 was 6 lakhs, while before 1891 it hardly

exceeded 2 lakhs. The Forest department is under the control of

a European Conservator, assisted by a staff of subordinates.

Some authorities have held that there is not much hope of mineral
wealth in the State ; and among the reasons given is the fact that, as
a rule, where valuable minerals exist, the natives of ^ ^

the country know of their existence. The Kashmiris, minerals,
however, have excellent reasons for reticence on the
subject of minerals; and the find of valuable sapphires in Padar in
1882, and the more recent discovery of coal at Ladda and Anji in the
Udhampur district of Jammu territory, give hopes for the future.
Vast fields have been found, in two sections of which it is estimated

that there are 11 million tons of workable coal. The coal is extremely

friable, dirty, and dusty. Some of it cokes strongly it subjected to
great heat. It is held by competent authorities that the washed and
briquetted coal of these fields will have a value equal to, it not greater
than, Bengal coal. E.xploration for minerals has not yet been
attempted on sound or business-like lines. Excellent iron has been
obtained at Sof in the south of Kaslmiir; good limestone is available
in large quantities; gypsum is abundant; and a recent discovery of
gold has been made at Gulmarg, the chief summer resort of European
visitors to Kashmir.

132

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

The industries connected Avith sericulture, oil-pressing, and the
manufacture of wine and brandy have already been mentioned, but
the State is still more celebrated for its arts. The
manufactures these is described in the article

on Srinagar, but other places also possess consider¬
able reputation for various classes. Wood-carving is practised at many
places, and that turned out at Bijbihara is especially noted. The work
is artistic, but suffers from the fact that the Kashmiri is a bad carpenter.
Lacquered wood-work is produced at Kulgam. Woollen cloth (patfu)
is woven all over the State, the best work being produced in the north,
while the finished product of the south is especially famous. Blankets
are made in many places, and sometimes fetch Rs. 25 a piece. The
blacksmiths are very skilful, and some have been able to make surgical
instruments and repair gun-locks. The city of Srinagar is noted for
its silver, copper, wood-carving, and lacquer. The shawl and paper
industries are almost extinct, but many of the shawl-workers have
become expert weavers of aarpets or have taken to embroidering felts.
Good embroidery is also turned out at Islamabad. An industry started
very recently, in connexion with the development of sericulture, is the
weaving of silk cloth. In 1906 about 100 looms of improved pattern
were imported and set up.

Up to quite recent times Kashmir was almost a self-supporting
country, and the chief imports—piece-goods, metals, .salt, sugar, tea, and
tobacco—were of modest dimensions. Before the
Commerce and Qf cart-road from Rawalpindi to Bara-

mula in 1890, the trade was carried by Kashmiris
who went down every winter to work in the Punjab, and brought
back domestic requisites, or by the professional muleteers, or by
Punjabi bullock-drivers. There were three trade routes. The most
direct crossed the Banihal pass and ran to Jammu, the railway terminus ;
the most popular route followed the old imperial road over the Pir
Panjal, reaching the railway at Gujrat: and the third Avas knoAvn as the
Jhelum A'alley r(jad, which is now the cart-road and the main line of
communication with the Punjab.

In 1892-3 the total imports from India Avere valued at 48-7 lakhs.
In 1902-3 the imports reached 118 lakhs, but the trade of that and
later years Avas greatly impaired by the prevalence of plague in the
Punjab. In 1904-5 the total value Avas 115 lakhs. The table on the
next page shoAvs the value of the more important imports in the years
chosen for comparison.

There can be little doubt that Kashmir has increased enormously
in prosperity of late years. The land revenue settlement has turned
the agricultural classes from serfs into AA^ell-to-do peasants, and their
wealth is reflected in their increased purchases. The increase in the

COMMERCE AXD TRADE

133

import ot salt is especially satisfactory, as in 1892 it was shown that the

annual average of consumption in
prevailing in the Punjab.

Piece-goods:—
European
Indian
Metals;—

Brass and copper
Iron
Salt .

Sugar:—

Refined
Unrefined
Tea:—

Indian

Foreign

Tobacco

Petroleum

Kashmir was exactly half of that

1S92-3. 1

1902-3.

1904-5.

Rs.

76,688

21,572

34,72,934

9,60,185

35,92,556

7,86,485

i, 33 >i 43

1,31,270

4 »^ 3,293

1,42,410

4,92,020

8,69,761

99,888

1,19..=''7

9,32,601

4,82,584

1,15,433

9,21,872

2,47,686

8,2?,675

3.43.761

1,73730

2,030

1,01,253

56,112

3,57,638

1,360

2,32,302

81,795

5.22.871

3,615

3,91,960

1 ,84,164

In 1892-3 the total ex])orts were valued at 53*3 lakhs. In 1902-3
the value reached 99*6 lakhs, and in 1904-5, 192 lakhs.

The following table shows the value of the more important exports
in the years selected :—

1892-3.

1 1902-3.

1904-5.

Rs.

Drugs, not into.xicating

1,60,625

5,06,192

5,7^^425

Dyes.

2,74,826

95,533

4^,023

Fruits.

2,38,683

4,5^,702

7,48,883

Hides .....

1,86,594 1

2,97,617

7,98,160

Skins .....

1,39^386

3,43,350

5,63,065

G/n .

• 16,50,172

20,05,849

30,02,974

Linseed ....

• 1 1,335 j

6,55,673

73,952

Wool

I^Ianufactnred piece-goods

. ' 5,9L439

7,51,365

10,75,047

Shawls ....

2,19,275

35,600

1,000

The value of fruits exported is increasing steadily, and would expand
further with more rapid communications. Ghi also is a very important
export. Perhaps one of the most remarkable increases is that in linseed,
which possessed very little value before the opening ot the cart-road.
The trade in shawls was practically dead before 1892-3. An important
new staple not included in the list must be noticed. Raw silk produced
in the Kashmir Valley has been exported in rapidly increasing quantities
and values, and there are indications that it will become one ot the most
important products of the country. The value increased from Rs. 7,000
in 1897-8 to 13-6 lakhs in 1902-3 and nearly 21 lakhs in 1904-5.

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

Another item of some importance is the trade which passes through
Kashmir between India, Chinese Turkistan, and Tibet via Leh. In
1904-5 the total value of this trade was 61*2 lakhs. It is subject to
considerable fluctuations, owing to great physical difliculties, the keen
rivalry of Russia, and the passive obstruction of Tibet. During the
ten years ending 1901 the average value was 44-3 lakhs, the maximum
being 62-2 lakhs in 1895-6, and the minimum 30*1 lakhs in 1891-2.
The imports from Central Asia into Ladakh amounted to 17*8 lakhs.
Of this, about 14 lakhs came from Chinese Turkistan and the balance
from Tibet. Goods to the value of 11-3 lakhs found their way to the
Punjab via Kashmir, others going via Kulu. The chief articles were
raw silk (5-9 lakhs), Russian gold coins (4-3 lakhs), raw wool (3 lakhs),
and charas (2-2 lakhs). The exports from Ladakh to Central Asia
amounted to 11-4 lakhs. Of this, goods to the value of 10 lakhs went
to Chinese Turkistan and the remainder to Tibet. The more impor¬
tant articles of export were : European cotton piece-goods (3-4 lakhs);
coral (i*2 lakhs); silk goods, European (i-8 lakhs), Indian (Rs. 54,000)-
The value of trade passing from India to Ladakh was 14-3 lakhs.

The nature of the country renders communications difficult. In the
valley proper the Jhelum forms a great waterway, but other rivers are
. . not navigable. Throughout the greater part of the

ommumcations. roads are chiefly fair-weather tracks and

are not used for wheeled traffic. A cart-road has, however, been con¬
structed from Srinagar, through Baramula and down the Jhelum valley,
to Abbottabad in the North-West Frontier Province and to Murree in
the Punjab, while another cart-road is being constructed from Srinagar
to LMhampur. The principal roads within the State lead from Srinagar
to Islamabad and Jammu over the Banihal pass (9,200 feet); to
Shupiyan, Bhimbar, and Gujrat in the Punjab over the Pir Panjal
(11,400); to Gandarbal and Ladakh over the Zoji La (11,300); and to
Gilgit over the Rajdiangan (11,700), and Burzil (13,500), or Kamri
(13,100). ]\Iuch has been done in recent years to improve these
routes and a number of smaller roads, such as that from Srinagar to
Gulmarg, which is practicable for tongas. A road cess amounting to
21 per cent, on the revenue has been imposed, in place of the forced
labour which used to be exacted. The Jhelum is crossed by several
wooden bridges on the cantilever principle at Srinagar, and over the
hill torrents swing frail suspension bridges consisting of cables made of
plaited twigs or buffalo-hide. The latter sometimes reach a span of
300 feet, and are renewed every three years, if they have not been
carried away meanwhile by floods.

The only railway at present is a short length of 16 miles, constructed
at the cost of the State, which is included in a branch of the North-
^\’estern State Railway from WazIrabM through Sialkot. It cost

FAMTXE

135

9*6 lakhs, and has usually earned a net profit of i to 2\ per cent., in
addition to the rebate allowed from traffic exchanged with the North-
Western Railway. A line has been surveyed along the Jhelum valley
route, and it is proposed to work this by electricity derived from the
river.

The State is included for postal purposes in the circle administered
by the Postmaster-General of the Punjab and North-West Frontier
Province. Formerly Kashmir had its own postal service and used its
own postage stamps, but as far back as 1876 there were British post
offices in Srinagar and Leh. The State stamps were used only for local
purposes, and letters and other postal articles passing between the State
post offices and British India were charged with both Kashmir and
Indian postage. In 1894 the State posts were entirely amalgamated
with the Indian postal system. The following statistics show the
advance in postal business since r 880-1 :—

; Number of post offices
I Number of letter boxes
I Number of miles of postal communica
tion . • .

Total number of postal articles de
livered;—

Letters ....
Postcards ....
Packets ....
Newspapers

Parcels ....
Value of stamps sold to the public Rs
Value of money orders issued . Rs

* Including unregistered newspapers.

t The figures are i:

1880-1.

1890-1. I

1900-1.

1003-4.

199

207

1,588

1,67s

48,1 26

138,216

1,414,140

1.519,674

3.406

26,858

1,209,182

1,639,430

S32

16,146

1 96.356 *

166,400 I

42,978

70,226

! 193,414+

246,974

L 742

4 . 9 M

32,786

77 . 4 °-’ I
1,06,028 1

81,030

3,10,591 1

16,37,787 1

+ Registered as newspapers in the Post Office,
cled in those of the Punjab.

The accounts of early famines are vague, but it is known that famines
occurred. ^Vhile Sher Singh was governor (1831-3) severe distress was
felt and many people fled, but the next governor, Famine.

Mian Singh, did much to restore prosperity by im¬
porting grain. It is said that the population was reduced to a quarter in
that famine. In 1877-9 a worse disaster was experienced and the loss
of life was enormous. Famines in Kashmir are not caused by drought,
as in India, because the rice crop is generally protected by irrigation.
The greatest distress is due to the fall of rain or snow while the rice
and maize arc ready for harvest. I'he famine of 1832 was caused by
early snow, and was aggravated by the floods which followed. In 1877
rain fell almost continuously for three months, and the old system ot
collecting revenue in kind prevented cultivators from gathering their
crops when opportunity served. Food-grains were not to be had ; and

136

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

when imports were made at the expense of the State, the corrupt
officials were the chief persons to profit. It is improbable that such
distress can be experienced again, owing to the construction of a cart-
road, and the change in the method of collecting revenue.

The State is in direct relationship with the Government of India, who
is represented by an officer of the Political department, styled the
Resident. His head-quarters are at Srinagar. At Gilgit a Political
Agent exercises some degree of supervision over the WazTr Wazarat, and
is directly responsible to the Government of India for the administration
of the outlying petty States. A British officer is stationed at Leh to
assist in the supervision of Central Asian trade.

On his accession to the gaddi in 1885, the present Maharaja was
entrusted with the administration of the State, aided by two ministers;

. , ... but in 1887, at his own request, he was relieved from

all part in the administration, which was then placed,
subject to the control of the Resident, in the hands of a Council
consisting of His Highness’s brother and two selected officials from the
British service. In 1891 the Maharaja assumed the presidentship of
the Council, while his brother, Raja Sir Amar Singh, K.C.S.I., became
vice-president. The Council was abolished in 1905, and its powers
were conferred on the chief himself. Under the new arrangements the
Maharaja administers the State. There are three ministers, in charge of
the revenue, judicial, and home departments ; but business requiring the
orders of the Maharaja is laid before him by the chief minister. Raja
Sir Amar Singh. For some time past the departments of finance,
revenue settlement, forests, and public works have been in charge of
British officers, whose services have been temporarily placed at the
disposal of the Darbar.

The four chief executive officers are : the governor or Hakim-i-Ala of
Jammu, the governor of Kashmir (each aided by a general assistant),
the Wazir Wazarat of Gilgit, and the Wazir Wazarat of Ladakh.

In Jammu there are five districts, each in charge of a Wazir Wazarat,
an official whose average salary is Rs. 250 a month. Under the Wazir
Wazarat are tahsilddrs and sometimes subdivisional officers. All these
officers exercise revenue, civil, and criminal jurisdiction, with regular
stages of appeal. In revenue cases the appeal lies to the governor, and
from him to the revenue minister. In civil and criminal judicial cases
the appeal lies to the Chief Judge of Jammu. From him there is an
appeal to the judicial minister, who is virtually the final court, and it is
only on rare occasions that an appeal is made from him to the Maharaja.
All death sentences passed by the Chief Judge require the confirmation
of the Maharaja. In 1900-1 there were eighty-one courts of all grades,
of which eight exercised criminal jurisdiction only. Although there is
a centralized form of government, as in British India, the real power

FIXAXCE

137

rests with the tahslldar, and distance and the absence of easy communi¬
cations are practical checks on the use or abuse of appeals.

Before 1892, when the law of limitation was introduced into Jammu,

litigation was not very heavy and the people frequently settled their

differences out of court. The improvement in the

courts, and the effects of this alteration in the law,

^ justice*

are shown by the fact that the number of suits for
money or movable property increased from an average of 3,735 during
the ten years ending 1890 to 10,766 in the next decade, and was
12,160 in 1900-1. The system of registration for deeds resembles that
in British India. In 1900—i the number of documents registered was

Crime is not serious in the Jammu province ; but there has been an
increase in cases of theft, hurt, and mischief, due to the greater activity
of the police force, which is being gradually assimilated to the rules and
procedure prevailing in British India. In the whole State 17,320
persons were brought to trial in 1900-1, of whom 2,169, or 13 per cent.,
were convicted.

In Kashmir the tahslls in the valley are superintended by the
governor himself, while those of the Muzaffarabad district are in charge
of a Wazir Wazarat subject to the governor and the ('hief Judge, whose
offices are in Srinagar.

The finances of the State are immediately controlled by an accountant-
general, who for some years has been lent by the British Government.
The revenue and expenditure for 1895-6,1900-1, and Finance
1905-6 are shown in Tables IV and V at the end
of this article (pp. 146 and 147). In the last year the total revenue
was 93 lakhs, the chief items being land revenue (38-9 lakhs), forests
(13 lakhs), customs and octroi (9-2 lakhs), and scientific and minor
departments (2-2 lakhs). The expenditure of one crore included public
works (30-8 lakhs), military (13-8 lakhs), privy purse and courts (10-9
lakhs), scientific and minor departments (2-1 lakhs), and land revenue
(6-1 lakhs). The State is very prosperous, and has more than 46 lakhs
invested in securities of the Government of India.

The British rupee is now the only rupee used in the State. Pre¬
viously three coins were current : namely, the kham rupee, value
8 annas, bearing the letters J. H. S. (these letters have given rise to many
stories, but they were really a mint-mark to indicate Jammu, Hari
Singh); the chilki rupee, value 10 Ihitish annas; the Xanak shdhi
rupee, value 12-16 British annas.

The kharwar or ass-load, which has for centuries past been the
standard of weight, is equivalent to 1773 word is usually

abbreviated to khar. Land measures are calculated not by length and
breadth, but by the amount of seed required by certain areas of rice

KASHMIR AXD JAMMU

13S

cultivation. It has been found by measurements that the klanva?' of
land—that is, the rice area which is supposed to require a kharwaAs
weight of rice-seed—exactly corresponds to 4 British acres. For length,
the following measure is used :—

I gira = inches.

\(i gi ms - 1 gaz.

20 gtras - I gaz, in measuringcloth.

There is no sealed yard measure in Srinagar, but from frequent experi¬
ment it was found that thecas of 16 giras is about half an inch longer
than the British yard.

The land revenue system has been described as ‘ fjotwari in ruins.’ It
is probable that the methods of administration introduced under Akbar
led to a fictitious joint responsibility, but this was
Land revenue, ^^ccepted. The land was regarded as the

absolute property of the State, and the cultivators were merely tenants
holding from year to year, with no rights in the waste land. Within the
village, however, the cultivators recognized the acquisition of what may
be called a right of occupancy acquired by long prescri])tion (miras).
At the settlement which commenced in 18S7 this custom was accepted
by the State, and permanent hereditary rights were conferred on persons
who agreed to pay the assessment fixed on the land entered in their
names. 'Fhe right is not alienable by sale or mortgage, and the holder
is called an asih/iL Besides the ordinary village occupants there were
grantees, but tliese have gradually been converted into asamis.

Under the local Sultans the State share of produce w\as reckoned at
one-half, and this was increased to three-quarters by the Mughals. In
the absence of any survey or record of rights, the revenue administration
was harsh and corrupt. Land agents called kdrddrs were appointed
who parcelled out the land annually, the area of land allotted to each
family being regulated by the number of individuals it contained. The
State took three-fourths of rice, maize, millets, and buckwheat, and nine-
sixteenths of oilseeds, pulses, and cotton. In i860 the share was
reduced to one-half, and villages were made over to contractors called
chakladdrs^ who robbed the cultivators and the State. An attempt was
made in 1873 introduce a ryoiwdri settlement for three years, but
the interests of the chakladdrs and corrupt officials were too strong to
allow such an innovation. Abul Fazl, in the Ain-i-Akbarl^ notes that
revenue was chiefly paid in kind in Kashmir, and it was not till 1880
that a so-called cash assessment was introduced. This was made by
taking the average collections for the previous three years in each vil¬
lage, and adding a considerable proportion, never less than 30 per
cent. ; but as a matter of fact, it was left to an official to decide how
much revenue should be taken in cash, and how much in kind. There
was no pretence of inspecting villages, or of distributing the demand

^RaJbsU,

/jiiiiiuj

Mariam

P^ir i/' \ ''

,,^14,660 |\ ^'-, . ^ ‘A>^-’^^., .,

I^Uilriut

^^/Sajnju
7 CioixJvu P

:vji4Uf/

xr>,,HbJ}p.^ y

. . .i/yti(>a /

^t<pta^IihtJi<r>,

$rtnfjxF

Sftah/dt^j',

■JiJumjsludiJi,
g ^4;71Sr j. <S>

^K^isgati.

^Sunufal

VtiJotu) JTarp^

Akiagii^

Af^odwm Austen
Oushae^um/r-

^^J^denJhrona'
its«?6 fw

fiu/nnai

' fiapakoraiii Pass
j; is>sr,o

y ana e

Eizvl Jdna

IRzi^Arujnr

^ \ . t

Cfunn^^an^

7/K^ .1^ ■'^--

{Riwangkaru

Oioahui nr
¥^-

yJC rCfk

SiiyunL^

yiyTtok^Oiurtxo

RtrJpls IL U

\ DiimcAei^

!fiBU3itfraa:f

KISHWA

\,^Dod4X )

coyiA

JHanl^

’"S<jraJLft(

»' Tetu^

Fm€>Hf IIE FlWIlfCl

1: -MKMMH)U or OkVI >[Urs to ui Inc h
Buglijfh Miles

Native States coloured _ve I low
Railways opened and in construction.
Canals ------

Im^eri^ razeu^er of Itag.a,

J vJ.B«pAolcmnr

MISCELLANEO US RE VENUE

139

fixed for a whole village over separate holdings, and the dislocation
caused by the famine of 1877-9 ^dded to the evils of such summary
procedure. Two years later a system of auctioning villages was intro¬
duced, which led to even greater abuses, while the commutation rates
for grain were altered, so as to injure the cultivators.

In 1887 ^ regular settlement was commenced in the valley by
a British officer, lent by Government. It was preceded by a complete
survey, and the revenue was fixed for ten years. Villages were classified
according to their position, and standard out-turns of produce were cal¬
culated. In estimating the produce, allowance was made for walnut-
trees, fruit trees, apricots, and honey. The assessment was also checked
by considering the collections in previous years and reports made by
former contractors. Its moderation and even distribution are attested
by the return of the cultivators who had fled during the disastrous
famine. When the settlement was completed in 1893, it had cost 3-4
lakhs and had raised the revenue by 1*9 lakhs annually. A revision
was commenced in 1898 and completed in 1905, the methods employed
being similar to those followed at the first regular settlement. This has
further raised the revenue in the valley from 13-4 to 17 lakhs, or by 27
per cent. The incidence of revenue varies from about 10 annas to
Rs. 12 per acre, and represents an all-round rate of about 30 per cent,
of the gross produce. Regular settlements have also been completed in
other parts of the State, such as Gilgit, Jammu, and Baltistan. The
total receipts from land revenue in 1905-6 amounted to 38-9 lakhs.

The Excise department of the State is chiefly concerned with the
manufacture and sale of liquor, including wine and brandy, at the
Gupkar distillery. In 1900 the administration was
examined by an officer lent by the British Govern¬
ment, and as a consequence private distilleries in
the province of Jammu were entirely closed. The total receipts in
1900-1 were only Rs. 50,000, but by 1905-6 they had risen to
Rs. 1,37,000.

In 1905-6 the total revenue from stamps was 2-22 lakhs, of which
1-6 lakhs represented receipts from judicial stamps.

A considerable revenue is derived from customs and octroi levied
on the trade which passes into the State. The receipts amounted to
9*2 lakhs in 1905-6.

Cesses are levied, amounting to 12^ per cent, on the land revenue,
for the following objects : payments to lambarddrs (village headmen),
5 per cent.; pativaris and zailddrs^ 4^ per cent.; education, ^ per
cent.; and roads, 2^ per cent.

There are two municipal committees in the State: one at Srinagar,
and the other at Jammu, presided over by the chief medical officer,
Kashmir, and the governor of the Jammu province, respecti\ ely. 'I'he

VOL. XV K

Miscellaneous

revenue.

140

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

Local and
municipal.

members are nominated by the Darbar as representatives of different
communities. There is no separate municipal fund; the State provides
the expenditure for municipal and sanitary pur¬
poses, while the receipts, such as octroi, are likewise
credited to the general revenues. The expenditure
in 1905-6 was Rs. 92,000, of which Rs. 6,400 was met from fees and
taxes and the balance by a grant from the State. In other towns con¬
servancy establishments are maintained, which are under the municipal
committee of the province in which the town is situated. Great
improvements have lately been made in the drainage system of Jammu
town.

The expenditure on public works in 1905-6 was 30-8 lakhs, and will
always be heavy. The maintenance of long lines of communication
between Kashmir and India and between Kashmir,

Public works. ^nd Ladakh, the cost of buildings in Srinagar

and Jammu, and the enormous losses which have to be repaired when
great floods and earthquakes occur render a large annual outlay inevi¬
table. The road from Kohala to Baramula alone cost 22 lakhs to
construct, and the road from Kashmir to Gilgit cost, in the first in¬
stance, 15 lakhs. In 1901 the construction of a cart-road from Jammu
to Udhampur was sanctioned. In 1905-6 the utilization ot the Jhelum
river for a great electric power scheme was taken in hand, and 4-6 lakhs
was spent on it. The State Engineer is usually an officer lent by the
British Government; and the State is divided into eight divisions,
known as Kashmir, Jammu, the Jhelum valley, Gilgit, Udhampur cart-
road, Palace, Jhelum power, and Jammu irrigation.

The expenditure on the army is heavy, amounting to nearly 14 lakhs
in 1905-6, but the administration is sound and economical, and there
is considerable efficiency. The State has splendid
Army. materials for an army, as the Dogras are, in the
opinion of competent authorities, second to none in martial qualities.
The commander-in-chief up to the year 1900 was assisted by a British
officer as military adviser. The first military adviser was Colonel (after¬
wards Sir) Neville Chamberlain, to whose energy and tact the State
owes its present efficient and well-equipped force. The army consists
of two mountain batteries, one horse artillery and one garrison battery,
one squadron Kashmir Lancers, one troop body-guard cavalry, 7 regi¬
ments of infantry, and 4 companies of sappers and miners, with a total
strength of 6,283, State maintains a force of 3,370

Imperial Service troops, the remainder being called regular troops.
Jammu, the winter capital, has a strong garrison. Imperial Service
troops are stationed at Satwari cantonment, about 5 miles from Jammu,
on the opposite bank of the Tawi river. Two regiments of regular
infantry and a garrison battery are stationed at Srinagar, and small

EDUCATION

141

detachments of infantry are detailed from this garrison for Bandipura,
Leh, Skardu, Padar, and various other posts. The troops in Gilgit, the
northernmost part of the State, consist of two regiments of Imperial
Service infantry, a battery of four mounted guns, and two companies of
the Kashmir sappers and miners. Detachments of infantry are supplied
to the frontier posts of Gupis, Chilas, &c., and the battery is stationed
at Bunji and Ruttoo. The troops at the Gilgit, Ladakh, and Skardu
frontiers are relieved biennially. The Imperial Service infantry regi¬
ments are armed with Lee-Metford rifles, and the regular regiments with
Enfield-Sniders. The mountain batteries are equipped with 2•5-inch
guns, and the ca^'alry are armed with lances and carbines. A num¬
ber of forts partially armed are scattered all over the country. The
State army is commanded by General Raja Sir Amar Singh, K.C.S.I.,
younger brother of the Maharaja.

Serious crime is rare, and the force of regular police is comparatively
small. It includes 3 assistant superintendents, 9 inspectors, 297 sub¬
ordinate officers, and 1,213 constables, costing about
2*2 lakhs annually. The force is controlled by two
Superintendents for the chief provinces of Jammu
and Kashmir. Police duties in the villages are performed by the
chauktddrs^ who are generally Dums in the Jammu province, and are
paid by the villagers. The responsibility of the headman for reporting
crime is insisted on. A training school for regular police is main¬
tained, and the system of identifying convicts by thumb impressions
has been introduced. In 1904-5 only 2,076 cognizable cases were
reported, of which 640, or 30 per cent., ended in conviction.

Central jails are maintained at Jammu and at Srinagar, and seven
small jails in outlying places. Both the Central jails are usually over¬
crowded, the daily average number of prisoners in 1904-5 being 543.
The expenditure in the same year was Rs. 47,000 on the Central jails,
and Rs. 3,600 on the others; and in 1905-6 a total of Rs. 54,000.
Convicts are employed in printing, paper-making, and other minor
industries in the Srinagar jail, and in printing, weaving, and manu¬
facturing industries at Jammu. The receipts from jail manufactures in
1905-6 were Rs. 18,000.

The Census of 1901 showed how little attention was formerly paid
to education. In that year only 2 per cent, of the population could
read and write. Among males the proportion rises to
3*8 per cent., while among the total female popula¬
tion only 1,260 were literate. Hindus appear to be much better
educated than Muhammadans. In 1900-1 the State maintained 87
schools, attended by 6,197 boys. By 1905-6 the number of State
schools had risen to 154, including two high schools, a normal school,
7 Anglo-vernacular and 12 vernacular middle schools, and 133 primary

K 2

Education.

142

KASBMlJ^ AND JAMMU

schools. Besides these, 3 girls’ schools are maintained by the State
at Srinagar j and there are one aided girls’ school at Jammu, two aided
high schools and an aided middle school at Srinagar, and an aided
middle school at Jammu. Sanskrit schools attached to the State high
schools, one at Jammu and the other at Srinagar, teach up to the
Shastri standard. The total number of pupils in all the schools was
11,460. The department is under the control of the foreign minister,
who is aided by an inspector and two assistant inspectors of schools.
There being no State college, 17 scholarships are annually granted
by the Darbar to students for prosecuting their studies at colleges
at Lahore. Two scholarships of Ks. 4,000 each have also been sanc¬
tioned for training State subjects abroad in useful arts, &:c. Ten
stipends of the value of Rs. 8 a month are granted in the Srinagar
normal school, and thirteen of the value of Rs. 1,944 are awarded to
students sent up for training in the normal school and training college
at Lahore, while two teachers are annually sent to the latter on the
full pay of their appointments. The total expenditure on education in
1905-6 was 1-05 lakhs, compared with only Rs. 45,000 in 1900-1.

An Arts college was opened at Srinagar in 1905 by the trustees
of the Central Hindu College, Benares, in connexion with the Hindu
high school, and the IMaharaja has sanctioned a grant-in-aid of
Rs. 15,600 per annum for the college and school from the year 1906.

The State maintains at Srinagar two hospitals, two dispensaries
with accommodation for in-patients, and a leper asylum, and at Jammu
Medical hospitals for the civil population, besides mili¬

tary hospitals at Jammu and at Satwari cantonment.
In 1904-5, besides these, 43 dispensaries were maintained in the
State. Two chief medical officers are in charge of the Jammu and
Kashmir provinces, and the Agency Surgeon supervises work in Gilgit.
The Medical department of the State is under the control of a Super¬
intending Surgeon. In 1904-5 the total number of patients treated
was 401,120, of whom 4,338 were in-patients, and 11,830 operations
were performed. The expenditure was 1*5 lakhs. In addition to the
State institutions, valuable work is being done by the Medical Mission,
which has a large hospital at Srinagar and a hospital at Anantnag.
The leper asylum referred to above is also managed by them for the
Darbar.

The staff for vaccination consists of eighteen men, who work in the
province of Jammu in winter, and in that of Kashmir in summer.
Vaccination is not compulsory, but a good deal of work is done by
the exercise of tact and moral persuasion. In 1904-5 the number
of persons successfully vaccinated in both provinces was 33,784, while
4,200 vaccinations were also carried out in Gilgit. The people of
Ghizar, Vasin, Ashkuman, and Chilas districts formerly refused vaccina-

MEDICAL

tion, but are now accepting it. The total expenditure in 1905-6 was
Rs* 5,685. Inoculation is practised by the people in the frontier
districts, but not elsewhere.

[F. Bernier: Voyages (1699).—G. T. Vigne: Travels i?i Kashmir^
Ladak^ Iskardo (1842).—A. Cunningham: Afi Essay 07 i the Arlan
Order of Architecture as exhibited in the Te 7 nples of Kashmir (1848).—
J. Biddulph : Tribes of the Hindu Koosh (1880).— Drew: Jammu and
Kashmir Territories (1875). — R* R* Rnight: Where Three Empires
meet (1S93).—W. R. Lawrence : The Valley of Kashmir (I895^.—
Kalhana’s Rajatarangini, a Chronicle of the Kin^s of Kashmir^ trans¬
lated by M. A. Stein, 2 vols. (1900).]

TABLE I.—Temperature, Kashmir

144

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

The figures here are for fourteen to fifteen years only.

TABLE III. —Distribution of Population, Kashmir, in 1901

TABLES

M 5

Mean
density
per square

mile, t

VC 00 0*1 :

■N - <N ^

SC 'O

Cv 1^ i

Ov
' 4 - q

tfj

Urban Population.

0 . . .

: : : :

rO * * *

cq :

1''.

r>.

ire

vi '

_SJ '
pd '

'N I I ; I

* * *

p»

-r

i/j :

»r^

pp.

(icT

'j>

o' • * • •

PI •

-r

(Ji

u~.

Total Population.

0 po "i- 0

M lO cs rs

p^\^ vq^

OcT pi' o' 0''

u~. PC cv t>- 0

•rj

•iC

i'.

CO CN
PCO

q 3

0 t--.

-e

*r.

PI i>,

cv 0

p^c

pT tC
CO pi

CS ^

Ov I PI

.4- * »o

Cs PC

0 0

(s tfi »f: — Cv

p< p^ £>.1 Cv

-t- 0 PC —^

to — d p«' CO
x» ‘O >-■ CO

■N

CO ON

—J

VC 0"

PI CV
lO

r->.

0 CO

0 r-.

VO^

PC PC
X PC

r--

•c

•0

00 oc On PC cv
« -r p< -p cv

0^ 0^ p<^ >-

't' 0 't* 00
-1-X 0 'O PO

PC fS ' 4 ' -• PC

' t-

•c

VO CO

CV OV

c>co'

CO VO

0 \ -

'i-

•0

PI ir;
O'CO

q-yq
•r. 0

VO VO

e..

co^

1 0
q

Number of
villages.

0 ‘O Os - 4 - ”< 4 '

a^ »o — 00 p^

- 0 0 «c 0

r.»

•n^

qco

rj-

!>.

'»r

VO VO

co"

Number
of towns.

Area in
square miles.

•0

Jammu ....

Udhampur ....
Bhimber . . . •

Jasrota ....

Punch )

Bhadarwah

Total, Jammu province

Khas .....
Muzaffaiabad

Total, Kashmir province

Ladakh ....

Cilsit .

'Potal, Frontier districts

Tol.'il, State

+ Assessed aiea only,
t Cah ulaU d on area actually cultivated.
5 Calculated on total area.

146

KASHMIR AND JAMMU

TABLE IV

Principal Sources of Revenue, Kashmir

(In thousands of rupees)

1895-6. 1

1900-1.

1905-6.

Opening balance ....

29-53

41,12

38,26

l.and revenue .....

35:73

38,78

38.91

Customs and octroi . . . . ^

4,22

7,61

9.18

Grazing fees . . . . . j

2,37

3,33

4.84

Excise . . . . . . 1

'.37

Receipts from State property in India

Stamps .... . .

G 37

1,75

2,22

Courts of law.

Jails ......

Post Office .....

Telegraphs.

*" 8

Scientific and minor departments

7:71

2,70

2,22

Sericulture.

2,67

14,02

Interest .

1:49

2,98

Forests.

8,09

8,83

13,01

Military.

Public works .....

Miscellaneous .....

3:90

5.28

2.36

Total

67,40

74.56

92,99

Debt and remittance.

1,42,70

1,77,04

3.61,73

Grand total

2 > 39.<'3

2,92,72

4,92,98

TABLES

M 7

TABLE V

Principal Items of Expenditure, Kashmir

(In thousands of rupees)

1895-6.

1900-1.

1Q05-6.

Land revenue , . . .

4,77

6,12

Customs .....

I,.30

Forests .....

2,95

3,98

Post Office. 1

Telegraphs . . . ’

Privy purse and court . '

9,24

8,46

10,87

General administration

I. 7 S i

2,49

3,27

Courts of law.

68 !

1,22

Jails.

32 1

Police.

1,4s

1,97

2,05

Education . . . i

1,05

Medical . . . . . . !

1,39

1,57 '

Political ......

B 74

2,36

9,3s :

Scientific and minor departments

1.05

2,11 j

Sericulture .....

4,^3

7,53

Pensions and gratuities

1,10

1,34

1,32

.Stationery and printing

48 1

Stables, &c. .....

1,01

1,54

1,47 !

Refunds ......

Military ..

* 3,44

11,69

i.3,S2 ,

Public works .....

12,62

15,80

30,So

Miscellaneous .....

^,57

1,33

Total

61,23

65,52

1,01,42

Debt and remittance ....

i. 54>27

1,81,52

.3,57,03

Total

2,15750

2,47,04

4,58,45

Closing balance.

24, *3

45,68

.34,53

Grand total

2,39,63

2,92,72

4,92,98

148

KASHMOR

Kashmor.— Tahika of the Upper Sind Frontier District, Sind,
Bombay, lying between 28° 4' and 28° 29' N. and 69° 15' and 69''^
47' E. In T90T the area was 500 square miles. The population in
1901 was 38,179, compared with 35,763 in 189T. The density, 77
persons per square mile, is much below the District average. The
tahika contained 65 villages, of which Kashmor is the head-quarters.
The land revenue and cesses amounted in 1903-4 to r*2 lakhs. Owing
to the vagaries of the Indus, the present area of the tahika is 508
square miles, of which about 37 square miles are covered by forests.
A large area of land is still unoccupied and available for cultivation.
Irrigation depends upon floods and upon the Desert and Dingro Wah
Canals and canals from the Kashmor Band.

Kasia. — Subdivision of Gorakhpur District, United Provinces,
comprising the Padrauna TahsTl. The subdivision takes its name
from the village of Kasia, at which the head-quarters of the sub-
divisional officer are situated. Population of the village (1901), t,688.
The village is situated at the junction of the Deoria-Tadrauna and
Gorakhpur-Pipraghat roads, near the bank of the Rama Bhar lake,
and contains a dispensary and a town school with 114 pupils. A short
distance away, in the village of Bishanpura, is situated the important
group of ruins which was long supposed to mark the site -of Kusa-
nagara, where Gautama Buddha died. The ruins include a large stupa
and many small ones, the remains of a monastery, and a temple which
enshrines a colossal statue of the dying Buddha, 20 feet in length.
It has now been recognized that the buildings on this site do
not agree with the description of Kusanagara given by the Chinese
pilgrims.

[A. Cunningham, Arckaeotogical Survey Reports^ vols. xviii and xxii;
V. A. Smith, The Remains near Kasia (1896), and in Journal^ Royal
Asiatic Society^ 1902, p. 139 ; W. Yioey^ Journal^ Asiatic Society of
Bengal^ 1900, p. 83.]

Kasimbazar.—Decayed town in Murshidabad District, Bengal.
See CossiMP.AZAR.

Kasipur-Chitpur.—Town in the District of the Twenty-four Par-
ganas, Bengal. See Cosstpore-Chitpur.

Kasia Pagina Muvada.—Petty State in Rewa Kantha, Bombay.

Kasumpti.—Suburb of Simla station, Punjab. It lies within the
territory of the Raja of Keonthal, but being practically part of Simla
was leased from the Raja in 1884, and constituted a separate munici¬
pality, whose functions are performed by the Deputy-Commissioner
of Simla. The municipal income and expenditure during the ten
years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 5,600. In 1903-4 the income was
Rs. 6,200, chiefly from taxes on houses and lands ; and the expenditure
was Rs. 6,300. Population (March, 1901), 170,

KASUR TOWN

149

Kasur Subdivision. —Subdivision of Lahore District, Punjab,
consisting of the Kasur and Chunian tahslls,

Kasur Tahsll. —South-eastern tahsil of Lahore District, Punjab,
lying between 30° 54' and 31° 27' N, and 74° 13' and 74° 58' E., on
the north bank of the Sutlej, with an area of 816 square miles, of which
two-thirds belong to the tract known as the Manjha and the remainder
to the lowlands beneath the old bank of the Peas. The Manjha
portion is irrigated by the Bari Doab Canal, and the southern low¬
lands by the Katora Inundation Canal. The population in 1901 was
311,690, compared with 280,647 1S91. The head-quarters are at

the town of Kasur (22,022); and it also contains the towns of Khem
Karan (6,083) and Patti (8,187), and 345 villages. The land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 3,71,000. The battle¬
field of Soeraon lies in this tahsiL

Kasur Town. —Head-quarters of the subdivision and tahsil of the
same name in Lahore District, Punjab, situated in 31° 8' N. and
74° 28' E., upon the north bank of the old bed of the Beas, on the
North-Western Railway and on the Ferozepore road, 34 miles south¬
east of Lahore city ; distant by rail from Calcutta 1,209 miles, from
Bombay 1,237, and from Karachi 778. Population (1901), 22,022, of
whom 5,327 are Hindus and 16,257 Muhammadans. Tradition refers
its origin to Kusa, son of Rama, and brother of Loh or Lava, the
founder of Lahore. It is certainly a place of great antiquity, and
General Cunningham identified it with one of the places visited by
Hiuen Tsiang in the seventh century a.d. A Rajput city seems to
have occupied the modern site before the earliest Muhammadan
invasion; but Kasur does not appear in history until late in the
Muhammadan period, when it was settled by a Pathan colony from
the east of the Indus. These immigrants entered the town either in
the reign of Babar or in that of his grandson Akbar, and founded
a considerable principality, with territory on both sides of the Sutlej.
When the Sikhs rose to power, they experienced great opposition from
the Pathans of Kasur; and, though the chiefs of the Bhangi con¬
federacy stormed the town in 1763, and again in 1770, and succeeded
for a while in holding the entire principality, the Pathan leaders re¬
established their independence in 1794, and resisted many subsequent
attacks. In 1807, however, Kutb-ud-dm Khan, the last chieftain, was
forced to give way before RanjTt Singh, and retired to his property
at Mamdot, beyond the Sutlej, The town of Kasur was then incor¬
porated in the kingdom of I.ahore. It consists of an aggregation of
fortified hamlets, standing on the upland bank and overlooking the
alluvial valleys of the Beas and the Sutlej. The Pathan element has
now declined. The municipality was created in 1867. The income
during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 52,800, and the

KASUR TOJJW

150

expenditure Rs. 50,900. In 1903-4 the income and expenditure
were Rs. 60,400 and Rs. 54,500 respectively. The chief source of
income was octroi (Rs. 50,000), while the main items of outlay were
conservancy (Rs. 4,000), education (Rs. 8,500), hospitals and dispensaries
(Rs. 6,300), and administration (Rs. 18,800). Kasur is now, next to
Lahore, the most important town in the District. It is the centre of local
trade, and exports grain and cotton to the annual value of 10 lakhs.
Harness and other leathern goods are manufactured, and there are
4 cotton-ginning and 2 cotton-pressing factories, which in 1904 em¬
ployed 436 hands. The chief educational institution is the Anglo-
vernacular high school maintained by the municipality. An industrial
school formerly existed, but is now extinct. The town also contains
a hospital, and since 1899 has been an out-station of the American
Presbyterian Mission.

Katak.— District, subdivision, and town in Bengal. See Cuttack.

Katakhal.— River in Cachar District, Eastern Bengal and Assam.
See Dhaleswari.

Katas.— Sacred pool in the centre of the Salt Range, in Jhelum
District, Punjab, situated in 32° 43' N. and 72° 59' E., 15 miles north
of Pind Dadan Khan, at an elevation of over 2,000 feet. The pool lies
at the head of the Ganiya nullah, a small ravine between low stony
hills, and is fed by springs. From it issues a small stream which flows
past Choa Saidan Shah into the Gandhala valley. It is visited every
year by thousands of pilgrims who come to bathe in its waters. The
Brahmanical story is that Siva being inconsolable at the death of his
wife Sati, ‘ the true one,’ tears rained from his eyes and formed the two
pools of Katas or Kataksha, ‘ raining eyes,’ and Pushkar near Ajmer.
The pool is partly artificial, the rock having been cut away to enlarge
the natural basin in the bed of the ravine. Just above it once stretched
a strong masonry wall which dammed up the stream, so as to enclose
a large lake; but the water now escapes through the broken rocks and
ruins of the embankment. About 800 feet below the pool the Ganiya
nullah passes between two low flat-topped hills, on which the ancient
town is said to have stood. At the foot of Kotera, the west hill, are
the remains of twelve temples clustered in a corner of an old fort.
These are called the Sat-Ghara, or ‘ seven temples,’ and are popularly
attributed to the Pandavas, who are said to have lived at Katas during
a portion of their seven years’ wanderings. Their style is that of the
Kashmir architecture which prevailed from the eighth to the thirteenth
century, and they comprise a group of six small temples placed in
pairs at regular distances around one large central temple. Facing
this to the east is the basement of a great structure, which was in
all probability a Buddhist stupa.

South-west of the village of Choa Saidan Shah, which lies 2 miles

KATHA DISTRICT

due east of Katas, extends the Gandhala valley, itself 2,000 feet above
the sea, and separated by lofty cliffs from Katas on the north. On the
bank of the Katas stream, which flows through the valley, lies the hill
of Murti, rising on a base of solid sandstone to about 100 feet above
the stream, its level top being 225 feet long by 190 broad. On this
plateau is a small mound, the remains of a stupa ; and close to it once
stood a small Jain temple, from the debris of which a considerable
quantity of highly ornamented architectural fragments (now in the
Lahore Museum) were recovered by Dr. Stein’s excavations in 1890.
The temple has been identified with a famous Jain shrine where
Mahavira was supposed to have obtained his enlightenment. The
locality is also identified with Singha-pura, the Sang-ho-pu-lo of the
Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang, and described by him as the capital
of a dependency of Kashmir about a. d. 630.

[Arc/iaeo/ogica/ Survey Reports, \’ol. ii, pp. 88 and 90; A. Cunning¬
ham, Ancient Geography of India, pp. 124-8 ; Vienna Oriental Jour}ial,
vol. iv (1890), pp. 80 and 260.]

Katha District. —District in the INlandalay Division of Upper
Burma, lying between 23° 30' and 25° 7' N. and 95° 6' and 96"^ 42' E.,
for the most part along the west bank of the Irrawaddy, with an area
of 6,994 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the Upper
Chindwin and INlyiikyina Districts; on the east by the Kaukkwe river
as far as its junction with the Irrawaddy ; thence, by the State of
Mongmit (Momeik) and the Shweli river to its mouth, and southwards
of this point by the Irrawaddy. The southern boundary abuts on the
Ruby Mines and Shwebo Districts, and the western on the Upper
Chindwin.

With the exception of a small tract east of the Irrawaddy, the greater
part of Katha is a mass of hill country. Three main ranges traverse
the District, roughly from north to south, separating
its principal streams, but they are of no very great a^Jectf^
height. Of these, the easternmost is the Gangaw
range, which runs southwards from the north-east corner of the
District to meet the Irrawaddy at Tigyaing. Its course is, in the
main, parallel to that of the stream, and its highest point is 4,400 feet
above sea-level. The principal pass crossing it is at Petsut, 12 miles
west of Katha, over which a small branch line runs from Katha to
Naba on the main line of the railway, at a height of about 500 feet
above the surrounding country. West of the Gangaw Hills is the
Minwun range, starting from the extreme northern limit of Katha, east
of the Taungthonlon hill, and running down the centre of the District
to its southern boundary, where the Irrawaddy flows about 5 or 6 miles
east of the hills. The principal pass over this ridge is the INIawgun-
daing, crossed east and west by the road from Tigyaing to Wuntho,

152

KATHA DISTRICT

about 12 miles west of Tigyaing, at a height of about 1,500 feet.
There is a gap in the hills near Mawteik, through which the Meza
river has cut from west to east. The Sagaing-JNIyitkyina railway on its
way north climbs the range by way of a gorge between Bonchaung and
Nankan. The third main range, the Mangin, passes through the
Wuntho subdivision to the east of the Mu river. Its most elevated
point is Maingthon, 5,450 feet above sea-level, a little west of the
centre of the District. This is the highest peak actually within the
District, though the Taungthonlon, on the north-western border, is
a little higher. All three hill ranges are covered with dense jungle,
and contain much teak and other valuable timber, besides considerable
quantities of bamboo.

The principal rivers are the Irrawaddy, the Kaukkwe, the Shweli,
the ]\Ieza, the Mu, and the Namyin (or Mohnyin). The Irrawaddy
enters Katha about half-way down its eastern side, and as far south as
the mouth of the Shweli separates the greater part of the District from
a small level tract on its eastern bank. South of the Shweli it forms
the eastern boundary for about 25 miles. It runs with a south-westerly
course in what is for the most part a wide channel interspersed with
numerous stands, and is navigable all through the year by all sizes
of river-craft. The Shweli flows into the Irrawaddy on its left bank,
in the south-east of the District, separating Katha from the Ruby
Mines District for about 25 miles. In these lower reaches it is a wide
waterway on which boats can ply. The Kaukkwe stream, winding
southwards into the Irrawaddy from Myitkyina, forms the eastern
boundary from its confluence with the main stream up to the north¬
east corner of the District. It can be used by light-draught launches
as far as Thayetta (20 miles), and by small river-craft right up into
Myitkyina. Separated from the Irrawaddy valley by the Gangaw
range is the malarious Meza valley. The Meza rises in the Taung¬
thonlon hill on the north-west border of the District, and, with its
numerous affluents, waters nearly all the Banmauk subdivision. Follow¬
ing a southerly course, it passes through a gap in the Minwun range,
and enters the Indaw township near Mawteik, and thence flows
southwards between the Gangaw and Minwun ranges, emptying itself
eventually into the Irrawaddy, immediately below Tigyaing. The
valley between the two eastern hill ranges, followed by the railway
for the greater part of its course through the District, is drained in
the far north by the Namyin (Mohnyin), a southern tributary of the
Mogaung river in Myitkyina District. In the south-western quarter
of the Ijistrict, lying west of the Mangin range, is the Mu, which rises
in the south-west of the Banmauk subdivision and flows in a southerly
direction, through the middle of the Pinlebu township, into Shwebo
District, but is not navigable within the limits of Katha. Its tributary

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

153

on the east, the Daungyu chainig^ rises in the Wuntho township, waters
the entire Kawlin township, and from its mouth eastwards for more
than 30 miles forms the southern boundary of the District.

The Indaw Lake is the only considerable sheet of water in Katha.
It lies close to the railway, 5 miles west of Naba junction near the
centre of the District. It is more than 3 miles long and a mile broad,
and is a fishery of some importance. A curious feature of the lake is
the absence of any streams flowing either into or out of it.

The Mangin range of hill consists of trap, with veins of gold-bearing
quartz, while the eastern part of the District is occupied by crystalline
palaeozoic rocks, of which little is known. IVest of these, a portion of
the country is covered by Tertiary sandstones and clays, in which coal
has been found near Wuntho. West of this again, a large area of
eruptive diorite, associated with volcanic ash, has been laid bare by
the denudation of the Tertiary sandstones. The diorite contains
veins of auriferous pyrites, the same metal being found also dissemi¬
nated in the ash-beds. The Minwun range is principally sandstone,
and the Gangaw range consists of mica schist in the south and of
granite in the north. Limestone also occurs in parts.

The most noticeable features of the vegetation are touched upon
under the head of Forests below, d'he flora is rich and varied, but
has not been studied scientifically.

The wild animals usually found in Upper Burma are plentiful.
Tigers, leopards, elephants, bison, and tsuie or hsaing (Bos sofidaicus)
roam the jungles in considerable numbers, while bears are common in
the more hilly parts. Thamin (brow-antlered deer) are fairly numerous
in the southern part of the Wuntho subdivision. IVild hog are
plentiful everywhere, and do much damage to the crops. The
Khedda department are at present working in the District, and have
effected considerable catches of elephants, but many of these died of
anthrax.

Katha has a bad reputation for malarial and other fevers. The
iarai at the foot of the hills is undoubtedly very unhealthy at all
times; in the hot months the beat all over the District is great,
and the absence of wind at this season and in the rains adds to the
discomfort of the residents, while even the cold season is made un¬
healthy by fogs near the Irrawaddy and the other streams. The
temperature has not been regularly recorded; but it has been found
to range roughly from 45° at night to 75° in the day in the winter,
from 70^^ to 90"" in the rains, and from So° to 105° in the hot season.
In the cold season there are heavy dews. The annual rainfall aver¬
ages 58 inches at Katha, and varies in the other portions of the
District from 42 inches at Tigyaing in the plains to 67 inches at
Banmauk in the hilly areas. d he Meza valley between the Indaw

154

kathA district

Lake and Meza railway station is subject to inundation. The most
notable flood of recent years occurred in 1901, when considerable
damage was done to the railway and to other property.

Few details of the early history of the District are known. It is
said that during the eleventh century Anawrata, wiio was then king
Hi tor ' Pagan, made a pilgrimage to China in search of

relics of Buddha. This led to an endeavour to
define the boundary of his territory with ("hina; and from this time
onwards the tribes to the north, including those in the neighbour¬
hood of whal is now known as Katha, are said to have acknowledged
Burmese suzerainty. The Kachins are reputed at one time to have
inhabited a large area in Katha and to have been gradually pushed
baek to the northern hills by the Shans and Burmans, but this
seems doubtful; in fact, everything points to the pressure having
been from the north, and to have been applied by the Kachins,
who have, so far as appears, not given ground again. A Chinese
army is said to have overrun the District in one of the invasions
from the north, but its stay was of brief duration. It established
itself at Tigyaing, where portions of the old fort w^alls are still visible,
but it was soon driven out. In 1883 the northern part of the District
was invaded by Kachins from the north, who burnt many villages
and ravaged a great portion of the country.

Katha was first occupied by the British early in 1886, and gave some
trouble during that and the following year. In course of time the
troops, British and Native, were gradually replaced by military police.
It was not, however, until the commencement of the year 1890 that
the assistance of the regulars could be wholly dispensed with. The
character of the country rendered the breaking up of the rebel and
dacoit gangs, many of which were headed by ex-Burmese officials
and professional brigands, no easy or expeditious matter, and the
malarious climate caused the loss of many lives. The District, known
in the early years after the annexation as Myadaung, was always noted
for its turbulence ; and it is gravely recorded that the local village
officials {jnyothiigyis and shivehmus) were formerly compelled to live in
specially high houses, and to sleep in coffin-like troughs of wood of
sufficient thickness to resist a gunshot or the lunge of a spear.

Chief among those who indirectly opposed the British after the
annexation was Maung Aung Myat, the Sawbwa of Wuntho, a so-
called Shan State lying between Katha District and the Upper
Chindwin. This chieftain seized the opportunity to increase both
his power and the area of his State. By various means he succeeded
in driving out a number of officials on his borders, and by promises
of loyalty and obedience to the British Government he obtained
permission to retain as part of the Wuntho State a portion of the

POPULATION

155

territory thus acquired. It ^Yas long, however, before he would meet
British officials, and eventually in 1891 a rebellion broke out at his
instigation among the "Wuntho people. The first signal act of insur¬
rection was the seizure of Banmauk in f'ebruary. This was followed
by an attack upon Kawlin and the burning of the subdivisional head¬
quarters. Other acts of violence were committed and much damage
was done to property. The rebels were, however, defeated at Kawlin,
at the Kyaingkwin hill between Kawlin and Wuntho, and at Okkan in
the Ye-u country; and the rising was suppressed before the end of the
hot season, at the cost, however, of a European officer and a number
of men. Its immediate result was the incorporation of AVuntho State
in Katha District. The Sawbwa escaped to China, where he is
believed to be still living.

The most notable sacred edifices are the ]Myazedi, the Shwegugyi,
the Aingtalu, the INIyatheindan, and the Shwebontha pagodas. The
JMyazedi is situated in the middle of Katha town, and forms the land¬
mark dividing the northern from the southern quarter. It is said to be
one of 84,000 pagodas, each no bigger than a cotton basket, built by
a king of Patna, known to the Burmese as Thiridhammathawka Min of
Patayipotpyi. U Pathi, a myothugyi of Katha, enlarged the pagoda to
its present size and shape in 1832. In 1883 it was greatly damaged by
the wild Kachins who occupied the town during the raid referred to
above, and what almost amounts to a new shrine has now been built
on the old site in the most modern style of Burmese architecture.
The Shwegugyi pagoda, built by king Bodawpaya, stands in the northern
quarter of Katha town. The Shwebontha pagoda, situated at Bilumyo,
is also said to be one of the 84,000 works of merit aforesaid. Near it
are the ruins of an old fortified city. The Aingtalu pagoda stands
about 2 miles north-east of Aleywa (Moda), on a hill on the west bank
of the Irrawaddy. It appears to be a very ancient structure, and is
much broken down, and for many years was completely hidden by
jungle growth. The Myatheindan pagoda stands on the end of the
Gangaw range above the Irrawaddy at Tigyaing. The remains of
the old wall erected by the Chinese when they invaded this part of the
country are still to be seen at Tigyaing.

The population of Katha in 1891 was 90,548 (not including the
Wuntho State, annexed in that year), and in 1901 population
amounted to 176,223. Its distribution in the latter
year is shown in the table on the next page.

There are no towns of importance, and very few large villages. The
last few years have seen a rapid increase of population in the country
lying along the railway; but it has not extended to the riverain portions
of the District, where, it is said, development has been arrested by the
cost of transit. Immigration has taken place largely from Shwebo, and

VOL. XV. L

kathA district

156

to a lesser extent from Mandalay District. Rather more than 95 per
cent, of the people are Buddhists. Burmese is the language of about
123,000. Kadu is spoken in the west, and Shan and Kachin in
the north.

1 Area in square
miles.

Number of

Population per

square mile.

oci^ .

0^ —

Township.

Towns.

Villages.

C C oc C

cj 0.9 S'
g g-o

o'u 3 5

1- rt O,?

> > 0 1

^ 0. 1

Number

persons ab

read an(

write.

Katha

1,152

178

20,062

+ 7

5,127

Tigyaing

35 ^

116

16,046

4,448

Mawlu .

B 344

281

17,178

+ 177

2,564

Indaw

416

151

14,208

-h 26

3,049

Wuntho .

592

301

22,934

(

5,508

Kawlin .

536

2.^9

28,1 14

* J

7,561

Pinlebu .

! 1,367

362

29,321

, 4,593

Banmauk

i 1,235

338

28,360

23 j

1 3,431

District total

: 6,994

1,966

176,223

36,281

^ The last four townships belong^ed in 1891 to the State ofWuntho.

Of the total population in 1901, Burinans numbered 82,800; Shans,
49,400; Kadus, 34,200; and Kachins, 5,900. The first named are
settled over the greater part of the District; but while the Tigyaing
and Wuntho townships are almost exclusively Burmese, there are
comparatively few Burmans in the Banmauk and Mawlu townships.
Broadly speaking, the Burmese element is strongest in the south, and
grows weaker towards the north, where Shans, Kadus, and Kachins
preponderate. The Kadus inhabit the western townships—Banmauk,
Pinlebu, and Indaw; the Shans occupy the north, being most numerous
in the Mawlu township, but they are well represented also in Katha,
Indaw, Pinlebu, and Banmauk, particularly in the last two. The
Kachins are found in greatest numbers in the hills of Mawlu in
the north of the District, and in the north of the Katha township.
In 1901 IMusalmans numbered 940 and Hindus 1,240 ; of these 450
Musalmans and 180 Hindus lived in Katha town. A large number
of the Indian residents are Government or railway employes. The
number of Christians in 1901 was only 153, mostly Europeans and
Eurasians. Nearly half of them were residents of Katha town. In 1901
about 77 per cent, of the population were engaged in or dependent on
agriculture, about one-sixteenth of these being supported by taungya
(shifting) cultivation alone.

The District is composed mainly of hills, between which lie scattered

patches of cultivated land, where the silt brought down by the streams

. . from the hill-sides has been deposited so as to form

Agriculture '*■ .

a surface sufficiently level for rice cultivation. In

the higher valleys the soil is, as a rule, very fertile, the most common

AGRICULTURE

157

type being a rich grey loam known as myema. Another kind is a thick
heavy clay, hard to work, and very liable to become waterlogged, a
defect which is common more or less to all the soils of the District.
In the lower valleys the ground is often similar to that described above,
but in many cases it appears to have been formed of matter washed
down from the lower slopes of the hills. These are as a rule composed
of indaing or laterite, and the low land is therefore often very sandy and
of poor quality. Plains of moderate extent stretch southwards from
Wuntho to the boundary of Shwebo District, and from jNIohnyin in a
north-easterly direction to Myitkyina. 7 a//;;^'^?-cutting is practised
in parts, but there is little or no permanent ya (high land) cultivation.
The taiingya-QwXX^Y^ are recognized as the poorest members of the
agricultural community, and it is always their ambition to become
possessed of ordinary plain rice land, though they seem somewhat
reluctant to migrate in search of it.

The land tenures prevailing are of considerable interest. Officers
have from time to time been placed on special duty in coimexion with
this question, but a comprehensive inquiry has only recently been
made by the Settlement officer. From his report it appears that the
southern part of the District includes small portions of the old Pyinsala-
nga-myo and Myedu 2z^^/;^-ships. In these tracts the tenures are similar
to those prevailing in other parts of Upper Burma. In the rest of the
District the tenures are found to have been of a communal nature.
Land within a village or thugyl-s\\\Yi could be held only by a resident,
and sales or mortgages, where permitted at all, were allowed only to
another resident. If a landholder removed to another village he
forfeited his land, though in some cases he was entitled to recover
it on his return. This system was enforced most stringently in the
old Wuntho State, where no mortgages or sales were permitted, and
where the thtigvi\ as head of the commune, allotted available lands
to residents, and might in certain cases redistribute land already
occupied or subdivide an existing holding to provide land for a new¬
comer. In what is known as the Shwe country, and elsewhere in the
District, the power of the thugyi was more restricted.

The principal agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are given in the table
on the next page, the areas being in square miles.

Of the total cultivated area, rice covered 223 square miles, and
sesamum 3,300 acres. Tea and tobacco are grown, but only to a small
extent. The former is produced on the hills in the Banmauk township
in the north-west of the District. The area under garden cultivation
was only 800 acres, composed mostly of plantain groves.

Cultivation is extending gradually and normally, and in several areas
it is still susceptible of considerable expansion. Its growth is most
marked in the plains around Mohnyin. This part of the country.

kathA district

15^

which was ravaged by the Kachins in 1883, is now being rapidly
repopulated, and much of the old cultivated* land is being cleared
afresh. There is little indebtedness among the local husbandmen.
The ancient systems of land tenure are still maintained, and these
being of a communal or quasi-communal character strictly forbid the
alienation of land to persons living outside the community. Govern¬
ment advances for agricultural purposes have been freely made since
1888-9. The amount advanced in 1903-4 was Rs. 18,000. No
difficulty has been experienced in the recovery of the loans.

Township.

Total aiea.

Cultivated, j

Irrigated.

Forests, j

Katha

1,152

Tigyaing

352

Mawlu .

1,344

416

Indaw

} 4,000

Wuntho .

592

4 *

K awl in .

536

Pialebu .

1.367

Banmauk

1.235

7 'otal

6,994

2.^2

/^,OCO 1

There are no special breeds of domestic animals. Buffaloes are
more generally used than kine, and those suitable for timber-dragging
fetch the highest prices. Ponies are imported principally from the
Shan States through Bhamo, and are generally small-sized. Generally
speaking, goats are kept only by natives of India.

A good deal of the rice land is irrigated in some way or other, as the
conformation of the country lends itself to such processes. To secure
the required water, the many hill streams and rainy season drainage
channels are dammed, and their contents diverted on to the fields.
]\Iost of the dams, however, supply only small areas, sometimes only
a single holding. The most important irrigation scheme is at Wuntho,
where two weirs on the Daungyu water a considerable area, dowered
with a fertile soil and productive of good crops. A fairly extensive
area also is irrigated in the neighbourhood of the Indaw Lake. On
the Meza the water-wheel known as the yit is used to lift water on
to the fields. The total area returned as irrigated in 1903-4 was 47
square miles. The most important inland fishery is in the Indaw Lake.
Fishing is carried on in sections of the Irrawaddy and the iSIeza,
known as the jSIyityo fisheries, and in the swamps adjoining the
former river. The fishery revenue in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 70,000.

The District comprises the greater part of the Katha Forest division,
as well as portions of the Mu and Upper Chindwin divisions. The
Katha division lies close to the Irrawaddy, and includes the area
drained by the Meza river. The Mu division comprises as much of

,\[IXERALS

T 59

Forests.

the District as is drained by the jVfu river and its tributary the
Daungyu. A portion of the Banmaiik township falls within the
drainage area of the Chindwin, and is included in the
Upper Chindwin Forest division. The total forest
area exceeds 4,000 square miles in extent, and includes 1,119 square
miles of ‘ reserved ’ forests. Reservation is not yet complete, but some
areas have already been notified, and others will probably be proposed
shortly. Teak is the predominant species of timber tree ; in fact, in
many places it may be said to grow almost like a weed. Padauk
(Pterocarpus sp,) and pyhigado {Xylia dolabriformis) are found in the
south of the District, where the climate is drier. Considerable
quantities of Dinre.served ’ woods are extracted, principally from uiv
classed forests ; of these the most important are in {Dipterocarpus
tube 7 -citlaii(s)^ ingyin i^Pentacme siamensis)^ kanyijibyu {Dipterocarpiis
alatus\ and [Gjnelina arboreo). Bamboos and canes are also

obtained in large quantities. The minor forest produce consists of
shaiv {Sterculia jr/.), indwe^ and pwe^iyet. A little cutch is extracted in
the south, and small quantities of lac are found near Banmauk.

Owing to the accessibility of the Irrawaddy and ISIeza forests, most
of the valuable teak was extracted from them before annexation.
Large trees are now scarce in these areas, and where found prove
difficult of extraction, and in many of the Reserves the growing stock
consists mainly of coppice or stool shoots springing from the old
stumps. There are some teak taungya plantations and a little experi¬
mental cultivation of rubber in the Mohnyin Reserve.

The total forest receipts in 1903-4 amounted to about 4^ lakhs. It
is impossible to give exact figures of either the revenue or the area
of unclassed forests, in consequence of the fact that the District
boundaries and those of forest divisions do not coincide.

Gold, copper, iron, and lead are found. A gold-mine was worked
for some years at Kyaukpazat by an English company, but the reef
has been worked out and the mine is now closed.

The company had a capital of Rs. 12,000, and used
the cyanide process, with a crushing plant of ten stamps. Gold¬
washing is still carried on locally in the beds of streams in many parts
of the AVuntho subdivision, and in some places in Banmauk. Little
is known as to the return obtained, but it appears to be very small.
This part of the country was formerly known as the Shive (‘ golden ’)
country, three divisions of which were recognized : the Shwe Ashe
Gyaung, the Shwe Ale Gyaung, and the Shwe Anauk Gyaung, the two
first being within Katha District. They were not continuous tracts,
but included many scattered villages where revenue used to be paid
in gold, and whose thiigyis were called sJnveJaiius, Iron is found in
small particles in the beds of streams at Thanthonda, Gananma,

Minerals.

t6o

kathA district

Gananbwa, and Taman in the Wuntho subdivision, but there is little
or no trade in local iron now. Lead occurs at Mawka, Mawhaing, and
Mawkwin, and used to be dug out of pits from 20 to 60 feet deep,
which are, liowever, not worked at present. Copper is found at
Sigadaung and, like lead, was at one time extracted, but the mines
have been closed for many years. Jade occurs at Mawlu, and soap¬
stone of inferior quality in the Katha township. A small quantity
of salt is produced, principally from brine-wells in the Mawlu and
Pinlebu townships.

Katha possesses no arts or manufactures. The greater part of the
population are dependent on agriculture, supplementing their earnings
by other kinds of manual labour in the dry season.

Trade and From Pinlebu and Banmauk a considerable number
communications. ^ , 1 .

of persons go every year to work at the jade-

mines. After agriculture the extraction of timber is the most important

industry. Three European firms are at present engaged in the timber

business in different parts of the District, in addition to a number

of minor contractors. A steam saw-mill at Kalon, on the west bank of

the Irrawaddy, 22 miles south of Katha town, employs about twenty-two

persons. The only other industrial enterprise which employed steam-

power was the Kyaukpazat gold-mine, now closed. Pickled tea of two

kinds, known respectively as paiuigihi and pyaokthi^ is made in the

west; gold-washing and salt-boiling are both practised on a small

scale; and the manufacture of cart-wheels and the making of sandals

and straw hats are other minor industries.

Timber, bamboos, cane and other minor forest produce, and paddy
are the principal exports. The trade in timber consists of teak, and
iiigyln^ and a few other ^ unreserved ’ woods, which are rafted down
the Kaukkwe, Meza, and Shweli streams into the Irrawaddy, and go
by this route to Mandalay, the railway being utilized occasionally from
Kadu, about 5 miles along the line south-west of Mohnyin. Con¬
siderable quantities of paddy are exported by Burmese brokers by
rail and river, principally to Mandalay, for milling. The collecting
centres on the railway are Wuntho, Kawlin, and Mohnyin, which are
within easy reach of the large rice-growing areas: namely, Tigyaing
on the Irrawaddy and Kywegawgyi on the Meza. Timber in rafts
and paddy in boats are also sent down the Mu from Pinlebu; and a
fair amount of cured and dried fish from the riverain villages leaves
Katha by rail for Mogaung and the jade-mines, and by road for the
west of the District and the Upper Chindwin. A small trade in pickled
tea is carried on in the Wuntho subdivision, where it is grown and
manufactured. The main imports are hardware for agricultural imple¬
ments and house-building purposes, cotton twist and yarn, cotton piece-
goods, silk and cotton waistcloths and handkerchiefs of both European

A DMINISTRA TIOR

t6i

and Burmese manufacture, Japanese umbrellas, crockery and plated
ware, jaggery, iil or gingelly and kerosene oil, and salt of both
European and Shwebo manufacture.

The Sagaing-Myitkyina railway cuts through the District in a north¬
easterly direction for 115 miles, traversing the most Important rice-
growing tracts, with stations at Kawlin, Wuntho, Indaw, Mawlu,
Mohnyin, and other places. A branch line, 15 miles long, runs from
Naba south-eastwards to Katha, connecting the main line with the
Irrawaddy.

In the eastern part of the District the Irrawaddy forms the chief
means of communication. The Irrawaddy Flotilla Company runs
regular services of mail and cargo steamers up and down the river,
and a daily ferry steamer between Katha and Bhamo connects with
the railway at Katha.

The Public Works department maintains 185 miles of road, mostly
unmetalled. The principal tracks are: Indaw to Mansi, passing
through Banmauk, 61 miles, unmetalled; Wuntho to Pinlebu, 41
miles, unmetalled : Kawlin to Tawma, 30 miles, metalled in places
only; Wuntho to Singon, 17 miles, and Wuntho to Taungmaw, ii
miles, metalled in places only. The District fund, which is small,
maintains only one unmetalled road, from Tigyaing to Manle.

For purposes of administration the District is divided into three
subdivisions; Katha, comprising the townships of Katha, Tigyaing,
Mawlu, and Indaw; Wuntho, comprising the town- ^^jj^jinistration.
ships of Wuntho, Kawlin, and Pinlebu; and the
subdivision and town.ship of Banmauk. Subordinate to the township
officers are 530 village headmen. In addition to the subdivisional
and township officers, the Deputy-Commissioner is assisted by a
treasury officer, who is also sub-registrar, an ah{iiwu 7 t (in subordi¬
nate charge of the revenue administration), and a superintendent of
land records, who has under him 5 inspectors and 34 surveyors.
The Public Works department is represented by an Assistant Engineer
under the Exeeutive Engineer in charge of the Myitkyina division.

The Deputy-Commissioner, subdivisional officers, and township
officers preside over the District, subdivisional, and township courts.
Under the Kachin Hill Tribes Regulation, 1895, which is in force
in the hill tracts of the District, the District Magistrate is Sessions
Judge. Crime generally is infrequent and no class of offence Is
exceptionally common. In the Kachin Hills, however, a good deal
of opium smuggling takes place, which is difficult to check, and a
few large seizures of opium brought in from China through Bhamo
have been made in recent years. The opium habit is prevalent in most
parts of the District, as is frequently the case in malarious tracts.

The revenue system is at present at a stage of transition. On culti-

i 62

katha district

vated land which has been surveyed, land revenue is for the present
assessed at rates varying from 4 annas to Rs. 1-8-0 per acre, the
average assessment being about 10 annas. On unsurveyed land,
revenue is assessed at one-eighth of the gross produce, commuted at
rates which are fixed annually. The incidence of this form of taxation
is slightly heavier than that by acre rates. In the surveyed portions
the average size of a holding is a little over 4 acres. A special survey
is now being made which will include most of the unsurveyed but
cultivated land. The settlement is in progress, and the operations
have by now reached an advanced stage.

■ The following table shows, in thousands of rupees, the fluctuations
in the revenue since 1891-2, the first year for which statistics for
the District as now constituted are available:—

1891-2.

1900-1.

1903-4.

Land revenue .

Total revenue .

4,86

L 73

6,28

1,69

6,48

Thathameda brought in Rs. 3,65,000 in 1903-4, and till the settle¬
ment rates have been introduced will continue to be the main source
of revenue.

The District fund, administered by the Deputy-Commissioner
for the upkeep of roads, ^/^z^-bungalows, (Sre,, had an income of Rs.
15,700 in 1903-4, the chief item of expenditure being public works
(Rs. 5,400). No municipalities have been constituted.

The civil police force is in charge of a District Superintendent, and
is divided into three subdivisional charges corresponding with the
civil administrative subdivisions, Katha, Wuntho, and Banmauk. The
first is an Assistant District Superintendent’s subdivision, the two latter
are inspectors’ charges. An inspector is also attached to the force at
District head-quarters. There are 9 police stations and 9 outposts.
The sanctioned strength of the force, excluding the superior officers,
is 7 head constables, 23 sergeants, and 268 constables. This includes
2 Kachin police, who, while nominally attached to the police stations,
actually live in the hills.

The military police are a detachment of the Shwebo battalion, under
an assistant commandant, who has his head-quarters at Katha town.
The strength is 368 men, of whom 128 are stationed at Katha, the
remainder being distributed at the various township head-quarters.

The District jail at Katha has accommodation for 87 prisoners.
The principal industries carried on are grinding wheat for the military
police, and carpentry and cane-work to supply the needs of the various
Government offices. There is no public demand for jail-made articles,
but the surplus produce of the jail garden is sold in the bazar.

KATHA TOWX

163

The standard of education is, all things considered, fairly high. In
1901 about 40 per cent, of the males and 2 per cent, of the females
enumerated were able to read and write, the proportion for both sexes
being 21 per cent. Of the 309 schools in the District in 1904, 2 were
secondary, 53 primary, and 254 elementary (private); and the total
attendance was 4,142 pupils, of whom 224 were girls. All are purely
vernacular schools, and none is entirely supported by Government or
municipal funds. The expenditure on education in 1903-4 was
Rs. 2,400, derived entirely from Provincial funds.

There are 2 civil hospitals, with accommodation for 42 in-patients.
In 1903 the number of cases treated was 15,970, including 699 in¬
patients, and 227 operations were performed. The income was made
up of Rs. 4,900 from Provincial funds and Rs. 850 from subscriptions.
Out-patients are treated in 3 military police hospitals, the total for 1903
being 2,341. There are also 2 railway dispensaries. Quinine in pice
packets is sold only by the post offices, sales through the agency of
village headmen having been a failure.

Vaccination is not compulsory in any part of the District, and makes
but little progress. In 1903-4 the number of persons vaccinated was
only 2,315, or 13 per 1,000 of the population.

Katha Subdivision.—Eastern subdivision of Katha District, Upper
Burma, containing the Katha, Tiovaixg, ]\Iawlu, and Indaw town¬
ships.

Katha Township.—North-eastern township of Katha District,
Upper Burma, lying on both sides of the Irrawaddy, between 23° 53'
and 24° 56' N. and 96° 10' and 96° 42' E., with an area of 1,152
square miles. The population was 18,783 in 1891, and 20,062 in
1901, distributed in 178 villages and one town, Kath.a (population,
2,931), the head-quarters. The greater portion of the township is
covered with dense forests abounding in game. The inland villages
obtain water for their rice lands from the network of small creeks
covering the low-lying levels. The hilly parts to the north and
west are inhabited by Kachins, who practise taiuigya cultivation.
The cultivated area under supplementary survey in 1903-4 was ii
square miles, and the land revenue and thathameda amounted to Rs.
52,100.

Katha Town.—Head-quarters of the District of the same name in
Upper Burma, situated in 24° 10' N. and 96° 21° E., close to the edge
of the hills on the right bank of the Irrawaddy ; 70 miles below Bhamo,
and nearly 200 above J^Iandala5^ Population (1901), 2,931. The town
is unimportant historically, and has only come into prominence since
the advent of the British. It contains a bazar and the usual public
buildings, and is laid out along five principal roads running north and
south parallel with the river, covering an area about half a mile long

164

KATHA TOWX

and a quarter broad. The houses in the native quarter are for the
most part unpretentious. A branch line, taking off from the Sagaing-
Alyitkyina railway at Naba Junction (15 miles in length), terminates
on the river bank close to the courthouse, giving easy access to the
steam ferry to Bhamo and the boats of the Irrawaddy Flotilla Company
plying between that station and Mandalay. The town contains a civil
hospital with 23 beds, maintained by Provincial funds. Katha is
one of the District head-quarters in Burma which have not yet been
constituted municipalities.

Kathaun. — Thakurat in the Gwalior Residency, Central India.

Kathgodam (‘Timber depot’).—Village in the Bhabar tract of
Naim Tal District, United Provinces, situated in 29° 16' N. and 79°
33' E., at the terminus of the Rohilkhand and Kumaun Railway.
Population (1901), 375. The place has only become of importance
since the railway was extended from Haldwanl, the former terminus.
It is now the starting-point for the ascent to the hill stations of Naini
Tal, RanTkhet, and Almora. Kathgodam is administered together with
RanTbagh, three miles away on the tonga road, under Act XX of 1856,
the income being about Rs. 800. RanTbagh (population, 624) is
situated at the junction of the tonga road with bridle-paths to various
places in the hills. It is an important stage in the trade route to the
interior.

Kathi. —Estate in Khandesh District, Bombay. See Mehwas
Estates.

Kathiawar (or Surashtra).—The peninsula or western portion of
the province of Gujarat, Bombay, lying between 20° 41' and 23°
8' N. and 68° 56' and 72° 20' E. The extreme length of the peninsula
is about 220 miles, its greatest breadth about 165 miles, its area about
23,445 square miles, and its population (1901) 2,645,805. Of these
totals, about 1,245 •'’Qtiare miles, with 173,436 persons, belong to the
Gaikwar; about 1,298 square miles, with 128,559 persons, belong to
Ahmadabad District ; about 20 square miles, with 14,614 persons,
belong to the Portuguese possession of Diu ; while the remainder (area
20,882 square miles and population 2,329,196) is the territory form¬
ing the Political Agency subordinate to the Government of Bombay,
established in 1822, having under its control 193 separate States,
great and small, whose chiefs divide among themselves the greater
portion of the peninsula of Kathiawar.

The Kathiawar Agency is divided for administrative purposes into
four p 7 'ants or divisions— Jhalawar, Halar, Sorath, and Gohelwar—
and the States have since 1863 been arranged in seven classes. The
first-class States number 8, second-class 6, third-class 8, fourth-class 9,
fifth-cla.ss 16, sixth-class 30, seventh-class 5, and the remaining in are
combined into ihana circles.

KATHIAWAR

General Statistics for each State and Taluka in Kathiawar

Caste, tribe,

0 .

1 V "

Revenue (1903-4).

Tribute.

^ or race of the
ruling chief.

V a
•< rt

■7.

Pi:

? ^

From

land.

Total.

.\mount.

To whom
payable.

Gohel Rawal

2,860

666

412,664

Rs.

25,00,861

' 39.53.602

Rs.

1.54.500

British,Gaik-

Rajput.

Gohel Rajput

200

52.856

5,**277

6.40.011

10.364

war, and Ju¬
nagarh.
Gaikwar and

Kathi . . .

2S3

*'*4-7*5

1 1.22,921

, 10,661

Junagarh.
British and

Gohel Rawal

100

» 3,285

2.10,000

2.25,oco

0.202

Gaikwar.
Gaikwar and

Rajput.

Kathi . . .

8,831

*,2 *,957

*•37,5*1

*,857

Junagarh.

2,988

12,000

16.000

*•357

British and

506

2,8co

3,000

355

Junagarh.

6,772

44.500

70,000

5*5/8

!•

947

4,745

5*051

524

2,265

16,000

20,000

*,*57

Chavada Raj¬
put.

Gohel Rajput

102

1,025

1.025

*54

497

4,000

4.500

1 *.397

Gaikwar and

Kathi . . .

7,417

48,921

69.683

Junagarh.

Kamalia AhTr

449

3,750

4.000

322

Gaikwar and

Gohel Rajput

764

5.000

5r3oo

1 550

Junagarh.

Sindi . . .

388

35* 1

749

—

Kamalia Ahlr

136

1,000

1,200

j 112

Gaikwar and

Gohel R.ajput

2,168

9,000 ^

10,000

1 858

Junagarh.

Sarvaiya Raj¬
put.

Gohel Rajput

247

2,250

2.500

1 '''

246

2,000

2,200

529

Sarv'aiya Raj- 1

1,213

6.500

6,800

1 4*7

put.

5*398

24 ,

9,452

25,339 -

3**339

Gaikwar.

Charan . .

783

4.200

4*500 '

103

492

4,338

4.870

— 1

Gohel Rajput

261

1,800

1.800

384

Gaikwar and '

L537

9,000

10,000

2,000

Junagarh.

366

2,800

3.000

196

*37

1,800

2,000

III

Sarvaiya Raj-

979

5,000 ,

5,200

290

put.

„

444

2,300 1

2.500

136

„

236
*43 '

2,000 1

2,200

Gaikwar.

Khasia KolT .

850 1

900

Gaikwar and

MTr Muham¬

496

4,079 ’

5,611

377

Junagarh.

British.

madan.
Sar\'aiya Raj¬

3*3 1

1,500 i

1,600 1

12S

Gaikwar.

put.

Gohel Rajput

347 1

2,too

3,000

221

G.aikwar and

Saiyid Mu¬

39*

3.000

3,100

Junagarh.

hammadan. 1

Gohel Rajput

361

2.500

2.600

427

Gaikwar and

2,194

26,000

28,000

1.212

Junagarh.

Kilmalia.AhTr ^

375

1,500

*'750

163

j Kiithi . . . i

457

3,083

3-735

665

British and

State.

Gohehvar Prant.
'‘i Bhaunagar.

' 2 Palitana .

3 Jasdan .

3 Vala . .

4 Lathi . .

I 6 Bhadli

6 Itaria . .

6 Kotra Pitba

6 Vankia .

7 Kariana .
Akadia .

Alampur .

' Babra . .
Bhandaria

Bhojavadar
I Biidi . .
Boda-no-nes

Cbamardi
I Cbiroda .

Chitravav
j Chok , .

I Diitha .
Dedarda .
Derdi-Janbai .
Dhola. .

Gadhrdi .
Gadhoola
Gandhol .
lavej . .

Jaiia Amaraji
Jalia M^aji
Juna Padar

Kamadhia

Kanjarda

Katodia .

Khijadia*

Khijadia Do

Limbda .
Morchopna
Nil vala .

Pachhegam . Gohel Rajput .

3*655

23.800

Junagarh.
2,?o2 Gaikwar and
hinagarh.

This and other numbers in the first column denote the class of the chiefs.

R\4 THFA JVAR

Tfi6

‘o

Revenue (1003-4).

Tribute.

Caste, tribe,

'rt S

% bJD

State,

or race of the
ruling chief.

o o

< 3

■5

1''^

From

Land.

Total.

Amount.

To whom
payable.

Goheki'ar Prant

—contd.

Rs.

Pah ... .

SarvaiyaRuj-

273

2,500

2,600

319

Galkwar and

Punchiivada

put.

Junagarh.

287

1,500

1,700

241

Raj para . . .

Gohel Rajput

552

2 ,COO

2,150

274

Ranianka . .

470

3,000

3,200

672

Randhia. . .

Saiyid iMu-

693,

6,779

—

hammadan.

RanTgSm . .

Sarvaiya Raj-

7 q 3

9,cpo

9,400

714

Gaikwar,

put and Ka>
thi.

1 Rat an pur Dha-

Gohel Rawal

651

4,200

903

Gaik war and

manka.

Rajput.

Junagarh.

; Rohisala . .

Sarvaiya Raj-

411

2,500

2,650

111

Samadhiala .

• ♦

617

5,000

5,200

518

., 1

Samadhiala

(Chabharia).

. .

1.273

6,500

7,000

2,280

Samadhiala

Gohel Rajput

195

2,500

2,700

—

(Charan).

Sarvaiya Raj-

Sanala . . .

. .

416

i 3 , 00=3

3,200

322

Galkwar and

put.

Junagarh.

Sata-no-nes. .

Kamalia AhTr

240

1 1,000

1,200

109

Shevdivadar .

Khasia KolT

177

1,000

1,100

Songadh. . .

Gohel Rajput

2,031

2,000

2,600

572

Tod a Todi . .

380

3.500

3,800

175

Vadal ....

Kamalia Ahlr

1 I

320

2,750

3,000

154

Gaikwar.

Vadod . . .

Vangadhra , .

' Gohel Rajput

S14

3,000

3,200

1,102

Gaikwar and
Junagarh.

„

582

2,200

2,400

104

Vavdi Dharvala

„

2,007

10,500

11,000

1,530

VavdiVachhani

Khasia KolT .

i • ♦

490

3,000

3.300

334

Vija-no-nes. .

1 ' '

193

700

750

Gaikwar.

Total

*4,210

' i,co3

1 577.757

38,27,670

55,27,787

2,25,248

Hdlar Prant.

I Gondal . . .

Jadeja Rajput

1,024

174

162.859

12,15,842

15,00,000

1,10,721

British and
Junagarh. 1

I Morvi....

; 822

141

; 87,496

4,43.250

7,10,044

61,559

British and ^

Galkwar.

I Navanagar . ,

3.791

669

33^.779

19,00,719

24,84,210

1,20,093

British, Gaik¬
war, and

Junagarh.

1 2 Dhrol....

283

1 68

21,906

62,622

1.07.175

10,231

Gaikwar and

Junagarh.

1 2 Rajkot . . .

282

i 61

49.795

2,91.343

3,60,150

21,321

British and
Junagaih.

j 2 Wankaner . .

Jhala Rajput

415

’ 102

27.383

1,80,054

74,568

2,18,925

18,879

4 Kotda Sangani

Jadej a Rajput

:»o

8,835

91,586

11,616

Gaikwar and
Junagarh. |

4 Malia ....

; 103

9.075

69,874

1 . 55,994

1,367

4 Vlrpur , . .

6,152

52,279

65,363

4.114

British and:

'5G.adhka . . .

1,636

8,720

12,633

845

Junagarh. |

5 Gavridad . .

1,916

18,500

14,966

24,126

16,230

1,621

Gaikwar. j

5 Jalia Devani .

2,444

1,552

5 Kotharia . .

2,1.56

22,712

25,930

1.246

British and '

Junagarh. '

5 Mengni . . .

, 35

3.354

25,465

29,847

3.412

British.

5 Pal.

1,359

9.983

17.836

1,647

British and
Junagarh. j

6 Bhadva . . .

1,051

13.375

15,532

1,632

6 Rajpara . . .

1,862

1 10,732

13,654

3^163

„ i

6 Shahpur. . .

”

1,156

6,948

15,233

610

” !

This is the actual area of the prant. No details are available for small States.

GEXERAL STATISTICS

167

State.

Caste, tribe,
or race of the
ruling chief.

cn::

rt =

'0 .

1 1

Revenue (1903-4).

Tribute.

a; 0

a ?

From
land. 1

Total.

.•Amount.

To whom
payable.

Haldr Prdnt —
contd.

7 Khirasra. . .

ladejaRaiput

3,117

Rs.

11,000

Rs.

15,432

Rs.

2,716

British and

7 Lodhika . . .

4,554

24,554

34,730

1,692

J unagarh.

7 Vadali , . .

409

5,109

6,435

324

Amrapur. .

Shaikh Mu-

1,240

8,000

8;ooo

511

British.

Bhalgilm Bal-

hammadan.
Kathi . . .

617

8,471

9,168

262

British and

dhoi.

Drafa ....

Jadeja Rajput

8,456

50,000

70,000

4,871

Junagarh.

Kanksiali . .

224

2,102

2,538

III

Kan par Ish-

Kathi . . .

1,365

15,457

16,135

347

„

waria.

6S7

Kotda Nayani.

Jadeja Rajput

1,000

9,313

11,065

Gaik war and

Mowa. . . .

247

2,977

3,322

158

J unagarh.
British and

Mulila Deri

2,350

9,845

12,488

1,454

J unagarh.

Satodad-Vavdi

2,790

1,756

9,000

12,500

1,927

946

Sisang Chandli

15,324

17,014

Virvao . .

193

1,515

1,540

193

Total

" 7>477

i .394

755,532

45,94,619

60,84,835

3,91,828

Jhdla war Prd nt.

I Dhrangadhra .

Jhala Rajput

1,156

134

70,880

2,59,398

4,43,761

44,677

British and

2 Linibdi . . .

344

31,287

1,76,409

2,02,264

4-.534
28,692

Junagarh.

2 Wadhwan . .

„

236

34,851

3,28,094

3 , 95,954

3 Chuda . . .

12,005

1,07,479

1,19,277

7,143

3 Lakhtar . , .

248

15,114

55,110

70,250

7,351

„

3 Sayla ....

222

11,661

62,000

46,326

66,550

15,511

„

4 Bajana . . .

Jat RIalek

183

10,279

71,335

7,938

„

4 Muli ....

Parmar Raj -

133

15,136

31,263

80,000

9,354

4 Patdi ....

Kunbi . . .

2,190

85,950

88,278

3,219

British.

5 Vanod . . .

Jat Malek

3,911

26,833

30,924

1,953

British and

6 Anandpur . .

Kathi . . .

5,061

29,652

31,902

920

Junagarh.

6 Bhoika . . .

Jhala Rajput

3,013

19,500

20,000

2,132

British,Juna-

6 Chotila . . .

Kathi . . .

6,635

36,313

41,150

898

garh, and
Sukhdi.
British and

6 Dasada . . .

iMalek . . .

120

10,941

1,80,331

2,08,354

12,991

Sukhdi.

i 6 Rai-Sankli . .

Kunbi . . .

427

6,254

6,579

938

British and

1 6 Rajpur . . .

Jhala Rajput

1,718

20,427

26,883

2,598

Gaik war.
British and

■ 6 Sanosra . . .

Kathi . . .

C67

4,133

4,965

237

Jun.agarh.
British. Ju-

1 6 Vadod . . .

Jhala Rajput

1,264

12,356

1,530

nagarh,and
Sukhdi.
British and

Ankevalia . .

1,497

847

19,500

21,000

1,526

Junagarh.

British and

Bamanbore. .

Kathi . . .

4,015

4,229

Bhadvana . .

400

4,225

1,081

Sukhdi.
British and

Bhalala . . .

265

1,424

1.424

474

J unagarh.
British.

Bhalgamda . .

1,588

7,000

8,000

1,505

British .and

Bharejda . .

421

1,283

1,702

126

Junagarh.
British and

Bhathan . . .

Jhala Rajput

405

1.500

1,800

701

Sukhdi.
British and

j Bhimora . . .

Kathi . . .

1 1,204

10,241

10,555

371

Junagarh.

This is the actual area of the prant. No details are available for small States.

i6S

KATHIAWAR

0 .

Rev'enue

(1903-4).

Tribute. ^

State.

Caste, tribe,

or race of the

V V

ruling chief.

3 *r

From

land.

Total.

.Amount.

To whom
payable.

Jhalawdr Prdnt
—contd.

Rs.

Chachana . .

Jhala Rajput

459

5,000

318

British.

Chhalala . .

„

557

4,517

5,017

1,122

British, Ju¬

nagarh, and
Sukhdi.

Chobari . , .

Kathi . . .

280

4,401

4,556

199

British and

Sukhdi.

Darod . . .

Jhala Rajput

131

2,500

3,000

416

British and

Junagarh.

Devlia , , .

494

2,240

523

Dudhrej , . .

2,026

20,000

25,000

1,199

Gedi ....

574

4,000

4,500

1,339

British.

Gundiali. . .

1,465

12,262

17,865

1,408

Jakhan . . .

441

2,300

2,500

288

British and

Junagarh.

Jamar . . .

„

289

3,960

464

British.

Jhampodad. .

Koli ”. . .

451

3,200

3,400

138

„ '

Jhinjhuvada in-

11,732

67,989

74,343

11,074

„

eluding Rozva.
Kamalpur . .

Jhala Rajput

670

4,200

4,500

776

British, Ju¬

Kantharia . .

„

x ,573 '

10,000

11,000

1,788

nagarh, and
Sukhdi.

Karmad . . .

465 '

8,000

8,200

231

British and

Sukhdi.

Karol ....

„

981

10,935

11,000

796

British and

Junagarh.

Kesria . . .

146

1,900

278

British.

Khambhlav. .

852

1,400

1,500

869

British and

J unagarh.

Khandia. . .

627

4,000

900

British, Ju¬

nagarh, and
Sukhdi.

Kherali . . .

1,638

24,600

25,880

678

British.

Laliyad . . .

„

755

6,000

362

British and

Matra Timba .

Kathi . . .

352

2,591

2,727

362

Junagarh.

Mevasa . . .

619

5,085

6,796

559

British and

Sukhdi.

Munjpur. . ,

Parmar Rajput

i • •

I ;

436

10,000

650

603

British. '

Palali. . . .

Jhala Rajput

320

600

403

British and

Kathi . . .

Junagarh.

Paliyad . . .

6,970

38,055

43,699

1,213

„ '

Ramparda . .

299

607

625

British and .
Sukhdi. '

Sahuka . . .

Jhala Rajput

801

9,000

9,200

584

British and

Junagarh. .

Samla....

916

8,000

3,600

1,063

„

Sejakpur. . .

Kathi . . .

864

2,052

433

„

Sudainda-Dhan-

5,359

22,208

24,746

3,124

„

dhalpur.
Talsana . . .

Jhala Rajput

1,691

10,000

10,500

1,052

Tavi ....

509

2,000

335

„

Untdi ....

240

1,100

26,000

2,000

539

„

Vana ....

2,749

26,000

3,993

British.

Vanala , . .

311

2,100

2,300

396

Vithalgadh . .

Kayasth Pra-

1,174

7,226

7,659

—

bhu.

Total

*3,978

641

293,883

19,27,044

23,59,580

2,39,376

Soratk Prdnt.

I Junagarh . .

M uhammadan

3*283

818

395,428

18,91,616

26,22,753

65,604

British and j
Gaikwar.

I Porbandar . .

Jethwa Rajput

636

82,640

2,94,168

9 , 74,734

48,504

British,Gaik-

war, and Ju¬
nagarh. 1

This is the actual area of the prdnt. No details are available for small States,

GENERAL STATISTICS

169

Caste, tribe,

niles.

.0 .

Revenue (1903-4).

'Iribute.

State.

a to

OJ 0

ruling chief.

1 From
land.

1 .

1 Total.

Amount.

To whom
payable.

Sorath Prdnt

1 Rs.

Rs.

—contd.

Rs.

1 Jafarabad . .

Habsi . . .

12,097

22,905 1

j 61,800

3 Bantva • Mana-

Babi Muham-

14,478

! ^ j 5 o .95 I

2,35,447

1 14,821

British.

vadar.

madan.

5-7jetpur. . .

Kathis . . .

724

I4S

107,049

7,94.509

9,29.683

59.223

British,Gaik-
war,and Ju-

5 Bantva (Gidad).

Babi Muham-

132

24.374

1,65,674

2,28,178

14,820

nagarh.
British.

5 Dedan . . .

Kathi Babe-

4.394

30.950

59.405

4.1S1

Gaikwar and

5 Vasavad . . .

ria-Kotila.

Unamamuli

Cl 225).

Xagar Brah-

5,137

12,000

18,000

766

British.

man.

6 Bagasra . . .

Kathi . . .

17.339

1.13.932

1.20,759

4.098

Gaikwar and

6 Kuba ....

Nagar Brah¬

396

3,220

3.340

Junagarh.

man.

6 Vinchhavad

I 1

414

4,000

4,100

Charkha . . .

Kathi . . .

1,519

25,000

27,000

541

Gaikwar and

Dahida . . .

Junagarh.

1 . .

915 1

13,000

13.500

—

Dholarva . .

460 '

8,000

8,300

126 ;

Gaikwar and

Gadhia . . .

528

4,200

4.500

295 '

Junagarh.

Garmali Moti .

385

4,500

4,700

220 i

’’

Garmali Nani .

340 1

2,300

2,400

6,600

194

Gaikwar.

Gigasaran . .

582

6,500

Halaria . . .

i . .

1,268 ,

12,000

12,500

179

Gaikwar and

Jamka . . .

Junagarh.

601

6,000

15,000

185

Gaikwar.

Kaner . . .

„

261

2,300

2,400

195

Kathrota . .

138

2,200

2,300

”

KhijadiaNajani

15b

2,700

2,8oo

Lakhapadar

„ 1

544

2,700

3,000

178

Gaikwar and

Manavav , .

400

4,000

4,100

172

Junagarh. |

INIonvel . . .

Silana ....

1,967

774

18,000

6,000

18,200

6,250

313

102

Gaikwar. j

Vaghvadi . .

„

109

1,400

1.450

154

Gaikwar and

Vekaria . . .

Junagarh.

595

6,000

6,150

Gaiku ar.

Total

* 5)217

C193

675,288

36,10,725

53 . 99.349

2,15,030

Civil Stations

11 1

26,736

and other vil¬
lages.!

Grand Total

J 20,882

4,242

2,329,196

1.39,60,053 1

C 93 . 71,551

§10,71,482

* This is the actual area of the prant. No details are available for small States.

t The total number of villages and population according to the Census of 1901 are respectively 4,242 and
2,329,196: of the former, ii (three civil stations and the rest villages of insignificant tdlxtkdars who do not pav
tribute) with an aggregate population of 26,736, have been omitted from the prdnt totals. They are : Rasnal,
Pipalva (Vithalgadh) (1,811), Ranparda (459), Hathasni (939), and Noghanvadar (113), in Gohilwar; Rajkot Civil
Station (8,992), and Hadala (468), in Halar; Wadhwan Civil Station (11,255), in Jhillawar; and Jetalsar Ci\il
Station (463), Dhasa (1,473), and Shapur (763), in Sorath prdnt.

t Separate figures for tdlukas under thdna circles are not available. The areas of the whole ihdna
circles, in square miles, are—

Babra .

. 299 ! Chok.

• 104 1

i W’adhwau thdna

197 j

j Paliyad

. 227

Songadh

. 82 1 Lodhika .

♦ 265

1 Chotila

368

Lakhapadar

• 137

Chamardi .

. 72 1 Dhrafa

. 208 j

Bhoika

179 1

Bagasra .

. 89

§ The total amount of tribute of all kinds Is Rs. 10,79,371, according to Aitcbison’s Treaties. To this sum
Rs. 1,225 on account of Unamamuli paid by Dedan has been added; while Rs. 9,114, the amount of tribute and
zortalbi paid by the Amreli viahdl of the Gaikwar, has been omitted.

170

KATHIAJVAR

Formerly Kathiawar was divided into ten prdnts : namely, Jhalawar
in the north; Machhukantha, west of Jhalawar; Halar, in the north¬
west ; Okhamandal, in the extreme west, belonging to Baroda; Barda
or Jethwar, along the south-west coast; Sorath, in the south ; Babriawar,
a hilly tract in the south-east; Kathiawar, a large district near the
middle • Undsarviya, situated along the Shetrunji river; and Gohelwar
in the east, along the shore of the Gulf of Cambay, so named from the
Gohel Rajputs who are the ruling race in it. In this last-named
division is situated the Gogha mahdl of Ahmadabad District.

A square peninsula, standing boldly out into the Arabian Sea be¬
tween the smaller projection of Cutch and the straight line of the Gujarat
coast, its physical features suggest that it may once
aspects ^ have been an island or a group of islands of volcanic
origin. Along its northern border stretch the shallow
waters or the salt-encrusted surface of the Rann. On the east, between
Kathiawar and the mainland, a belt of salt lands and the long lagoon
of the Nal mark the line of the depression, which, unless the evidence
of travellers is unusually at fault, formed until recent times during the
rains a connecting link between the Gulf of Cambay and the Little Rann.

Three travellers of authority, all of whom visited Cambay, speak of
Kathiawar as an island. The first of these, Varthema, 1503-8 (Badger’s
edition, p. 105), says that the city of Cambay lies 3 miles inland close
to the mouth of the Indus. Baldaeus, 1672 {Chiu-cJiiirs Voyages, vol. iii,
p. 566), states that Cambay stands on one of the largest channels of the
Indus; Alexander Hamilton, 1690-1721 (Neicf Account, vol. i, p. 131),
states that one of the largest branches of the Indus running into the sea
at Cambay makes Gujarat an island. Still more difficult to consider
a mistake is Captain MacMurdo’s statement in 1813 {Journal, Royal
Asiatic Society, vol. i, p. 41), that a tract similar to the Rann and known
partially by the same name connects the Gulf of Cutch and Cambay,
forming an island off the peninsula of Gujarat for six months in the
year. From the coast Kathiawar rises to a central table-land where all
the rivers of the peninsula take their rise. The silt of the old eastern
branch of the Indus and of the rivers Luni, Banas, SaraswatT, and
Rupen, gradually filling the sea-bed, with some help possibly from the
great upheaval of 1820, has joined north-east Kathiawar with the main¬
land of Gujarat.

Kathiawar was known to the Greeks and Romans under the name of
^(ivptuTTp^vi)) the Muhammadans called it by the prakritized name
of Sorath, and to this day a large division in the south-west, 100 miles
in length, retains that title. Another tract, quite as large, to the east
of the centre, however, has long been known as Kathiawar, from having
been overrun by the Kathis, who entered the peninsula from Cutch in
the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. In the fifteenth century the

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

whole tribe was driven out of Cutch, and in that and the following
century conquered a considerable territory. The IMarathas who came
into contact with them in their forays, and were sometimes successfully
repelled by them, extended the name of Kathiawar to the whole pro¬
vince, and from them has been borrowed the appellation in its wider
sense; but by Brahmans and the natives generally it is still spoken of
as Surashtra.

The surface of Kathiawar is for the most part undulating, with low
ranges of hills running in very irregular directions. With the exception
of the Thanga and Mandav hills, in the west of Jhalawar, and some
unimportant hills in Halar, the northern portion of the country is flat;
but in the south, from the neighbourhood of Gogha, the GTr range runs
nearly parallel with the coast, and at a distance of about 20 miles from
it, along the north of Babriawar and Sorath to the neighbourhood of
Girnar. Opposite this latter mountain is the solitary Osam hill, and
still farther west is the Barda group, between Halar and Barda, run¬
ning about 20 miles north and south from Ghumli to Ranawao. The
Girnar clump of mountains is an important granitic mass, the highest
peak of which rises to 3,500 feet above the sea.

The principal river is the Bhadar, which rises in the Mandav hills
and, flowing south-west, falls into the sea at Navibandar, in Barda,
after a course of about no miles, everywhere marked by highly
cultivated lands bordering its course. From the same hills rises
another Bhadar, known as the Sukha Bhadar, flowing eastward into
the Gulf of Cambay. Other rivers are the Aji, Machhu, Bhogava, and
Shetrunji, the latter remarkable for wild and romantic scenery.

Of salt-water creeks the most important are Hansthal, connecting the
outer and inner Gulf of Cutch; Bhaunagar, forming the channel between
that town and the Gulf of Cambay; the Sundrai, 8 miles north of
Bhaunagar; the Bavliali, 2 miles north of the Sundrai creek; and the
Dholera, leading from the Gulf of Cambay 10 miles inland to the town
of Dholera.

Notwithstanding its extent of coast, Kathiawar has no really good
harbour except Beyt, at the north-east corner of Okhamandal. The
principal ports are Vavania, Jodiya, Bedi, and Salaya in the Gulf of
Cutch; Dholera, Bhaunagar, and Gogha in the Gulf of Cambay; and
Mahuva, Jafarabad, Diu, Veraval, ^dangrol, Navibandar, and Porbandar
on the south and west coasts. Of these, Vavania, Jodiya, Bedi,
Salaya, Navibandar, IMahuva, Bhaunagar, and Dholera are on creeks,
and communication with them depends on the tide; while the rest are
little better than open roadsteads.

The chief islands are Piram in the Gulf of Cambay; Chanch, Shial,
and Diu oft' the south coast; Beyt in the west; and the Chanka islets
in the Gulf of Cutch.

VOL. XV.

172

KATHIAIVAR

The peninsula contains few lakes larger than village reservoirs. The
most remarkable are the Nal at the head of the Rann of Cambay, and
the Gheds on the south-west coast near Madhavpur.

With the help of the Nal, two ran?is or salt wastes nearly encircle the
east and north-east of Kathiawar, the little Cutch Rann and the Rann
of Cambay stretching about 35 miles north from the mouth of the
SabarmatT. From the head of the Gulf of Cutch, at the mouth of
the Hansthal creek, the Little Rann, covering an area of about
1,600 square miles, stretches north-east for about 60 miles, varying
from 5 to 30 miles in breadth, and connecting with the Great Rann.
In the south-west corner are the Kharaghoda salt-works.

The Rann of Cambay, a long, shallow, rocky channel or dry estuary,
extends north-west about 35 miles from near the mouth of the
Sabarmatl at the upper end of the Gulf of Cambay. The lower part
is rich in marine silt, and joins the Nal during the south-west monsoon,
forming a connected sheet of water which spreads over the neighbouring
tracts of the Bhal and the Nalkantha, turning the villages into islands
and cutting off communication with Ahmadabad. The upper end of the
Rann is now crossed by the railway between Viramgam and Wadhwan.

Basalt beds belonging to the Deccan trap formation occupy the
greater portion of the peninsula of Kathiawar. They lie almost hori¬
zontally, and have been deeply denuded, so that countless numbers of
intrusive dikes, filling the fissures through which the molten material
was injected, have become visible in every district. These dikes are
remarkable for their columnar structure, consisting of huge hexagonal
prisms loosely stacked upon one another and arranged horizontally.
They exert a pronounced influence upon the underground drainage,
a circumstance well-known to the agriculturists, who persistently sink
their irrigation wells along the dikes, tracing out their course with great
assiduity, and are almost invariably rewarded by the presence of water
at a depth of 15 to 20 feet. In some instances apparently the joints
and cracks in the dike rock communicate with some deep-seated water-
bed ; in other cases the dikes seem to wall up and keep in on one side
the water of the adjoining strata. The Girnar mountains, and probably
the Barda hills north-east of Porbandar, appear to be great intrusive
masses of the same age as the basalt flows and columnar dikes; they
may represent the inner cores of great volcanoes now denuded of the
volcanic ejectamenta that formerly covered them. The rocks of Girnar
contain the somewhat uncommon mineral alaeolite, and some of them
belong to the exceptional class of rocks known as monchiquites. The
basaltic formation has a very low dip from north to south, perhaps
original, in consequence of which some of the older underlying rocks
in the northern part of the peninsula, and some of the newer super¬
incumbent strata, are exposed. The older rocks in the northern part

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

173

belong to two diflerent series : the Umia beds, which are of neoconiian,
that is, of the Lower Cretaceous age ; and the Lameta beds, which are
Upper Cretaceous (cenoinanian). The Umia beds (which take their
name from a village in Cutch) are principally exposed about Dhran-
gadhra and farther south-west* They consist chiefly of sandstone,
open, imperfectly cemented, and unevenly stratified, with coarse and
gritty, or even conglomeratic runs and layers. There are, however,
some thick beds of fine texture among them, and a few subordinate
bands of shale. The Lameta beds occur principally round AVadhwan,
where they are locally known as the Wadhwan sandstones. Beds
newer than the basalts and overlying them run along the southern
seaboard of the peninsula from Dwarka on the west to Bhaunagar
on the east. They include sandstones and pure limestones with
marine fossils identical with those of the Gaj group in Sind, overlaid
by sandstones and conglomerates of fluviatile origin corresponding
in age with the Siwalik. These fluviatile beds contain an older series,
sometimes with abundant remains of terrestrial animals, as for instance
in the island of Piram, corresponding with the Lower or Middle Siwaliks;
and a newer series known as the Dwarka beds, corresponding with the
Upper Siwaliks. Laterite sometimes intervenes between the basalt and
the overlying Tertiary beds.

A belt of recent alluvium follows the southern coast, and there are
large alluvial areas in the eastern part of the peninsula near the Gulf of
Cambay and in its northern part where the alluvium merges into the
silt of the Little Rann. Raised beaches occur at some places along
the sea-coast. The somewhat low rainfall allows to a certain extent the
accumulation of wind-borne deposits; the finer particles of the sand on
the sea-beach, consisting principally of the minute shells of foraminifera,
are blown all over the land, where they accumulate to form the curious
calcareous rock known as miliolite. In the immediate'neighbourhood
of the coast this wind-formed miliolite merges into the raised beaches.
The well-known ‘ Porbandar stone,’ which is largely quarried and
shipped to Bombay, is a variety of miliolite ^

Except in the Glr forest, Kathiawar is thinly wooded; and even there
the timber is of little value. The mangrove abounds along the shores
of the peninsula and is largely used as fuel. The coco-nut grows
rapidly and bears steadily all along the south coast, and the wild date
is met with in most parts of the peninsula. Excellent mangoes are
grown in Mahuva from Bombay grafts.

^ F. Fedden, Jl/emoirs, Geological SitTvey of India^ vol. xxi, pt. ii; J. W. Evans,
Quarterly Journal^ Geological Society of London^ vol. Ivi (1900), pp. 559-S3, and
vol. Ivii (1900), pp. 38-54. Descriptions of the fossil bones from the Island of Perim
(Piram) have been published by II. Falconer in vol. i (1854) of the Quarterly Journal ^
Geological Society of London^ and by R. Lydekker in Series X of the Palaeontolcgia
l?idica.

M 2

T 74

kathiAivar

The principal wild animals include the lion (found in the Gir range),
leopard, hunting cheetah, antelope, hog, hyena, wolf, jackal, wild cat,
fox, porcupine, and smaller vermin. Of reptiles, the Indian python,
the cobra, the whip-snake, and others abound, and the crocodile and
land tortoise are common.

The lion was formerly common all over the Kathiawar peninsula,
extending into Gujarat and Central India. It is now found only in the
Gir forest, and rarely on the Girnar mountain. Its mane is shorter
and its colour lighter than that of the African lion. Approximating in
size to the tiger, it is somewhat heavier in bulk and stronger. It seeks
the loneliest spot for its midday sleep, and when disturbed does not
try to conceal its escape like the tiger, but walks boldly away. It used
to avoid man more than either the tiger or leopard, and never lived
near a village or hamlet; but since the last famine these habits have
changed. Of a gregarious disposition, it moves in family parties,
comprising occasionally three generations. Careful preservation of
these lions has resulted in an appreciable increase of their number,
which at present must be from 6o to 70. Since the last famine they
have done considerable damage to cattle, and cases of attack upon men
have also been reported from outlying villages.

The climate of Kathiawar is in general pleasant and healthy. January,
February, and March are marked by heavy dews and thick fogs. The
hot season, which is the healthiest period of the year, begins in April
and lasts until the rain falls in June. The hot wind is most felt in the
south. From September to the first part of November the climate is
unhealthy for both Europeans and natives. A violent bilious attack,
lasting for four or five days and followed by ague and fever, is the only
special Kathiawar disease.

The heaviest rainfall in the peninsula occurs at Junagarh (42 inches),
in the Sorath p 7 'd 7 it \ at Rajkot, in the Halar prd 7 it^ the average yearly
fall is 30 inches ; at Wadhwan, in Jhalawar, 21 inches. The monsoon
begins in June and ends in October, the wettest months of the year
being July to September.

During the last century Kathiawar suffered several times from earth¬
quakes. On April 29, 1864, a shock occurred in many parts of the
peninsula a little after ii a. m. It was preceded by a low rumbling
noise followed by a vibration for six seconds, causing widespread panic
and excitement. On Nov. 27, 1881, at midnight a shock of earth¬
quake was felt at Rajkot. In September and October, 1898, shocks
of earthquake were felt in the northern districts, and in other years^
lesser shocks; but none of them caused any damage.

At a very early period Surashtra was doubtless brought under the
influence of Brahmanical civilization, and, from its position on the
coast, was most accessible to influences from the west. The edicts

HISTOR y

175

of Asoka (265-231 B.c) were inscribed by that monarch on a huge
granite boulder between Junagarh and Girnar. The Saraostos of
Strabo is not improbably identical with Surashtra ; Histor
and if so, the peninsula was included in the con¬
quests of the Indo-Scythian kings (circa 190-144 b.c.). Its shores
were well-known to the Alexandrian merchants of the first and second
centuries, but there is considerable difficulty in identifying the places
mentioned by them.

Of the early history of the country we have but scanty notice.
Mauryas, Greeks, and Kshatrapas probably held it in succession, and
were followed for a brief space by the Guptas of Kanauj, who
apparently governed by senapatis. The later senapatis became kings
of Surashtra, who placed their lieutenants at Vallabhi-nagar (identified
with the buried city at Vala, 18 miles north-west of Bhaunagar). When
the Gupta empire fell to pieces, the Vallabhi kings, whose dynasty was
founded by Bhattaraka, a Gupta commander, extended their sway over
Cutch and defeated the Mers, who appear to have gained considerable
authority in Kathiawar between 470 and 520. It was in the reign
of Dhurvasena II (632-40) that the Chinese pilgrim Hiuen Tsiang
visited Va-la-pi (Vallabhi?) and Su-la-ch’a (Surashtra), the inhabitants
of which, he says, are indifferent and not given to learning, but profit
by the proximity of the sea, and engage much in trade and barter.
The people he described as numerous and wealthy, and he remarked
many convents established for the benefit of recluses engaged in the
contemplative piety of Buddhism.

How Vallabhi fell is not known, but possibly it was subverted by
Muhammadan invaders from Sind. The seat of government was then
moved farther north beyond the borders of Kathiawar, and remained
at Anhilvada from 746 to 1298, during which time various petty king¬
doms arose, and the Jethwas became a powerful tribe in the west ot
Surashtra. Anhilvada was sacked by the Muhammadans in 1194, and
finally conquered in 1298. The Jhalas are said to have been settled
in Northern Kathiawar by the Anhilvada kings. The Gohels (now in
Eastern Kathiawar) came from the north in the thirteenth century,
retreating before the tide of Muhammadan conquest, and were enabled
by the decadence of Anhilvada to conquer new seats for themselves.
The Jadejas and the Kathis came from the west, through Cutch. The
sack of Somnath, in Southern Kathiawar, by !Mahmud of Ghazni in
1026, and the capture of Anhilvada in 1194, were the prelude to
occasional ^kluhammadan invasions of Kathiawar. In 1324 Zalar Khan
destroyed the temple of Somnath. He was the first of the Muham¬
madan kings of Gujarat, who reigned in prosperity from 1396 to 1535,
and in decadence to the close of 157.^5 when Gujarat was conquered
by Akbar. The Ahmadabad kings, who held the tributary chiefs of

KA TNI A WAR

176

Kathiawar in subjection, carefully fostered commerce, and developed
the ports of Mangrol, Veraval, Diu, Gogha, and Cambay.

About 1509 the coast was threatened by the Portuguese. Bahadur,
defeated by Babar’s son Humayun, sought safety in Diu, and afterwards
permitted the Portuguese adventurers to build a factory, which they
turned into a fort, after having treacherously killed Bahadur (1537).
The island and fort of Diu are still a Portuguese possession. Gujarat,
after its conquest by Akbar in 1572, was ruled by viceroys from the
court of Delhi, until the Marathas supplanted the imperial power. In
1705 the Marathas entered Gujarat, and by 1760 had firmly established
their rule; but the following half-century was a time of little ease for
the tributaries in Kathiawar, and petty wars were frequent. During
the latter part of the eighteenth century, according to Musalman and
Maratha custom, the Gaikwar, partly for himself and partly for his
overlord the Peshwa, sent yearly a revenue-collecting army (inulk-giri)
to collect contributions from the chiefs of \\"estern and Northern
Gujarat. As this armed expedition caused much waste and confusion,
the British Government agreed to associate itself with the Gaikwar in
recovering the Alaratha tribute from the Kathiawar States.

In 1803 some of the weaker talukddi's applied to the British Resident
at Baroda for protection, offering to cede their territory to the Com¬
pany. They were then independent of the Peshwa and the Gaikwar, with
the exception of being bound to furnish contributions. In 1807 the
forces of the Company and the Gaikwar advanced into Kathiawar, and
the chiefs entered into engagements to pay a fixed tribute to their over-
lords, to keep the peace towards each other, and to maintain order
within their own limits. In return, they were secured from the visita¬
tions of the mulk-gi)I force, which us 3d to appear at harvest-time and
in default of payment ravaged the crops and fired the villages. Internal
warfare and resistance to the supreme authority were ended in 1807-8
by the settlement effected by Colonel Walker, one great feature of
which was that the tributes were fixed, and the work of collection
was undertaken by the British Government, which also acquired the
Peshwa’s rights in Kathiawar after the Satara proclamation in 1818.
In 1820 the Gaikwar agreed to have his share collected and paid by
the British Government.

Under the ruling houses there are numerous petty Rajput lairds and
yeomen, representatives of old houses long ruined and supplanted, or
of the younger brothers of chiefs who have received their girds or
portions from the estate.

Kathiawar has many notable antiquities, which have been fully
described by Dr. James Burgess b Besides the famous inscription
of Asoka already referred to, there are a number of rock-cut Buddhist
‘ Archaeological Siiruey of ll'eslern India, vols. ii and viii.

AGRICULTURE

177

caves and temples at Junagarh, mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang in the
seventh century, and some fine Jain temples on Mount Girnar and
the Shetrunja hills at PMitana. At Ghumli, a former capital of the
Jethwas, there are extensive ruins.

The Political Agency of Kathiawar has (i 90 i)a population of 2,329,196.

The population in 1872, 1881, and 1891 was 2,318,642, ^ , .

O ^ • U 1 J J Population.

“j 343>899, and 2,752,404. During the last decade

there was a decrease of 423,208, due to the famine of 1899-1901.

Natives of Kathiawar are largely represented in Bombay city, where
45,000 immigrants were enumerated at the recent Census. A similar
number were found in Ahmadabad city. The more adventurous
Musalman traders in the coast towns travel in considerable numbers
to South Africa and Natal, and the seafaring population, once notorious
for piracy, now furnishes numerous lascars to ocean-going steamers.
The last detected case of piracy from Kathiawar occurred as recently
as 1903. The distribution of the population among the numerous
States of the Agency has been given above (pp. 165-9). They contain
52 towns and 4,163^ villages, with an average density of 112 persons
per square mile. The principal towns are Bhauxagar, Navanagar,
Junagarh, Rajkot, Dhoraji, Porbandar, Gondal, Morvi, Mahuva,
Veraval, and Wadhwan. Hindus form 81 per cent, of the total,
Musalmans 14 per cent., and Jains 5 per cent.

The most interesting caste is the Rajput, numbering 113,000, and
including the ruling families of the majority of the States. The Kathis,
from whom the peninsula derives its name, number 21,700. Among
castes of 100,000 and over are Kunbis (358,000), Kolis (249,000),
Brahmans (158,000), traders, including Vanis and Lohanas (135,000),
and Dhers (116,000). Of the Brahmans, more than half are of the
Audich sub-caste (90,000). iModhs, Nagars, and Srimalis are other
subdivisions of this caste of local importance. The traders are mainly
Lohanas (64,000). Ahirs, an immigrant caste of shepherds who
entered the peninsula at an early date and also spread southward to
Khandesh, number 74,000. Among ^lusalmans, the most numerous
sections are the Memons (68,000), who are traders ; Khojas (29,000),
also traders; and Ghanchis, or oil-men (24,000).

Of the total population, 41-6 per cent, depend on agriculture; com¬
merce supports 5*6 per cent., industry 27*6 per cent., and various
employments 25-2 per cent.

Kathiawar has the essential features of a prosperous agricultural

country. The climate is, on the whole, temperate, .

1 • r 11 1 u 1 i 1 Agriculture,

the rainfall moderate, streams abound, ponds and

wells are fairly numerous, and there is much variety in the texture,

^ Besides these there are 27 villages, which, being unpopulated at the time of the
Census, were not returned.

KA TUI A WAR

17S

quality, and depth of soil. On the other hand, the peninsula is thinly
peopled; cultivators take up more land than they can till, and the style
of farming is slovenly. The soil is of two main classes, black or red,
the red being considered the less valuable. Of the first class is the
deep black soil known as kdmpdl^ suitable for the growth of cotton,
while the better kinds of red soil favour the production of irrigated
wheat and barley. A saltish earth, impregnated with clay and
impervious to water, is not uncommon.

Some of the richest tracts lie along the course of the Bhadar river,
and at Mahuva and Lilia, where excellent fruits and vegetables are
grown. Sugar-cane is grown with success in the same locality. In
Sorath, Chorwad is noted for its betel-vines. Gondal cotton is famous-
In the northern and eastern districts of Jhalawar much cotton is grown.
Halar in the west yields excellent joivdr^ bdjm^ wheat, and other grains,
and Sorath in the south is rich both in cotton and in grain. In
Limbdi, and on the eastern coast of Kathiawar bordering the Gulf
of Cambay, wheat, cotton, and grain are produced from a rich silt
which requires no manure. Turmeric and mug are common products.

The chief cultivating classes are : among Hindus, Kunbis, Sathvaras,
Rajputs, Ahirs, Mers, and Kolis; and among Musalmans, Memons,
Ghanchis, Bohras, Sindis, Jats, and Mianas. Of these the most expert
are the Kunbis.

During recent years considerable progress has been made in irriga¬
tion, by the construction of storage tanks wherever the natural features
of the country render them possible. At least ten of these tanks with
a systematic control of the water-sui)ply have been constructed during
the last ten years. Prominent among these are the Lalpuri tank at
Rajkot, Alansager at Jasadan, Paneli in Gondal, and Champa and Moldi
tanks in the Chotila Thana circle. The successive bad years have
also been the cause of an increase in the number of wells for irrigation
purposes.

The total cultivated area in 1903-4 was 8,074 square miles, dis¬
tributed as follows : cotton (2,446), millet {2^00%)^ joiudr (1,866), wheat
(406), gram (178), mug udld (16), and ^others^ (1,138).

The numerous petty courts and their people form a large body of
rich resident landholders, spending their rents on their estates; and
the ministers, officials, and landholders, of various stations and wealth,
contribute to impart a brisk vitality to the progress and general well¬
being of the country. A large proportion of the public business of
Kathiawar is conducted by, and at the cost of, native Darbars.
Bhaunagar has taken the lead in the material development of her
resources, and was the first State in the Bcmbay Presidency to
construct a railway at her own expense and risk.

Horses, formerly of excellent repute, are bred in large quantities.

TRADE A.VD COMMUXICATIOXS

179

The peninsula is suitable for the raising of stock, the central portion
being famous as a breeding-ground. Most of the States maintain stud
farms. In 1903-4 nine of the States maintained 56 stallions, which
covered 791 mares. Milch cows and buffaloes are reared in the Gir,
camels in the Rann, and asses in Halar and Jhalawar. The buffaloes of
the Gir, as also the cows, are famed as good milkers and are sold to
dairymen in various parts of the Presidency, particularly in Bombay
city. A good buffalo yields about 32 quarts of milk daily, and
a good cow 12 quarts. Sheep are plentiful in some parts; their
wool forming, together with cotton and grain, the chief article of
export.

Forests.

Minerals.

Besides the Gir with its 1,500 square miles of forest, there are
important wooded tracts in Kathiawar. In Vankaner and the
Panchal lands have been set aside for the growth
of timber, and in Bhaunagar, ]\Iorvi, Gondal, and
Manavadar babul plantations have been formed. Palms, mangoes, and
casuarina have been specially planted and cared for in Bhaunagar;
trunk and feeder roads are being gradually planted with trees along
their entire length; and several minor estates and villages are paying
attention to forest conservancy.

Kathiawar abounds in minerals and is particularly rich in building
stone. The principal metal is iron, which in former days was
worked in Barda and Khambhaliya districts. Near
Porbandar a valuable description of building stone
is extracted from the hills and sent to Bombay in large quantities.
Pearls of good quality, but inferior in lustre to those of the Persian
Gulf, are found in the Gulf of Cutch within Xavanagar limits. A tew
are also found in Junagarh and Bhaunagar near Bherai and Chanch.
White coral of no market value is common. Red coral is sometimes
found in small quantities at INlangrol and Sil. Bloodstone and agate
are common near Tankara in Morvi.

The Kathiawar region is a wealthy one. The land, though not of
extraordinary richness, is generally of fair quality and is amply watered.
The cotton exported supplies one-sixth of the total ^ ^
amount of cotton shipped from Bombay to foreign comm^lcadons.
countries, and a large import of bullion and grain
is yearly received by Kathiawar as part of the price. Cotton cloth, sugar,
and molasses are largely imported. The total value of the sea-borne
trade in 1903-4 was 378-| lakhs : exports 197 lakhs, and imports
i8ii lakhs. The exports of cotton alone were more than 126 lakhs in
value, and of wool 5^ lakhs. 'Phe imj)orts of grain vary according to
the season. Railways have absorbed a great portion of the ex})ort
trade from the smaller ports on the coast-line, and concentrated it at
^Vadhwan in the north-east and Bhaunagar in the south-east, while

8 o

KATHIA WAR

the import trade on the contrary is drawn towards the minor ports.
Private enterprise has established three cotton-weaving mills and
steam cotton-press factories, and there is a prosperous trade in timber.
The chief handicrafts are gold and silver thread-making, weaving of
silk and brocades, the making of red powders, of fragrant oils, of
perfumed sticks and powder, of rose and other essences, inlaying
ivory, and carving sandal-wood.

In the matter of roads, great progress has been made of late years.
Where there was not a single mile of road in 1865, there are now
more than 600 miles, for the most part bridged and metalled. Two
great lines of trunk roads intersect the peninsula, one proceeding from
AVadhwan to Jtmagarh and Veraval, and the other from Bhaunagar to
Jodiya, crossing at Rajkot, the head-quarters of the Agency. The
Junagarh line has a branch bifurcating at Jetpur towards Porbandar,
while the Jodiya line has a similar branch going towards Navanagar.
These main lines have various feeders to connect the capitals and
other important towns of the numerous States.

Since 1880 communication has been improved by the introduction
of railways, principally at the cost of Native States. The first entry
of the railway into Kathiawar took place in 1872, under the auspices
of the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway Company. The
terminus was at AA^adhwan, and the length of the line within
Kathiawar limits 39J miles. A line constructed at a cost of 96 lakhs,
shared by Bhaunagar and Gondal in the proportion of two-thirds and
one-third, was opened in 1880. The total length of this line was
192 miles. In 1886 Junagarh constructed at a cost of 37 lakhs
a line 69 miles long, passing from Jetalsar through the capital to
the port of Veraval. The AVadhwan-Morvi Railway was opened in
1887 and the extension to Rajkot completed in 1889. The Jetalsar-
Rajkot Railway was opened in 1893.

The total length of railways in Kathiawar in 1904 was 577*09 miles,

of different gauges, namely : —

Bhavnagar-Gondal-Junagarh-Purbandar Railway . . . 334*19

Jetalsar-Kajkot Railway ....... 46*21

Jamnagar Railway . . . . . . . . .54-22

Dhrangadhra Railway ........ 20-83

Rajputana-Malwa Railway ....... 32-00

Morvi (metre-gauge) Railway. ...... 73*94

Morvi (2 feet 6 inches) Railway . . . . .15-70

Total 577*09

The conversion to the metre gauge from the standard gauge of the
section between Viraragam to AVadhwan since December, 1902, has
given the Rajputana-Malwa Railway access to V^'adhwan junction, and
Kathiawar thus possesses through connexion with the whole of Upper

ADMINISTRA TION

8 i

India. The gross earnings of the (i) Bhavnagar-Gondal-Junagarh-
Porbandar, (2) Jetalsar-Rajkot, (3) Jamnagar, and (4) Dhran-
gadhra railways in 1904 amounted to 22-3 lakhs, and the working
expenses to 10-5 lakhs. The gross earnings of the ]\Iorvi Railway
amounted to nearly 3-5 lakhs, and the working expenses to i*6 lakhs,
representing a return of 7-71 per cent, on the capital cost.

Besides 248 British post offices, private internal postal arrange¬
ments are made by the State of Junagarh. People from villages where
there is no British post office or postal box send their letters
through the State post, and are required to affix stamps issued by
the State.

The first famine of which records are available occurred in 1559.

Since then the most notable famines have occurred in 1632, in 1719,

in 1732, in 1747, and in 1791. The famine of ^

Q ^ ^ ^ ^ T o Famine.

1877-9 was severe and widespread. 1899-1902

the peninsula again suffered severely from famine. Relief measures
were commenced in October, 1899, and closed in October, 1902.
The highest number in receipt of relief exceeded 300,000 in May,
1900. More than 15 lakhs were spent on relief. The States con¬
tracted loans, partly from Government (65 lakhs) and partly in the
open miarket (41 lakhs), amounting to 106 lakhs to meet the cost
of this famine. Of this sum 36 lakhs was borrowed by Bhaunagar,
16 lakhs by Navanagar, and 7-I lakhs by Dhrangadhra. d'he mortality
was heavy, the Agency losing 15-37 per cent, of its population from this
and other causes.

The year 1814-5 called the ‘rat year,’ from the famine

produced by the ravages of these animals. Captain Le Grand Jacob
remarked of this pest:—

‘ They appear suddenly in dense masses past all counting, as if
springing from the earth, about the harvest season. Nothing can
stop them . . . fires, ditches, have been tried in vain ; they move
along, a mighty host, eating up all that comes in their way. All
at once they vanish as if by magic, and for years not one is to be
seen ; they are about double the size of a common rat, and are of
a reddish sandy colour.’

A similar swarm took place after the recent famine.

Since 1822 political authority in Kathiawar has been vested in the
Political Agent subordinate to the Government of Bombay. In
1903 the designations of the Political Agent and ^^njinjstjation.
his Assistants were changed to those of Agent to
the Governor and Political Agents of the prdnts.

Before 1863, except for the criminal court of the Agent to the
Governor, established in 1831, to aid the Darbars of the several
States in the trial of heinous crimes, interference with the judicial

KA Till A WAR

administration of the territories was diplomatic, not magisterial; and
the criminal jurisdiction of the first and second-class chiefs alone
was defined. In 1863, however, the country underwent an important
change. The jurisdiction of all the chiefs was classified and defined:
that of chiefs of the first and second classes was made plenary; that of
lesser chiefs was graded in a diminishing scale. Four Political Agents
of the pf'dnts, resident in the four divisions of Kathiawar, now exer¬
cise residuary jurisdiction with large civil and criminal powers. Each
Political Agent of a pmnt has a deputy who resides at the head¬
quarters of the prdnt or division, and exercises subordinate civil and
criminal powers. Serious criminal cases are committed by the deputies
to the court of the Agent to the Governor, to whom also civil and
criminal appeals lie. The Agent to the Governor is aided in this
work by an officer known as the Political Agent and Judicial Assistant,
who is usually a member of the Indian Civil Service. Appeals from
his decisions lie direct to the Governor of Bombay in Council in
his executive capacity. An officer styled the Superintendent of
Managed Estates, who is ex officio an Assistant Political Agent, and
two Deputy-Assistants also help the Agent.

In each division are several subdivisional thdnaddrs, holding petty
magisterial powers over a circle of villages contiguous to their stations
or thdnas. These thdnaddrs administer 146 tdlukas out of the 193
territorial divisions of Kathiawar; they possess certain powers of general
administration as well as judicial authority. But as the larger prin¬
cipalities occupy more than 15,000 square miles of the total area of
20,882 square miles, the Agency through its .Vssistants, Deputy-
Assistants, and thdnaddn cannot be called upon to administer more
than one-fourth of the entire area. There are 12 thdnas in the penin¬
sula. The idlukddrs are poor, ignorant, and in debt, and have only the
semblance of authority. IniQx-tdliikddr relations are characterized by
petty squabbles, small jealousies, and endless subdivision of estates.

The law administered by the darbdri tribunals of the State is the
customary law: namely, the Hindu and Muhammadan religious law
as modified by local or tribal usage. The larger States have procedure
and penal codes based on those in use in British India. To meet
a particular class of land disputes, however, a special court was estab¬
lished in 1873. This was the Rajasthanik Court, constituted with the
assent and at the cost of the chiefs. It decided, under the presidency
of a British officer, all disputes as to girds or hereditary estates, between
the chiefs and the bhdvdds and mulgirdsias^ who are for the most part
the kinsmen of the chiefs or the descendants of earlier holders who
have been deprived of their estates. It surveyed and mapped out the
girdsia's estate, fixed his miscellaneous dues, and defined his relation
to his chief by laying down the extent of his obligations. The court

ADMIXISTRA TIOX

was originally established for three years; but it was continued for
a succession of short periods, and was eventually abolished on April i,
1899. Since its establishment the peace of Kathiawar has seldom
been broken by the more unruly members of the chiefs’ families; but
a real or fancied grievance may still produce a body of outlaws; and as
recently as 1892 a band of these baJidrivatiias was not captured until
they had caused the death of the British officer in charge of the pur¬
suing troops. At the present time disputes between the first four
classes of chiefs are usually referred to the State courts, and are dealt
with by the Agent to the Governor in appeal. Similar disputes between
the tdliikddrs of other classes are decided by the Judicial Assistant,
subject to the control of the Agent to the Governor, according to rules
published in 1898.

As each tribe of Rajputs invaded the peninsula, its chiefs bestowed
on their relations portions of the land they had won. This share was
named kaj>d/girds, and passed to the descendants of the original grantees.
The more enterprising gmlsias continued to acquire fresh lands from
their neighbours, until they found themselves sufficiently strong to set
up as independent rulers. Others, less enterprising, surrendered the
greater portion of the land to a neighbouring chief in return for pro¬
tection, and fell into the position of miilgRdsias or ‘original sharers.’
When a girdsia succeeded in gaining his independence he became
a tdlukddr, and assumed the title of Thakur, Raval, Rana, or Raja.
As he rose in the social scale, the landed proprietor became anxious
to leave his possessions intact to his eldest son ; at the same time the
custom of the country compelled him to set aside a portion of his
estates for each of his younger sons, and these in turn became girdstas
owing submission to the head of the family, but otherwise independent.
Thus in Kathiawar landed property has been minutely subdivided, and
the process still continues, so that some estates not larger than a single
village have upwards of a hundred shareholders. As a rule, the revenue
control of these estates has been left to the shareholders, except during
minority, &c. In addition to the landed estates held by tahikddrs and
girdsias, many villages or portions of ^•illages are held hereditarily as
religious and service grants. Another large class of proprietors are
jivaiddrs, or holders of estates as maintenance or on service tenure.
They have not the position or privileges oi girdsias, and possess neither
civil nor criminal jurisdiction. Some of them are life tenants. Common
forms of service tenure are lands held by village headmen, watchmen,
or scavengers, or by tribes such as the Mers who pay a hearth-tax and
a plough-tax for cultivation, though in some cases holding rent free.
The tCihikddrs of Kathiawar have absolute power over property in their
private or khdlsa land. The landlord's rent or idj Ididg is a fixed share
of the produce. In practice this share is supplemented by numerous

KATHIAU^AR

petty cesses, some of which are taken by the proprietor, while others
are devoted to village expenses.

During the last thirty years considerable improvements have been
introduced into the revenue system. Previously whole subdivisions
were farmed to the highest bidders, who in turn sublet villages or
shares of villages. The farming system has now been almost com¬
pletely abandoned, and a scientific revenue survey has been introduced
in nearly all parts of the peninsula.

In Kathiawar the organization of the village community has still
considerable vitality. The prevalence of a system of revenue collection
in kind imposes a special demand on the watchfulness of the headman
and his subordinates. Even the smallest villages have their pafel,
/iavi 7 ddr, and pagi\ who, like the priest, carpenter, tailor, and scavenger,
are remunerated for their services by payment in kind. Under recent
arrangements, the village police under the Agency fhdna circles are
paid in cash and not in kind.

'The table given on pages 165-9 shows that in 1903-4 the total
revenue of the Agency was estimated at 194 lakhs, while the tribute
amounted to nearly 11 lakhs, about 7 lakhs payable to the British,
2*9 lakhs to the Gaikwar, and Rs. 92,400 to Junagarh, compared with
165^ lakhs and ii lakhs respectively in 1880. Of the 193 States,
12 pay no tribute, 105 are tributary to the British Government, and
79 to the Gaikwar of Baroda, while 134 pay tribute also to the Nawab
of Junagarh. As the financial accounts of the States, except those
temporarily under management, are never submitted to the Agency,
the revenue entered in the table above referred to must be considered
only approximately correct. A large share of the revenue is never
brought to book in the State accounts, being credited to the private
income of the chief or of the members of his family. Villages are
assigned in maintenance or alienated, and taxes are farmed and their
proceeds carried to some private account. The greater part of the
revenue in every State is derived from the land, the general rule being
to take a fixed share of the crops, supplemented by cash cesses, the
total averaging from one-third to one-half of the crops. The States
which possess a seaboard levy an export duty on all field produce
leaving the State limits by any land route, in order to turn trade to
their own ports. The maritime States not only levy import and export
duties, but have also a monopoly of the manufacture of salt, a branch
of revenue of increasing importance. All jurisdictional States also
retain the monopoly of the sale of opium, and are entitled to two-thirds
of the value of all smuggled opium seized within their territories.
Other items of revenue are house taxes levied on artisans and shop¬
keepers, and taxes on labourers, shepherds, <S:c. Stamp duties and
fees are levied on various judicial processes. Under the authority

ADMIXISTRA TIOX

185

of Government, an improvement cess of two annas per acre has been
imposed on subordinate landholders for the last thirty years. There
is no regular classification of land. Assessment is levied chiefly in
kind, but it works out at about Rs. 2 to Rs. 2-8 per acre for ‘dry crops’
and Rs. 5 to Rs. 6 for irrigated crops.

The British rupee is current throughout the i)eninsula. There is
a local mint at Jun^arh, of which the coins are current in that State
alone. The silver coins are koris and half-/^(?w, the copper coins being
known as dhinglas^ doMas, and tramhia. The Bhaunagar mint was
closed in 1840 under an arrangement with the Bombay Go^’ernment.

Municipal taxes are levied in many of the large towns. Since 1879
a certain amount has been contributed by each State and landed
proprietor in Kathiawar, and credited to a general Local fund adminis¬
tered by the Agent to the Governor. All expenses connected with
the improvements of the Agency are met from this fund, which has an
income of i*8 lakhs, with a balance in 1904 of 5 lakhs.

Imperial service troops are maintained at Bhaunagar, Junagarh, and
Jamnagar, which each equip a small force of cavalry. The British
troops at Rajkot consisted in 1905 of a regiment of Native infantry.

There is no general police force in Kathiawar. The chiefs are bound
by stipulation to preserve order and indemnify losses through crime
committed in their territory. In 1903-4 the Agency police, which
is employed at a cost of 2-4 lakhs in /hdnas and civil stations,
numbered 998 men; while, so far as information can be obtained,
the several States maintained a stipendiary police force aggregating
5,378 men, at a cost of 7-7 lakhs. In that year 6,114 offences
were reported and 7,479 persons were arrested, of whom 4,218 were
convicted and 2,820 acquitted. Conviction is generally sought through
the agency of an informer. The daily average of prisoners in the
Rajkot jail was 103. At the present time life and property are as
safe in Kathiawar as in the Districts of British India.

Of the total population, 9-7 per cent. (17-7 males and 1-3 females)
could read and write in 1901. Education has made rapid strides of
late years. In 1858 there were 59 schools and 1,909 pupils, increasing
in 1881 to 599 schools with 33,000 pupils; in 1891 the numbers
further rose to 939 schools and 59,804 pupils. In 1903-4 the number
of institutions, including 224 private schools, was 1,200, attended by
80,041 pupils, of whom 10,108 were girls. These include 2 Arts
colleges, 11 high schools (including the Rajkumar College and the
Gondal Girasia School), 42 middle schools (including the Talukdari
Girasia School), and 2 training schools. At the Rajkumar College
and the Girasia Schools the advantages of a liberal education are
enjoyed by many of the chiefs during their minority. The total
amount spent on education in 1903-4, including the amount spent on

186

KA T///A JJ^AR

the Rajkumar College (Rs. 45,000) and Girasia Schools (Rs. 33,000),
was 8*3 lakhs, of which Provincial funds contributed 0*4 per cent.,
the revenue of the States 78-7 per cent., and other sources 2-7 per cent.,
while i8«6 per cent, was recovered as fees.

There are 124 hospitals and dispensaries in Kathiawar. The
patients treated at these institutions in 1903-4 nunabered 739,000,
of whom 15,813 were in-patients. Nearly 54,000 persons were vac¬
cinated in the same year.

Kathor.—Town in the Kamrej taluka^ Navsari Baroda State,

situated in 21° 17' N. and 72° 59' E,, on the northern bank of the Tapti
river, about 22 miles from Navsari and 10 miles from Surat. Popu¬
lation (1901), 4,407. The town possesses a Alunsifs court, a dis¬
pensary, vernacular schools, an industrial school, and public offices.
The place is remarkable for the number of Musalmans, of whom there
arc no fewer than 2,444. They are cliiefly Bohras of the Sunni persua¬
sion ; and being people of great enterprise they repair in great numbers
to Mauritius, China, Natal, and other distant places, where they stay for
long periods, and return to Kathor after amassing sufficient wealth to
enable them to settle permanently at home. The principal articles of
trade in the town are grain, printed calicoes, and cotton cloth.

Kathiwara .—Thakurat in the Bhopawar Agency, Central India.

Kathoria.— Bhf/midt in the Bhopawar Agency, Central India.

Kathrota.—Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Kathua.—Overgrown village in the Jasrota district, Jammu pro¬
vince, Kashmir, situated in 32® 22' N. and 75® 32' E., on the right
bank of the Ravi and between it and the Ujh river. Population (1901),
5,801. Kathua possesses no points of interest. The buildings are
mean and dilapidated, and the place has no past and no future. The
climate is unhealthy, and the water-supply scanty and bad.

Kathumar.—Head-quarters of a /aksi/ of the same name in the
State of Alwar, Rajputana, situated in 27® 19' N. and 77® 5' E., about
35 miles south-east of Alwar city, and 9 miles north-cast of Kherll
station on the Rajputana-Malwa Railway. The town is said to be 800
years old ; it possesses a fort, a post office, and a vernacular school.
The population in 1901 was 3,388. The /aksi/is situated in the south¬
east of the State, and in 1901 contained 78 villages, with a population
of 41,152, of whom 90 per cent, were Hindus. Under ^Mughal rule it
was attached to the province of Agra, but, from its proximity to Jaipur,
was generally held as a fief by the Jaipur chief. From 1778 to 1784
the Mughals held direct possession, but in the latter year the Marathas
overran and occupied it. Their oppressions aroused the local popu¬
lation, who invoked the aid of Maharao Raja Bakhtawar Singh about
1802. The latter sent a strong force, which expelled the Marathas and
occupied the fort of Kathumar; but in 1803 the Maratha troops, in

KATMANDU

187

their retreat before Lord Lake, bombarded the town and fort and
expelled the Alwar garrison. It was this army which was annihilated
three days later at Laswari. Just before the battle the iahsil of
Kathumar had been granted to the Maharaja of Bharatpur; but as he
broke his engagements with the British, it was resumed in 1805 and
ceded to Alwar.

Katiadi.—Village in the Kishorganj subdivision of Mymensingh
District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24° 15' N. and go°
48' E. Population (1901), 1,472. It is one of the most frequented
bazars in the south of the District.

Katihar.—Town in the head-quarters subdivision of Purnea District,
Bengal, situated in 25° 34' N. and 87° 35' E. Population (1901), 9,761,
Katihar, which was formerly known as Saifganj, is an important railway
junction, at which the Bengal and North-Western Railway meets the
Bihar section of the Eastern Bengal State Railway. The latter is
continued to Maniharl Ghat on the Ganges, \Yhence a steamer plies to
Sakrigali, establishing communication also with the East Indian Railway.
There is a large export of rice and mustard seed. The town is the
head-quarters of the sheep-breeding trade, and rough blankets are
manufactured by a colony of Gareris settled there.

Katmandu.—Capital of the kingdom of Nepal, situated towards
the western side of the Nepal Valley, on the east bank of the Vishnu-
mati river, at its junction with the Baghmati; approximate position,
27° 42' N., 85° 12' E. It is the largest city in Nepal, and has a popu¬
lation which is roughly estimated at from 70,000 to 80,000. Most of
the inhabitants are Newars, of whom about two-thirds are Buddhists.
Katmandu is said to have been founded by Raja Gunakamadeva about
A.D. 723. The earliest name by which the city was known was J^Ianju
Patan, after the Buddhist saint iManjusri. Tradition asserts that the
plain of Katmandu was covered by a great lake, till the saint cut the
dam with his sword and so released the water.

The general shape of the city is very irregular, and is supposed by
the Hindus to resemble the khara or sword of the goddess Devi, while
the Buddhist Newars declare it to have been built after the shape of the
sword of Manjusri. Its modern name is said to be derived from an
ancient building which stands in the heart of the city near the royal
palace, and which is still known as Katmandu from kat^ Gvood ’ (ot
which material it is chiefly composed), and mandi or mandon, ‘an
edifice.’ This building was erected by Raja Lachmina Singh Mai, in
1596, as a house of accommodation for religious mendicants. Prior to
the Gurkha conquest of the country in 1769, Katmandu was the seat
of government of Newar kings who, with the princes of the neighbour¬
ing towns of Patan and Bhatgaon, reigned over the Valley of Nepal
and adjacent country {see Nepal). Of the high walls, with their

VOL. XV. N

iSS

KATMANDU

numerous gateways, whirh once surrounded the city, considerable
portions have been demolished or have flillen into disrepair.

'Fhe town is a labyrinth of narrow streets, most of which are im¬
passable for carriage traffic and indescribably filthy. The buildings
on either side are densely crowded, and are usually from two to four
storeys high. They are made of brick, and tiled, and are built in the
form of hollow squares, opening off the streets by low doorways, the
central courtyards serving as receptacles for rubbish of every sort. In
contrast to this dirt and squalor is the wealth of wood-carving which
ornaments the fagades of the houses. Most of these have projecting
wooden windows or balconies, elaborately carved in beautiful designs.
The streets generally lead to the toh or squares, of which there are
many throughout the city. These are open spaces, paved, like the
streets, with brick and stone, in which the various markets are held.
The largest and most important building is the royal palace or Darbar.
This covers a considerable extent of ground. On the west it faces an
open square which contains many temples and a monolithic pillar.
Opposite the north-west corner of the Darbar stands a large semi-
European building called the Khot, which is famous as having been
the scene of the massacre in 1846 of almost all the leading men of the
country, by which Sir Jang Bahadur established himself in power.
The Darbar is now used only for ceremonial purposes, as a residence
for various relations of the king, and as public offices. The king, the
Minister, and most of the nobles in the country have long since given
up living within the city, and have built themselves imposing palaces
and houses in European style outside it.

Katmandu, though a filthy city, ])resents an exceedingly picturesque
appearance. This is, in a great measure, due to the Chinese style of
architecture which predominates. Many of the temples are like
pagodas, of several storeys in height, and profusely ornamented with
carvings, paintings, and gilding. The roofs of many of them are
entirely of brass, or copper gilt, and along the eaves of the different
storeys are hung numerous little bells which tinkle in the breeze. At
some of the doorways, which are often copper gilt, are placed a couple
of large stone lions or griffins, with well-curled manes. Immediately
outside the city is a fine parade-ground nearly a mile in length,
surrounded by an avenue of trees and ornamented with modern
equestrian statues of various Ministers.

A good water-supply was introduced in 1892, and lately drainage
works have been started. 'Inhere are two hospitals—one for women,
the other for men—a school, and a free library.

A British Resident, with a small staff and escort, is stationed at
Katmandu. 'JTe Residency is situated about a mile out of the city on
the north side, in what was formerly a barren patch of ground, supposed

KATRA

189

to be haunted by demons, but now one of the most beautiful and best-
wooded parts of the Valley. Within the grounds is a British post office
under the control of the Resident.

Katni. — Railway junction in the jNIurwara iahsil of Jubbulpore
District, Central Provinces, situated in 23° 50' N. and 80° 24' E., on the
East Indian Railway, 673 miles from Bombay and 727 from Calcutta,
adjoining the town of IMurwara. It is connected with Bilaspur on the
main line of the Bengal-Nagpur system by a link of 168 miles, and with
Bina on the Midland section of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway
from Itarsi to Agra by one of 163 miles. These two connecting lines
may eventually form part of the through route from Calcutta to
Karachi.

Katodia. —Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Katoi Tahsil. —AVestern/tr/z^-f/of Nagpur District, Central Provinces,
lying between 21^2' and 21° 31' N. and 78° 15' and 78° 59' E., with
an area of 800 square miles. The population in 1901 was 162,588,
compared with 157,100 in 1891. The density is 2Co persons per
square mile. The tahsil contains five towns— Katol (population,
7 > 3 i 3 )> Ihe head-quarters, Narkher (7,726), Kelod (5,141), i\l0HPA
(5,336), and Mowar (4,799)— 35 ^ inhabited villages. FNcluding
56 square miles of Government forest, 77 per cent, of the available
area is occupied for cultivation. The cultivated area in 1903-4 was
540 square miles. The demand for land revenue in the same year was
Rs. 2,57,000, and for cesses Rs. 22,000. The tahsil contains tracts of
very fertile land in the valleys of the Wardha and Jam rivers, and some
hilly and stony country to the south. It is one of the great cotton¬
growing areas of the Province.

Katol Town. —Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name,
Nagpur District, Central Provinces, situated in 21° 17' N. and 78° 36' E.,
on the Jam river, 36 miles west of Nagpur city by road. Population
(1901), 7,313. The suburb of Budhwara on the opposite side of
the river has recently been included in its limits. Within the town are
the ruins of an old fort, and a curious temple of very early date built
entirely of layers of sandstone with many grotesque carvings. Katol is
not a municipality, but a town fund is raised for sanitary purposes. It
is one of the important cotton markets of the Province, and contains
4 ginning factories with 160 gins and 3 cotton-presses, having a
total capital of about 5 lakhs. 'Yhe mangoes grown locally have some
reputation. Katol has an English middle school and a dispensary.

Katosan. —Petty State in Mahi Kantha, Bombay.

Katra (or Miranpur Katra).—Town in the Tilhar tahsil of Shah-
jahanpur District, United Provinces, situated in 28° 2' N. and 79° 40' E.,
on the Oudh and Rohilkhand Railway. Population (1901), 6,209.
The town generally is built of mud, and contains a police station, a

N 2

KATRA

TQO

dispensary, and a branch of the American ^Methodist ^Mission. Between
this place and Fatehganj East in Bareilly District was fought the battle
in which the united British and Oiidh forces defeated the Rohillas under
Rahmat Khan, and effected the annexation of Rohilkhand to Oudh.
Ratra is administered under Act XX of 1856, with an income of about
Rs. 1,500. There is a considerable export of local produce by railway.
The middle school has 128 pupils.

Katumbar.—and head-quarters thereof in Alwar State,
Rajputana. See Kathumar.

Katwa Subdivision.—North-eastern subdivision of Burdwan Dis¬
trict, Bengal, lying between 23® 26' and 23° 50' N. and 87° 44' and
88® 17' E., with an area of 404 square miles. I'he subdivision is a flat
alluvial tract, and in the east, along the banks of the BhagTrathi, the
soil is waterlogged and sw^ampy. The population in 1901 was 248,806,
compared with 230,227 in 1891, the density being 616 persons per
square mile. It contains two towns, Katwa (population, 7,920), its
head-quarters, and Daixhat (5,618); and 465 villages. Large annual
fairs are held at Agradwip and Dadia. The manufacture of tasar silk
is an important industry.

Katwa Town.—Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same name
in Burdwan District, Bengal, situated in 23® 39' N. and 88° 8' E., at
the junction of the BhagTrathi and Ajay rivers. Population (1901),
7,220. Katwa was at one time con.sidered the key to Murshidabad
when that town was the capital of Bengal, and an old fort here was
the scene of the defeat of the Marathas by All VardT Khan. It is
held sacred by the Vaishnavas, as having been the place where their
apostle Chaitanya entered upon the life of an ascetic. Steamers used
to visit it the year round, but owing to the silting up of the BhagTrathi
and the opening of the East Indian Railway its commercial importance
has greatly declined ; it is now' proposed to construct a branch raihvay
from Hooghly. Katwa was constituted a municipality in 1869. The
income during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 7,800, and
the expenditure Rs. 7,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 10,200,
half of w’hich w’as derived from a tax on persons (or property tax); and
the expenditure w’as Rs. 8,300. The tow’ii contains the usual public
offices ; the subsidiary jail has accommodation for 24 prisoners,

Kauriala (also called Karnali).—River of Northern India, rising in
Tibet, not far from one of the sources of the Sutlej, in 30® 40' N^. and
80° 48' E. After leaving Tibet by the Takla Khar or Yari pass, it
flows through N’epal, generally in a south-easterly direction, till it
emerges from the lower range of the Himalayas through a deep pictur¬
esque gorge know'n as ShTsha PanT (‘glass w’ater’). The stream here
is about 300 yards broad and of great depth, with a slow' current, closely
shut in by precipitous cliffs 2,500 feet high. A little below' ShTsha

KAVERl

191

Pani the channel widens, with a steeper and rockier descent, causing
magnificent rapids nearly half a mile broad. Lower down the river
divides into two, the western branch retaining the name of Kauriala or
Karnali, the eastern being called the Girwa. Pormerly the latter was
an insignificant stream, but its volume has gradually increased till it is
now considerably larger than that of the Kauriala. They are both rapid
rivers, with pebbly beds and fords which an elephant can generally cross
without difficult}. Eighteen miles from its point of exit from the hills
the Kauriala enters British territory, at the point where it receives the
Mohan, and marks the boundary between the Oudh Districts of Kheri
and Bahraich. It now receives on the east bank its former offshoot,
the Girwa, and on the west the Suheli, Dahawar, and Chauka, all
branches of the Sarda river. From the point of confluence with the
Chauka the united rivers become the Gogra, which ultimately falls
into the Ganges on its left bank, a little above Dinapore. The Kauriala
is navigable by large boats of about 17 tons burden beyond the limits
of British territory. The principal traffic is the export of grain, and of
timber, ginger, pepper, ghi^ and catechu from Nepal. Gold-washing is
carried on by a caste called, after their occupation, Sonahis. The river
abounds in fish.

Kavali Taluk. —Taluk of Nellore District, Madras, lying between
14° 40' and 15° 4' N. and 79° 36' and 80° 7' E., and bounded on the
east by the Bay of Bengal. Its area is 548 square miles, about one-
third of which is shrotriem and zamlnddri. The population in 1901
was 87,015, compared with 83,109 in 1891. It contains 77 villages,
besides the head-quarters, Kavali (population, 8,635). The demand
on account of land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to
Rs. 2,41,000. The taluk is generally flat, but contains a few isolated
hills, while to the west and north-west are extensive low jungles, in parts
very dense. The soil is poor, and large beds of laterite are frequently
met with. The taluk is drained by the Upputeru (an affluent of the
Manneru), the Gundalavagu, Ubbalivagu, and Pillivagu. There are
35 tanks under the charge of the department of Public \\'orks, and
31 minor irrigation works. With a few exceptions these are rain-fed,
and the supply is therefore not very certain. Irrigation from the
Sangam dam across the Penner has been extended to two villages.

‘ Wet ’ cultivation is most common in the eastern portion. The con¬
sumption of rice has much increased of late years. Along the sea-coast
large tracts have been planted with palmyra palms and casuarina.

Kavali Town. —Head-quarters of the taluk of the same name in
Nellore District, Madras, situated in 14° 55' N. and 80° E. Population
(1901), 8,635. It contains a District INIunsifs court and the usual
offices.

Kaveri.—River of Southern India. See Cauverv,

192

AVI VERIPAK

Kaveripak.—Village in the ^^'alajapet taluk of North Arcot District,
Madras, situated in 12° 54' N. and 79*^ 28' E. Population (1901),
5,566. It is known in history as the scene of the victory gained by
Clive over Raja Sahib and his French allies in 1752. It is a flourishing
place, lying to the south of the embankment of the large tank to which
it gives its name. A small fort formerly stood near, but this has been
destroyed. The tank is the most extensive in the District, its embank¬
ment being about 4 miles long. Upon this is built a little bungalow,
with a view over the water towards the Sholinghur hills. Wild duck
and other water-fowl are abundant, "i'he tank, which is fed by a
channel from the Palar, is rarely dry, but has much silted up in the
course of years.

Kaveripatnam.—\dllage in the Krishnagiri taluk of Salem District,
Madras, situated in 12® 26' N. and 78° 13' E., on the right bank of
the Ponnaiyar, 7 miles from Krishnagiri. Population (1901), 4,954.
The place was regarded as of some strategical importance in the INIysore
A\"ars, as it commanded the entrance to Dharmapuri taluk and the
Carnatic, and was strongly fortified. In 1767 the English took it from
Haidar All; but the latter almost immediately recaptured it, and used it
as a support in the next campaign until his withdrawal above the Ghats.
Colonel Wood then took the place, and in 1790 Colonel Maxwell made
it his head-quarters before advancing against Tipu.

Kavlapur.—Town in the State of Sangli, Bombay, situated in
16° 89' N. and 74° 72' E. Population (1901), 5,127. The town,
formerly called Shingnapur and Kavandanyapur, is built on stony
undulating ground, and lies 5 miles north-east of Sangli town, near
a small stream which rises in the Dandoba hills and falls into the
Kistna. This stream supplies the town with drinking-water, the well-
water being brackish and unhealthy. I'hc town contains a substantial
schoolhouse, with accommodation for 100 boys, a Jain basti^ a Muham¬
madan dargdhy and fourteen Hindu temples, the most important of
which is that of Siddheshwar.

Kawa. —South-eastern towuiship of Pegu District, Lower Burma,
lying between 16^ 58' and 17® 26' N. and 96° 17' and 96° 53' E., with
an area of 514 square miles. It is a flat area producing rice, and lying
for the most part between the Pegu river and the mouth of the Sittang.
In 1901 it contained 206 villages, with a population of 79,057, its
inhabitants in 1891 having numbered 60,435. head-quarters are

at Kawa (population, 1,866), on the left bank of the Pegu river, not far
from 'i'ongyi railway station. Idie area cultivated in 1903-4 was 345
square miles, paying Rs. 6,59,800 land revenue.

Kawahi.—River in Sylhet District, Eastern Bengal and Assam.
See KiiowAi.

Kawardha.—Feudatory State in the Central Provinces, lying

KA ll ARDHA

193

between 21® 50' and 22° 30' N, and 80° 50' and 81® 26' E., with an
area of 798 square miles. It lies on the border of the eastern range of
the Satpura Hills, between the Districts of Balaghat, Drug, Bilaspur,
and Mandla. The western half of the State consists of hill and forest
country, while to the east is an open plain. Kawardha (population,
4,772), the head-quarters, is 54 miles from Tilda station on the
Bengal-Nagpur Railway. The name is believed to be a corruption of
Kabirdham or ‘ the seat of Kabir,’ and Kawardha is the official head¬
quarters of the mahants of the Kabirpanthi sect. At the village of
Chhapri, 11 miles to the west of Kawardha, is situated the fine old
temple of Bhoram Deo. It is highly decorated, contains several in¬
scriptions, and is assigned to the eleventh century. The Kawardha
family are Raj Gonds and are related to the zamlndlirs of Pandaria
in Bilaspur, the Kawardha branch being the junior. In the event of
failure of heirs, a younger son of the Pandaria zaminddr succeeds.
The estate was conferred for military services by RaghujI Bhonsla.
The present chief, Jadunath Singh, succeeded in 1891 at the age of
six years. He is being educated at the Rajkumar College, Raipur, and
during his minority the State is administered through the Political
Agent for the Chhattisgarh Feudatory States. The State contains 346
inhabited villages, and the population in 1901 was 57,474. It decreased
by 37 per cent, in the preceding decade, during which Kawardha was
severely affected by famine in several years. The density is 72 persons
l^er square mile. Gonds, Chamars, Kurmis, and Telis are the principal
castes, and the Chhattisgarh! dialect of Hind! is universally spoken.

In the open country there is a considerable quantity of good black
soil. Included in Kawardha are the three subordinate zammddn
estates of Boria, Bhonda, and Rengakhar, with an estimated total area
of 405 square miles. These have not been surveyed, and no statistics
for them are available. Of the remaining area, which has been
cadastrally surveyed, 242 square miles are occupied for cultivation, of
which 222 are under crop. The cropped area has considerably de¬
creased in recent years owing to the unfavourable seasons. The
principal crops are kodoji^ which covers 100 square miles, wheat 33,
rice 35, and cotton 54. Only 165 acres are irrigated, from wells. About
452 square miles, or more than half the total area of the State, are
forest. The forests consist mainly of inferior species, and sal {Shorea
robusfa) is the principal timber tree. The State contains 36 miles of
gravelled and 74 miles of embanked roads, constructed under the
supervision of the Engineer of the Chhattisgarh States division. The
principal routes are those from Dongargarh to Pandaria, and from
Kawardha to Simga.

The revenue of the State in 1904 amounted to Rs. 1,10,000, of
which Rs. 70,000 was derived from land, Rs. 13,000 from forests, and

194

KA JVARDHA

Rs. lojooo from excise. The system of land revenue assessment is the
same as in British territory, but the headmen of villages have no pro¬
prietary rights. Excluding the zamJnddn estates, which pay a revenue
of Rs. 1,630, the incidence of land revenue is 8 annas 9 pies per culti¬
vated acre. The usual cesses are realized with the land revenue. The
expenditure in 1904 amounted to Rs. 1,12,000, the principal items
being Government tribute (Rs. 32,000), allowances to the ruling
family (Rs. 13,500), public works (Rs. 9,000), general administration
(Rs. 9,600), and police (Rs. 6,000). The tribute is liable to periodical
revision. Since 1893 the State has allotted Rs. 1,60,000 to public
works, which has been mainly expended in the construction of the
roads already mentioned and of buildings for the State offices. The
expenditure on education in 1904 was Rs. 2,900, from which 12 schools
with about 900 pupils are maintained. Only 879 persons were returned
as literate in 1901, the proportion of the male population able
to read and write being 3 per cent. A dispensary has been estab¬
lished at Kawardha, at which 15,000 persons were treated in 1904.
The relations of the State with Government are in charge of a
Political Agent, under the supervision of the Commissioner, Chhattls-
garh Division.

Kawkareik Subdivision.—Subdivision consisting of the eastern
half of Amherst District, Lower Burma, with head-quarters at Ka\v-
KAREiK. It contains two townships, Kawkareik and Kvaikmaraw.

Kuwkareik Township.—North-eastern township of Amherst Dis¬
trict, Lower Burma (formerly known as the Haungtharaw township),
lying between 15° 37' and 17° 2' N. and 97° 59' and 98° 51' E., with
an area of 1,963 square miles, bounded on the west by Haungtharaw,
and on the east by Thaungyin and by Siamese territory. It is for the
most part very hilly and very sparsely inhabited. The population was
22,512 in 1891, and 35,111 in 1901, distributed in 162 villages and
one town, Kawkareik (population, 3,919), the head-quarters. The
area cultivated has more than doubled during the past ten years. In
^ 903-4 it reached an aggregate of 50 square miles, paying Rs. 39,300
land revenue.

Kawkareik Town.— Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Amherst District, Lower Burma, situated in 16° 35' N. and
98° 14' E. The town lies in the north-east of the District, nearly
50 miles due east of IMoulmein, stretching along both banks of the
Kawkareik, a stream which flows from the western slopes of the Dawna
range into the Haungtharaw river, and is navigable up to Kawkareik
during the rains by boats of fairly heavy burden. The town is an
important trade centre on the main caravan route between IMoulmein
and Siam. Population (1901), 3,919. In 1884-5 Kawkareik was
Ijlaced in charge of a town committee, which was reconstituted in 1903.

KA YANKULAM

195

The income administered by the town authorities was Rs. 8,700 in
1903-4, and the expenditure was Rs. 9,000, devoted chiefly to public
works. The town possesses a civil hospital, with eight beds, which is
supported by the town fund.

Kawlin. —Southernmost township of Katha District, Upper Burma,
lying between 23° 30' and 23° 54' X, and 95° 20' and 96° E., on either
side of the Sagaing-Myitkyina railway, with an area of 536 square miles.
It was annexed in 1891 with the rest of the former \Vuntho State.
The population in 1901 was 28,114 (practically all Burmans), dis¬
tributed in 239 villages. The head-quarters are at Kawlin (population,
813) on the railway, the scene of some of the most exciting episodes
in the Wuntho rebellion. The surveyed area under cultivation in
1903-4 was 70 square miles, and the land revenue and thathameda
amounted to Rs. 1,05,400.

Kayal. —Village in the Srivaikuntam taluk of Tinnevelly District,
Madras, situated in 8° 40' N. and 78° 5' E., near the sea, on the
northern bank of the Tambraparni river. It was once a famous port,
and was visited in 1292 by Marco Polo, who calls it ‘a great and noble
city,’ and notices it at length (Col. Yule’s translation, vol. ii, p. 305).
A similar glowing account of the place is given by two Persian
historians quoted by Colonel Yule. Kayal sprang into existence after
Kolkai, but the silt of the Tambraparni ruined both places as ports
and has now turned them into inland villages. Relics of the ancient
greatness of Kayal are, however, still discoverable in the shape of
broken tiles and remnants of pottery. There are also two old temples
with inscriptions. An interesting and detailed account of the place
will be found in Bishop Caldwell’s History of Tinnevelly,

Kayalpatnam. —A small port in the Srivaikuntam taluk of Tin¬
nevelly District, Madras, situated in 8° 34' N. and 78° 8' E., a few
miles to the south of the Tambraparni river and 18 miles south of
Tuticorin ; not to be confounded with Kayal. It is a Union, with
a population (1901) of 11,746. Its sea-borne trade, which is chiefly
in rice and coco-nuts with Ce)’lon and in timber and areca-nuts with
Travancore, is carried on by the Musalman tribe of Labbais. There
is also some trade in palmyra-leaf boxes and jaggery (coarse sugar),
and a large salt factory is at work.

Kayankulam. —Town on the backwater of the same name in the
Kartikapalli taluk of Travancore State, Isladras, situated in 9® 11' N-
and 76° 30' E. Population (1901), 5,745. Formerly capital of an
independent principality known as Onad, it held an equal position with
A^enad, or Travancore. In the sixteenth century it was an important
harbour where the Portuguese had a factory. The Onad Raja was the
earliest Malabar ally of the Dutch. After a protracted war, he sub¬
mitted to Travancore in 1746. In a.d. 829 one of the earliest Syrian

196

KA YAA^KULAM

Churches was founded here. The place has a well-attended market
and a magistrate’s court.

Kedarnath.—Famous temple and place of pilgrimage in Garhwal
District, United Provinces, situated in 30° 44' N. and 79° E., imme¬
diately below the snow peak of Mahapanth, at an elevation of
11)753 above sea-level. It marks the spot where Sadasiva, a form
of Siva, in his flight from the Pandavas, assumed the form of a buffalo
and attempted to dive into the earth to escape his pursuers, but left
his hind quarters on the surface. A rock is still worshipped as part
of the deity, and the remaining portions of his body are reverenced
elsewhere : at Tungnath, Rudranath, Madhyamaheshwar, and Kalpesh-
war. Four miles from the temple on the way to the IMahapanth peak
is a precipice known as the Bhairab Jhamp, where devotees formerly
committed suicide by flinging themselves from the summit; but the
British Go^•ernment suppressed this practice shortly after annexation.
The Rdival or chief priest of Kedarnath is always a Jangama from
Mysore or some other part of Southern India. Large numbers of
pilgrims annually visit Kedarnath.

Kedgeree [Khejn \—Village in the Contai subdivision of Midnapore
District, Bengal, situated in 21° 52' N. and 87^ 59' E., on the right
bank of the Hooghly river. Population (1901), 1,457. This was
formerly an important anchorage, and close by is an old English
burial-ground containing numerous graves of Europeans who died
on shipboard off the coast.

Kehsi Mansam (Burmese, Kylthi BansaiC ).—State in the eastern
division of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying between 21® 48' and
22® 15' N. and 97^40' and 98° 22' E., with an area of 632 square miles.
It is bounded on the north by the Northern Shan States of Hsipaw and
South Hsenwi; on the east by Kengldn, JNIanglon, and ISIdnghsii; on
the south by ?kIongnawng and Mdngkiing; and on the west by Mdng-
kiing. In early days Kehsi Mansam formed part of North Hsenwi, but
was made a Myozaship in i860. The State consists chiefly of open
rolling country, nowhere rising to any great height. Around the capital
and to the east of it are almost treeless downs. Between the Nam
Pang and the border of Mangldn are two circles, undulating like the
rest, but covered with scrub jungle. To the north and west the downs
become low hills, as yet untouched by the taioigya cultivator; in the
valleys between these hills most of the ‘wet’ rice of the State is grown.
The chief river is the Nam Heng, which separates the State from
Hsipaw and joins the Nam Pang. Rice is grown in both irrigated
fields and taungyas^ the other crops being cotton, tobacco, and sesa-
mum. Kehsi Mansam is, however, a commercial rather than an agri¬
cultural State. A good deal of business is done with Tawngpeng in
tea; and there is a considerable trade in agricultural implements and

KELOD

197

bamboo hats (the Burmese kamauk)^ which are made in the northern
part of the State. The population in 1901 was 22,062 (distributed in
378 villages), of whom about 19,500 were Shans, and about 2,500 Vins
(Yanglam). Kehsi Mansam (population, .618), in the western part of
the State, on the Nam Heng, is a trading centre of some importance,
and was once a large town. The revenue in 1903-4 amounted to
Rs. 15,000 (mainly from thathajnedd) \ the chief items of expenditure
were Rs. 8,000 tribute to the British Government, Rs. 4,000 general
administration charges, Rs. 2,000 privy purse, and Rs. 1,000 public
works.

Kekri.—T own in Ajmer-Alerwara, Rajputana, and the head-quarters
of an Extra-Assistant Commissioner, situated in 25° 25' N. and 75°
13' E. Population (1901), 7,053, including 5,472 Hindus, 1,193
Muhammadans, and 364 Jains. Kekri was formerly a thriving com¬
mercial town, but has of late years declined in importance. The
municipal income in 1902-3 was about Rs. 14,000. The water-supply
is scarce and bad. Kekri possesses three hydraulic cotton presses
and a ginning factory.

Keladi.—Village in the Sagar taluk of Shimoga District, Mysore,
situated in 14° 13' N. and 75° i' E., 4 miles north of Sagar town.
Population (1901), 1,595. place of origin, at the close of

the fifteenth century, of the chiefs who became kings of the whole of
the north-west of Mysore, and of the Kanarese districts below the
Ghats, and continued in power till overthrown by Haidar All in 1763.
They were at first tributary to Vijayanagar, but assumed independence
after the fiill of that empire. The capital was first removed to Ikkeri,
and eventually to Bednur.

Kelapur Taluk .—Taluk of Veotmal District (formerly known as
Wiin), Berar, lying between 19° 50' and 20° 29' N. and 78° 2' and 78^
51' E., with an area of 1,080 square miles. The population fell from
105,926 in 1891 to 103,657 in 1901, the density being 96 persons
per square mile. The taluk contains 310 villages, but no town. The
head-quarters are at Pandharkawada (population, 1,992), near the small
village of Kelapur, from which the taluk takes its name. The taluk
contains a larger proportion of Gonds than any other in Berar. It
marched with, and probably at times formed part of, the Gond kingdom
of Chanda. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 1,35,000,
and for cesses Rs. 8,000. The taluk lies in the Balaghat or southern
plateau of Berar, but possesses fertile tracts in the valleys of the Wardha
and Penganga rivers, which bound it on the north and south.

Kelat-i-Ghilzai.—Fort in Kandahar province, Afghanistan. See
Kalat-i-Ghilzai.

Kelod.—Town in the Katol talisil of Nagpur District, Central
Provinces, situated in 21® 27' N. and 78® 53' E., 28 miles from Nagpur

KELOD

198

city on the Chhindwara road. The name is probably an abbrevia¬
tion from keljhar, ‘a plantain-tree,’ as plantain groves were formerly
numerous here. Population (1901), 5,141* 'i'he town contains an old
fort. It is not a municipality, but a town fund is raised for sanitary
purposes. A cotton-ginning factory has recently been opened. The
chief local industry is the manufacture of large brass water-vessels.
There is a vernacular middle school.

Kelve-Mahim.—Head-quarters of the Mahim tdluka of Thana Dis¬
trict, Bombay, situated in 19° 36' N. and 72° 44' E., about 5-I miles west
of the Palghar station on the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India Railway,
and 56 miles north of Bombay. Population (1901), 5,699. The village
of Kelve, whose name is thus joined with Mahim, lies on the opposite
side of a creek about 2^ miles to the south. The coast is very rocky
near the harbour, and a reef stretches for 2 miles from the shore. A
small island fort lies opposite the village of Kelve. Near the two
creeks which form the harbours of Mahim and Kelve are two small
forts, forming links in the chain built by the Portuguese along the coast
of the taliika. The town is to a large extent occupied by gardens, and
has a fair trade in plantains, sugar-cane, ginger, and betel-leaf. Delhi
Musalmans had possession of Mahim in 1350; GujarM governors suc¬
ceeded; in 1532 the Portuguese occupied it; and in 1612 it was
bravely held against the J^Iughals. The tomb of a Portuguese noble¬
man has been unearthed and its slab placed in the Collector’s garden
at Thana. Kelve-Mahim has been a municipal town since 1861.
During tl]e decade ending 1901 the income averaged Rs. 8,000. In
1903-4 the income was Rs. 7,700. Kelve village was included in the
Mahim municipality in i8go. The town contains a dispensary, and
6 schools for boys with 356 pupils and one for girls with 51 pupils.

Kelwara.—Head-quarters of the Kiunbhalgarh pargana in the
State of Udaipur, Rajputana, situated in 25° 7' N. and 73° 36' E., in
the heart of the Aravalli Hills, about 2-| miles south of the Kumbhal-
garh fort and 38 miles north of Udaipur city. Population (1901), 1,204.
It was in Kelwara that Rana Ajai Singh found refuge when his father,
Rana Lakshman Singh, and his seven brothers had been killed defending
Chitor against Ala-ud-dm at the beginning of the fourteenth century.

Ken (or Kayan ; Skt. Karndvati ; the Kainas of Arrian).—River of
Bundelkhand. It rises in the north-western slopes of the Kaimur
Hills (23° 54' N., 80° 10' E.), and flowing north-east through Damoh
and Panna enters Banda District in the United Provinces near Bilharka.
After a course of more than 100 miles along the border of and through
Banda, it joins the Jumna near Chilla, on the road from Banda to
Fatehpur, 230 miles from its source. The river flows in a deep, well-
defined bed, and is navigable for small boats as far as Banda town; but
there is not much traffic. At Banda the bed is sandy, but pebbles and

KENGHKAM

199

fragments of quartz and other rocks are found in it, which are polished
and made into ornaments. Above Banda the bed becomes more rocky,
and the scenery near KharaunI is singularly beautiful. A canal taking
off from the river near Ikariarpur in the .Ajaigarh State has recently been
completed. At present it is designed to irrigate only a part of Banda
District: namely, the area between the Ken and Baghain, of which it
will command about half, or 374,000 acres. The reservoir formed
in connexion with this project will impound about 182 million cubic
feet of water in the valley of the river.

Kendrapara Subdivision. —North-eastern subdivision of Cuttack
District, Bengal, lying between 20® 18' and 20° 48' N. and 86° 15' and
87° I' E., with an area of 977 square miles. The population in 1901
was 467,081, compared with 429,770 in 1891. The subdivision is a
deltaic alluvial tract, bounded on the east by the Bay of Bengal and
intersected by numerous rivers and streams. The strip along the coast
is veiy sparsely populated, but the density rises towards the west, and
the average for the whole subdivision is 478 persons per square mile.
It contains one town, Kendrapara (population, 15,245^ its head¬
quarters; and 1,338 villages.

Kendrapara Town. —Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Cuttack District, Bengal, situated in 20° 30' X. and 86° 25'E.
Population (1901), 15,245. Its position on the Kendrapara Canal in
the heart of a rich rice-producing country gives it a considerable trade ;
and it is connected by road with Cuttack, Jajpur, and Chandbali. It
was constituted a municipality in 1869. The income and expenditure
during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 8,000. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 11,200, of which Rs. 6,700 was derived from a tax¬
on persons (or property tax); and the expenditure was Rs. 11,100,
Besides the usual public buildings, Kendrapara possesses a good school
and dispensary, and a public library has lately been opened for the
circulation of English and vernacular literature. The sub-jail has
accommodation for twelve prisoners.

Kenduli. —Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Birbhum Dis¬
trict, Bengal, situated in 23° 38' N. and 87° 26' E., on the north bank
of the Ajay river. Population (1901), 774. It was the birthplace of
Jayadeva, the author of the celebrated Gita Gobiftda^ a Sanskrit poem
in praise of Krishna Chaitanya, who was a disciple of the Vaishnav
reformer. An annual fair in honour of Jayadeva is held in the village
on the last day of Pus (the middle of January), which is attended by
50,000 persons.

Kenery. —Island near the entrance of Bombay harbour, off the
mainland of Kolaba District, Bombay. See Kh^nderi.

Kenghkam (Burmese, Kyai?igka?i ).—Small State in the eastern
division of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying between 20° 50' and

200

KEXGHKAM

2 1° 7' X. and 98° 20' and 98° 37' E., with an area of 167 square miles.
It lies on both sides of the Xam Pang, and is bounded on the north by
Mdngnawng and a detached portion of Mongnai; on the east by a
detached portion of Mdngnawng and by the vSalween ri\-er; and on the
south and west by Mongnai. Rice is cultivated in the plain lying along
the western bank of the river and on the hills to the west, but owing to
the loss of population a large number of paddy-fields are fallow. The
population of the State in 1901 was 5,458, practically all Shans, distri¬
buted in 52 villages. The residence of the Myoza is at Kenghkam
(population, 1,203), ^ picturesquely situated village on the Nam Pang,
a few miles north of the point where that stream flows into the Salween.
The revenue in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 4,000 (mostly from ihatha-
7 nedd)^ and the tribute to the British Government is Rs. 2,000,

Kenglon (Burmese, KyaingIo)i ),—Small State in the eastern division
of the Southern Shan States, Burma, lying geographically within the
borders of Kehsi Mansam, but abutting in the south-east on Mdnghsu.
It is .situated between 21° 51' and 22° 2' N. and 98° 2' and 98° 13' E.,
with an area of 43 square miles. Kenglon used at one time to form
part of North Hsenwi. The country is undulating on the whole, and
the land is fertile. The main crop is lowland rice ; and the people,
who in 1901 numbered 4,259 (practically all Shans), export a good
deal of rice. The population was distributed in 69 villages, of which
the largest is Kenglon, the residence of the Myoza (population, 341),
west of a chain of low hills towards the north of the State. The
revenue in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 4,000, and the tribute to the British
Government is Rs. 1,500.

Kengtung (Burmese, Kyaingtoii ),—A division of the Southern Shan
States, Burma, and a State under a Sawbwa, residing at the capital,
Kengtung. It is the largest Native State in Burma, having an area
of about 12,000 square miles, and is situated between 20° 4' and
22° 10' N. and 98° 28' and 101° 9' E., lying, with the exception of
a small area between the mouth of the Nam Hka river and the Takaw
ferry, entirely east of the Salween. On the north it is bounded by the
newly drawn Chinese frontier; on the east by China; on the south by
the French Lao territory and Siam ; and on the west by the Southern
Shan States of Mdngpan, Mongnai, and Mdngnawng, and the Northern
Shan State of Mangldn, from which it is separated by the Nam
Hka river. It includes the dependencies of Hsenyawt, Hsenmawng,
Mdnghsat, Mdngpu, and ^^"estern Kengcheng. A good deal of the
early history of Kengtung is purely legendary. It is clear, however,
that the State has suffered much in the past at the hands of the
Siamese and the Chinese, both of whom invaded it several times be¬
tween the middle of the eighteenth and the middle of the nineteenth
century. Some of the main features of the history of Kengtung since

KEXGTUNG TOWN

20T

the v^nnexation of Upper Burma are given in the article on the
Southern Shan States. The country is broken and mountainous,
the hill ranges having a general north and south tendency; about
two-thirds of it lies in the basin of the Mekong, and about one-third
in the basin of the Salween, the watershed being a hill range varying
from 5,000 to 7,000 feet in height. The climate in the valleys is
extremely enervating during the rains ; dense fogs prevail in the cold
season, and the valleys are much hotter than their altitude would lead
one to expect, while the daily range of temperature is large. Rice
is the staple, but fruit of all kinds is cultivated in the gardens, while
on the uplands cotton is the main crop. On the highest hills poppy is
grown in addition to taungya rice and sesamum, and tea is cultivated
for local consumption. There are rich forests, the revenue from which
amounted in 1904 to Rs. 34,000. The population of the State in 1901
was 190,698, of whom 139,735 returned as Buddhists and 50,039
as Animists. The people are Shans (Hkiin and Lii), or belong to
a variety of hill tribes, of which the most important are the Raws or
Akhas, the Muhsos, and the Was (Tai Loi, <^c.). Divided by
languages, 57,058 persons spoke Shan, 42,160 Hkiin (the language
of the Kengtung valley), 27,652 Akha, 19,380 Lii (the language of the
valley between Kengtung and the ^^lekong), and 44,448 other ver¬
naculars, such as Palaung, Kachin, and Lisaw. The population in
1901 was distributed in 2,338 villages, the only urban area of any
size being the capital, Kengtung (population, 5,695). The revenue,
chiefly from thathameda^ amounted in 1903-4 to i-i lakhs. The
expenditure included Rs. 30,000 paid as tribute to the British Govern¬
ment, Rs. 24,000 spent on miscellaneous administrative charges, Rs.
33,500 devoted to the salaries of officials, Rs. 18,000 to the privy
purse, and Rs. 4,350 to public works.

Kengtung Town. —Capital of Kengtung State in the Southern
Shan States, Burma, situated in 21° 18'' N. and 99® 45' E., towards
the southern end of the central valley of the State. The town, which
lies on low, undulating ground, was built early in the nineteenth
century, and in 1901 had a population of 5,695. It is a straggling
area, containing a few brick buildings and the Sawbwa’s haw or palace
of timber surrounded by a brick wall. Kengtung has till recently been
the head-quarters of an Assistant Superintendent. It was a post of
importance in the eighteenth century, and was fortified strongly by
Alaungpaya with a thick wall and a moat. It is still an important
trading centre. The present station of Kengtung is a quarter of a
mile away, and contains the quarters of the police. The cantonment
is about 7 miles west of the town. The place is very unhealthy, and
a site for a new station has been found on a spur (Loi Mwe) at an
altitude of 5,500 feet, 12 miles south-east of Kengtung town. There is

202

KENGTUNG TOWN

room here for both the civil station and the cantonment, and a good
supply of drinking-water is obtainable. The garrison of Kengtung has
recently been replaced by military police.

Keonjhar State. —One of the Tributary States of Orissa, Bengal,
lying between 21® and 22° 10' N. and 85° ii' and 86° 22' E. It is
the second largest of the Orissa States, having an area of 3,096 square
miles. It is bounded on the north by Singhbhum District; on the
east by the State of Mayurbhanj and Balasore District; on the south
by Cuttack District and the State of Dhenkanal; and on the west by
the States of Pal Lahara and Bonai. Keonjhar is divided into two
widely dissimilar tracts, Lower Keonjhar being a region of valleys and
lowlands, while Upper Keonjhar includes the mountainous highlands.
The latter consist of great clusters of rugged crags, which in troublous
times afforded a safe retreat to its inhabitants. The mountain-tops
appear from the lowlands to be sharply ridged or peaked, but in reality
they have extensive table-lands on their summits, fit both for pasture
and for tillage. The BaitaranI river takes its rise in the hilly north¬
western division. The principal peaks are Gandhamadan (3,479 feet),
Thakurani (3,003 feet), Tomak (2,577 feet), and Bolat (1,818 feet).

Keonjhar originally formed part of Mayurbhanj, but about 200
years ago the local tribes thr^v off their allegiance to that State and
chose a brother of the Raja as their king. Since that time thirty-six
chiefs have ruled. The late chief rendered good service during the
Mutiny of 1857, in recognition of which his tribute was reduced and he
was made a Maharaja. He died in 1861 without legitimate issue; and
on Government nominating his natural son, the present chief, to the
gaddi, a dispute arose as to the succession, culminating in an insur¬
rection of the Bhuiya and Juang tribes, which was suppressed only
with the aid of British troops. The hill tribes again rebelled in 1891
as a protest against the oppressions of the minister, and the aid of
British troops had again to be invoked before the rising could be
put down. The State has an estimated revenue of 3 lakhs, and pays
a tribute of Rs. 1,710 to the British Government. The population
increased from 248,101 in 1891 to 285,758 in 1901, but is still very
sparse, the density in the latter year being only 92 persons per square
mile. There is one town, Keonjhar (4,532), and 1,937 villages, of
which the most important is Anandpur, situated on the BaitaranI river.
Of the total population, 246,585 arc Hindus and 38,567 Animists, the
most numerous castes being Pans (31,000), Khandaits (29,000), Gaurs
(28,000), Hos (24,000), Bhuiyas (20,000), Kurmis (17,000), Gonds
(16,000), Bathudis (13,000), and Khonds (12,000). The old Midna-
pore-Sambalpur road runs through Keonjhar town, and a few metalled
roads have been made in the neighbourhood of the head-quarters.
A new and important fair-weather road has lately been completed,

KERUR

203

connecting Keonjhar town with Bhadrakh station in Balasore on the
Bengal-Xagpur Railway (84 miles) on the one side, and on the other
with Jaintgarh on the borders of Singhbhum District (36 milesj.
For administrative purposes the State is divided into subdivisions:
namely, the head-quarters, Anandpur or Lower Keonjhar, and Cham-
peswar or Nuagarh. The State maintains 3 charitable dispensaries,
2 middle English, 7 upper primary, and 84 lower primary schools,

Keonjhar Town (or Xijgarh). — Head-quarters of the Orissa
Tributary State of the same name, Bengal, situated in 21° 38' X.
and 85° 36' E., on the !Midnapore-Sambalpur road. Population

(1900.4,532-

Keonthal {Kiunthal ).—One of the Simla Hill States, Punjab, lying
between 30° 55' and 31° 13' X"". and 77° 10' and 77° 25' E. The main
block of territory adjoins Simla station. It has an area of 116 square
miles, divided into 22 villages, and the population in 1901 was 22,499.
The revenue in 1903 was estimated at Rs. 66,000. The principal
products are grain and opium. The present Raja is Bijai Sen, a Rajput
by caste, who succeeded his father BalbTr Sen in 1901. The chief
of Keonthal was formerly styled Rana, but was raised by the British
Government to the higher rank of Raja in 1857. After the Gurkha
War a portion of the territory of Keonthal, which had been occupied
by the Gurkhas, was sold to the IMaharaja of Patiala. In consideration
of this, no tribute is paid by the Keonthal Raja for the remainder
of his State, which was restored to him by sanad in 1815, on the
expulsion of the Gurkhas from the country. The Raja holds another
sanad^ dated September, 1815, conferring on the Keonthal chief and
his heirs for ever paramount authority over the petty states of 'Pheog,
Koti, Ghund, and IMadhan, the chiefs of which, with their descendants,
are bound to regard the chief of Keonthal as their liege, and to pay
him tribute. Ratesh also is a fief of Keonthal. A third sanad was
granted to the Raja, conferring Punnar on him and his heirs. It is
dated 1823, though the transfer was authorized in 1816. The reasons
given for this measure were the isolated position of Punnar, the
turbulent character of its inhabitants, the indisposition of Government
to extend its territories in the hills, and a desire to benefit Keonthal.

Kerakat.— Tahsil in Jaunpur District, United Provinces. See
Kirakat.

Kerala.—Ancient kingdom on the west coast of the Madras
Presidency. See Cher a.

Kerowlee.—State and capital thereof in Rajputana. See Karauli.

Kerur,—Village in the Badami tdluka of Bijapur District, Bombay,
situated in 16° i' X^. and 75° 33' E., ii miles north-west of Badami.
Population (1901), 5,353. This is a fortified place on the Sholapur-
Hubli road. The fort stands on a gentle slope about 300 yards south-

VOL. XV.

204

KERUR

west of the village. As the village increased, a new market was built
to the east of the fort, and a colony of weavers established themselves
in a market to the south, where they formerly carried on a flourishing
trade. The village and fort contain several temples and a large
reservoir.

Kesabpur. —Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Jessore
District, Bengal, situated in 22° 55' N. and 89° 13' E., on the Harihar
river, about 18 miles south of Jessore town. It is a large centre of the
sugar trade. An import trade in rice is carried on, and large quantities
of earthen pots and vessels are manufactured in connexion with the
sugar industry. Another local manufacture is brass-work.

Kesariya, —Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Champaran
District, Bengal, situated in 26° 21' N. and 84° 53' E. Population
(1901), 4,466. Kesariya contains a lofty brick mound, 1,400 feet in
circumference, supporting a solid tower or s/f//>a of the same material,
62 feet high and 68 feet in diameter, which was supposed by General
Cunningham to have been erected to commemorate one of the acts
of Buddha, The brick tower is said to date from a. d. 200-700; but
the mound is of an earlier period, being associated with the name
of Raja Ben Chakrabartti, a traditional emperor of India.

Keshorai Patan. —Head-quarters of the /a/isi/ of the same name
in the State of Bundi, Rajputana, situated in 25° 17' N. and 75° 57' E.,
on the northern bank of the Chambal, about 12 miles below Kotah
town and 22 miles south-east of Bundi town. Population (1901), 3,773.
The place claims a very remote antiquity, local historians affecting to
trace its traditions back to the mythological period of the Mahabharata.
In old days it was a wild jungle, known as Jambu Karan from the
number of jdmun-trees (in Sanskrit jambu) and of jackals (in Sanskrit
jambuk) found there. The original name of the town was Rantideo
Patan, after Raja Rantideo, chief of Maheshwar and cousin of Raja
Hasti, the founder of Hastinapur. The oldest inscriptions found are
in a couple of sail temples on the banks of the river, which are
supposed to bear dates a.d. 35 and 93 ; it is also stated that, long
before this period, one Parasram built the Jambu Margeshwar or
Keshwar temple sacred to Mahadeo. The building gradually fell into
decay and was reconstructed in the time of Rao Raja Chhatarsal
(1631-58), to whom also is due the erection of the larger temple of
Keshorai, for which the town is now famous, though the foundations
were actually laid in the time of his predecessor. This temple contains
an image of Keshorai, a name for Vishnu, and attracts yearly a large
crowd of worshippers. It possesses no marked architectural beauties,
and has been so incessantly covered with fresh coats of whitewash that
it looks not unlike a huge piece of fretwork in wax or sugar which the
heat or moisture has partially melted. The tahsll of Patan, one of

KHACHROD

205

the most fertile in the State, was ceded to the Peshwa in the eighteenth
century for assistance rendered in expelling a usuri)er, and was by him
transferred, two-thirds to Sindhia and one-third to Holkar. Under the
treaty of 1818 the portion held by Holkar was restored to Bundi, while
under the treaty of i860 with Sindhia the sovereignty of the remainder
of the tract was transferred to the British Government, who made it
over in perpetuity to Bundi on payment of Rs. 80,000 a year.

Kesria. —Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Keti (or Keti Bandar).—Port, town, and municipality in the Ghora-
bari tdluka of Karachi District, Sind, Bombay, situated in 24° 8' N.
and 67*^ 30' E., close to the sea, on the Hajamro branch of the Indus.
Population (1901), 2,127. Keti is the chief port in the Indus delta
for river and sea-going boats, and has taken the place of Ghorabari,
a little farther inland on the same branch, which was formerly the
principal commercial town of the surrounding tract. In 1848 the
Hajamro capriciously receded, and Ghorabari immediately dwindled
into comparative insignificance. The trade of the deserted port then
betook itself to the first Keti, nearer the sea; but about 1853 the place
was swept away by a flood, and a new site was chosen in the neigh¬
bourhood. This second Keti, the existing town and harbour, now
about fifty years old, soon attracted the river trade, and at present
ranks next to Karachi among the ports of Sind. Exports to the
Bombay and Madras Presidencies, to Sonmiani, and Makran, comprise
grain, pulses, oilseeds, wool, cotton, drugs, dyes, saltpetre, and firewood.
Imports, from the same places and the Persian Gulf, include coco-nuts,
cotton piece-goods, metals, sugar, spices, coir, and shells. The value
of the sea-borne trade of Keti in 1903-4 amounted to 6-8 lakhs:
exports, 5*3 lakhs; imports, 1-5 lakhs. During the prevalence of the
south-west monsoon trade remains at a standstill, vessels being unable
to make the harbour from seaward. In the brisk season, from 70 to
90 boats of various sizes may be seen lining the bandar. Sea-borne
goods for transit up the Indus must here be transferred to river boats.
The town has several times been in danger of floods, but, owing to
its slightly elevated position, has hitherto escaped the fate of its pre¬
decessor. It communicates by road with Tatta, 60 miles south-west;
with Mirpur Sakro, 36 miles south-w^est; and with Ghorabari, 13 miles.
The municipality was established in 1854, and had an average income
during the decade ending 1901 of Rs. 6,400. In 1903-4 the income
was Rs. 6,100. The town contains a dispensary, and one school for
boys, with an average daily attendance of 88 pupils.

Keunjhar. —Native State and town in Orissa, Bengal. See Keon-

JHAR.

Khachrod {Khdchraud ),—Town in the Ujjain district of Gwalior
State, Central India, situated in 23° 26' N. and 75° 20' E., on the

o 2

2 o 6

KHACHROD

Ratlam-Godhra branch of the Bombay, Baroda, and Central India
Railway, 1,700 feet above sea-level. Population (1901), 9,186. The
town is mentioned in the Ain-i-Akbarl as the head-quarters of a viahdl
in the Ujjain sarkdr of the Siibah of Malwa. It is a place of increasing
commercial importance owing to the opening of the railway, and will
be still further benefited by the extension of the line to Muttra, now
under construction. It is famous for its painted woodwork and
tobacco. A school, a post office, and an inspection bungalow are
situated in the town.

Khadal.—Petty State in MahI Kantha, Bombay.

Khadki.—Town in the Haveli tdluka of Poona District, Bombay.
See Kirkee.

Khaga. — Eastern tahsil of Fatehpur District, United Provinces,
comprising the parganas of Dhata, Ekdala, Hathgaon, and Kutila, and
lying between 25° 26' and 26° i' N. and 81 o' and 81^^ 20' E., with an
area of 481 square miles. Population fell slightly from 224,605 in 1891
to 224,348 in 1901. There are 493 villages and one town, Kishanpur
(population, 2,354). The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was
Rs. 3,80,000, and for cesses Rs. 6i,ooo. The density of population,
466 persons per square mile, is above the District average. North and
south the fahsil is bounded by the Ganges and Jumna, while the centre
is drained by a shallow channel called the Sasur Khaderi. Near the
Ganges the soil is sandy, while towards the Jumna ravines and poor
soil retard cultivation. The central portions are, however, fertile. In
1903-4 the area under cultivation was 269 square miles, of which 112
were irrigated. \\'eils supply more than half, and tanks or jhih are
the next most important source. The Fatehpur branch of the Lower
Ganges Canal, which was opened in 1898, is extending its operations.

Khagan.—Mountain valley in Hazara District, North-West Frontier
Province. See Kagan.

Khagaria.—Town in the head-quarters subdivision of Monghyr
District, Bengal, situated in 25° 30' N. and 86° 29' E., on the Gandak.
Population {1901), 11,492. Khagaria is a station on the Bengal and
North-A\"estern Railway and possesses a large trade.

Khagaul.—Town in the Dinapore subdivision of Patna District,
Bengal, situated in 25° 35' N. and 85° 3' E., a short distance to the
south of Dinapore. Population (1901), 8,126. The Dinapore railway
station is just outside the town, which has only grown into importance
since the opening of the railway. It is the head-quarters of a company
of East Indian Railway volunteers.

Khaibar. —Historic pass leading from Peshawar District in the
North-West Frontier Province into Afghanistan. See Khvber.

Khair.—North-western iahsll of Aligarh District, United Provinces,
comprising the parganas of Khair, Chandaiis, and Tappal, and lying

KHAIRAGARH STATE

207

between 27° 51' and 28° ii' N. and 77° 29^ and 78° 1' E., with an area
of 407 square miles. The population rose from 150,656 in 1891 to
178,867 in 1901. There are 272 villages and three towns, none of
which has as many as 5,000 inhabitants ; Khair, the tahfil head>
quarters, has a population of 4,537. The density, 439 persons per
square mile, is much below the District average. The demand for
land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 4,11,000, and for cesses Rs. 66,000.
The tahsil is bounded on the west by the Jumna, and has a con¬
siderable area of khadar land in which nothing grows but coarse grass
and tamarisk, the haunt of innumerable wild hog. Large herds of
cattle are grazed by the Giijar inhabitants of this tract, who are
inveterate cattle-thieves. The Mat branch of the Upper Ganges Canal
provides irrigation. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 292
square miles, of which 119 were irrigated.

Khairabad. —Town in the District and tahsil of Sitapur, United
Provinces, situated in 27° 32' N. and 80° 46' E., on the Lucknow-
Bareilly State Railway. Population (1901), 13,774, It was formerly
a place of importance, and is said to have been founded by one
Khaira, a PasI, in the eleventh century. It is, however, more probable
that the name was given by Muhammadans to an older town on the
same site; and it has been identified with ^lasachhatra, an ancient holy
place. A governor was stationed here by the early kings of Delhi, and
under Akbar it was the capital of a sarkar. During the first half of
the nineteenth century Khairabad was the head-quarters of an Oudh
nizdmai) and after annexation a Division took its name from the town,
though the head-quarters of the Commissioner were at Sitapur. A
number of temples and mosques are situated here, some of them dating
from the reign of Akbar, but none is of much interest. Khairabad
contains a branch of the American Methodist Mission. It has been
a municipality since 1869. During the ten years ending 1901 the
income and expenditure averaged Rs. 7,500. In 1903-4 the income
was Rs. 9,100, chiefly from octroi (Rs. 5,300) ; and the expenditure
was Rs. 12,300. Trade has suffered owing to the rise in importance
of Sitapur ; but there is a daily market, and a small industry in
cotton-printing survives. A large fair is held in January. There
are five schools, including two for girls, with about 300 pupils; and two
dispensaries.

Khaira Gali. —Small cantonment in Hazara District, Xorth-West
Frontier Province, situated in 33° 55' N. and 73° 20' E., on the road
between Abbottabad and iMurree. During the summer months it is
occupied by one of the British mountain batteries which are stationed
at Rawalpindi in the winter.

Khairagarh State. —Feudatory State in the Central Provinces?
lying between 21° 4' and 21° 34' N. and 80° 27' and 81° 12' E., with

2 o8

KHATRAGARH STATE

an area of 931 square miles. The State consists of three separate
sections, and is situated on the western border of Drug District, with
which, and with the States of Chhuikhadan, Kawardha, and Nandgaon,
its boundaries interlace. Of these three sections, the small pa 7 'ga 7 ia of
Khulwa to the north-west was the original domain of the chiefs of
Khairagarh; Khamaria on the north-east was seized from the Kawardha
State at the end of the eighteenth centur}^ in lieu of a small loan ; while
of the main area of the estate in the south, the Khairagarh tract was
received at an early date from the Mandla Rajas, and that of Don-
gargarh represents half the estate of a zammdrn^ who rebelled against
the Marathas, and whose territory, when the rebellion was crushed by
the chiefs of Khairagarh and Nandgaon, was divided between them.
The head-quarters are at Khairagarh, a village of 4,656 inhabitants,
situated 23 miles from both the Dongargarh and Raj-Nandgaon stations
on the Bengal-Nagpur Railway. The western tracts of the State are
hilly, but those to the east lie in a level black-soil plain of great
fertility. The ruling family are considered to be Nagvansi Rajputs,
and to be connected with the house of Chota Nagpur. Their pedigree
dates back to a.d. 740. The present chief, Kamal Narayan Singh,
was installed in 1890 at the age of twenty-three years, and the here¬
ditary title of Raja was conferred on him in 1898. He conducts the
administration of the State with the advice of a Dlwan appointed by
Government, under the supervision of the Political Agent for the
ChhattTsgarh Feudatory States. The population in 1901 was 137,554,
showing a decrease of 24 per cent, in the previous decade, during which
the State was severely affected by famine. There are 497 inhabited
villages, and one town, Dongargarh (population, 5,856). The density
of population is 147 persons per square mile. Gonds, LodhTs, Chamars,
and Ahirs are the most important castes numerically; the people
belong almost entirely to ChhattTsgarh, and the local dialect of Eastern
Hind! named after that tract is universally spoken.

The eastern part of the State is a fertile expanse of black soil, while
in the west the land is light and sandy. In 1904 nearly 543 square
miles, or 58 per cent, of the total area, were occupied for cultivation,
and nearly 486 square miles were under crop. Kodon covers 41 per
cent, of the cropped area, rice 21 per cent., and wheat 22 per cent.
The cultivated area has decreased by about 70 square miles since 1894.
There are 224 irrigation tanks, by which about 3,000 acres are pro¬
tected. About 165 square miles are covered with forest, the principal
species being teak, bljdsdl {^Pteroca^pus Ma 7 -sup{uiii)^ and bamboos.
Brass vessels and wooden furniture are made at Khairagarh town, and
carpets of a good quality are produced in the jail. The rolling of
native cigarettes gives employment to a considerable number of per¬
sons. The Bengal-Nagpur Railway passes through the south of the

KHAIRAGARH TAJ/SlL

209

State, with the stations of Bortalao, Dongargarh, and Musra within its
limits. About 63 miles of embanked and 57 miles of unembanked
roads have been constructed, the most important being those from
Dongargarh through Khairagarh to Kawardha, and from Khairagarh
to Raj-Nandgaon. Exports of produce are taken to Raj-Nandgaon
and Dongargarh railway stations.

The total revenue of the State in 1904 was Rs. 3,03,000, Rs. 1,84,000
being realized from land revenue, Rs. 29,000 from forests, and Rs.
21,000 from excise. The incidence of land revenue is R. 0-10-5
occupied acre. A regular cadastral survey has been carried out, and
the method of assessment is that prescribed for British Districts. The
revenue is settled with the headmen of villages, who are allowed
a commission of 20 or 30 per cent, of the ‘assets,’ but have no pro¬
prietary rights. The rents of the cultivators are also fixed at settle¬
ment. The expenditure in 1904 was Rs. 3,18,000, the principal items
being Government tribute (Rs. 70,000), private expenses of the ruling
family (Rs. 90,000), general administration (Rs. 21,000), public works
(Rs. 20,000), education (Rs. 9,000), and medical relief (Rs. 4,000).
Some arrears of tribute and Government loans were also repaid in that
year. In respect of tribute Khairagarh was treated by the Marathas as
an ordinary estate, and the revenue was periodically raised on a scrutiny
of the ‘assets.’ It is now fixed by Government for a term of years.
During the twelve years ending 1905 nearly 3-84 lakhs has been
expended on the improvement of communications and the erection
of public buildings. The State maintains 26 schools, including a high
school at Khairagarh, middle schools at Khairagarh, Dongargarh, and
Khamaria, and a girls’ school at Dongargarh, with a total of 1,931
pupils. At the Census of 1901 the number of persons returned as able
to read and write was 2,064, the proportion of male literates being 2-9
per cent, of the population. Dispensaries are maintained at Khairagarh
town and Dongargarh, in which 12,000 persons were treated in 1904.

Khairagarh Tahsil.—South-western fa/isj/ of Agra District, United
Provinces, conterminous with the parga;ia of the same name, lying
between 26° 45' and 27° 4' N. and 77° 26' and 78° 7' E., with an area
of 309 square miles. Population increased from 123,893 in 1891 to
127,692 in 1901. There are 155 \illages and one town, Jagnair
(population, 4,051). Khairagarh, the fa/isJ/ head-quarters, is a small
village. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 2,85.000,
and for cesses Rs. 35,000. The density of population, 413 persons
per square mile, is much below the District average. The fa/ist/ is
divided into two portions by the Utangan. The tract south-west of
that river is a spur of British territory almost surrounded by the Native
States of Bharatpur and Dholpur, with a range of the Vindhyas along
the northern boundary and isolated hills scattered farther south.

210

KHAIRAGARH TAHSIL

These hills are of red sandstone, which is valuable for building
purposes. Near the hills the soil is sandy, but after passing a tract
of infertile clay a richer soil is reached. East of the Utangan the
ordinary loam is found, stretching up to the Kharl NadT, which forms
the eastern boundary of the iahsll and is bordered by deep and
precipitous ravines. There is no canal-irrigation, and in 1903-4 the
irrigated area was only 34 square miles out of 206 under cultivation.
Wells are the sole source of supply, but owing to the faulty substrata
they cannot be made in many places.

Khairi-Murat.—Mountain range in the Fatahjang iahstl of Attock
District, Punjab, midway between the Sohan river and the Kala-Chitta
range. It rises about 30 miles from the Indus, and runs eastward for
about 24 miles, a barren ridge of limestone and sandstone rock,
extending from 72° 37' to 72° 56^ E. and from 33° 25' to 33° 30' N.
North of the range lies a plateau intersected by ravines; while south¬
ward a waste of gorges and hillocks extends in a belt for a distance of
5 miles, till it dips into the fertile valley of the Sohan, one of the
richest tracts in Rawalpindi District. The Khairi-Murat was formerly
covered with jungle; but it is now completely destitute of vegetation,
except where the hill has been formed into a ‘reserved’ forest and
closed to grazing. In these parts the trees are rapidly springing up
again. The hills run nearly parallel to the Kala-Chitta, about 10 miles
to the south. The formation is chiefly limestone, edged with sandstone
and earthy rocks whose vertical and contorted strata indicate intense
disturbance. The southern portion of the range is extremely dreary,
being formed of rocky ravines and stony hillocks, gradually sinking
into the fertile valley of the Sohan.

Khairpur State.—State in Sind, Bombay, lying between 26° 10'
and 27° 46' N. and between 68° 20' and 70° 14' E., with an area of
6,050 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Sukkur District; on
the east by Jaisalmer State in Rajputana; on the south by Hyderabad
and Thar and Parkar Districts ; and on the west by the river Indus.
Its greatest length from east to west is about 120 miles, and its breadth
from north to south about 70 miles.

Like other parts of Sind, Khairpur consists of a great alluvial plain,
the part bordering directly upon the Indus being very rich and fertile,
though much of it is used as moharis or hunting-
grounds. AVith the exception of the fertile strip
watered by the Indus and its canals, and of a
narrow strip irrigated by the Eastern Nara, the remainder or three-
fourths of the whole area is a continuous series of sandhill ridges
covered with a stunted brushwood, where cultivation is altogether
impossible. The country generally is exceedingly arid, sterile, and
desolate in aspect. In the northern portion of the State is a small

Physical

aspects.

KHAIR PUR STATE

21 I

ridge of limestone hills, being a continuation of the low range known
as the Ghar, which runs southward from Rohri for a distance of
about 40 miles. On a western outlying spur of this ridge is situated
the fort of Diji.

The State of Khairpur is mostly occupied by Indus alluvium and
desert formations. The Kirthar limestone (middle eocene) forms a
range of hills in the north-eastern portion, between the Mir Wah and
the Nara river. On the top of the range are found oyster, cockle,
and numerous other kinds of marine shells.

The trees and shrubs are identical with those found in Sukkur
District, and good timber is to be met with in different game preserves
bordering on the Indus. The ka7idi-\.x^^ grows luxuriantly in the
valleys, and the tali is largely grown by cultivators.

The wild animals found in Khairpur include the hyena, wolf, jackal,
fox, wild hog, deer, gazelle, and antelope. The birds and water-fowl
are those common to Sind generally, such as bustard, wild geese, snipe,
partridges (both black and grey), and various kinds of wild duck (which
arrive in the cold season). Snakes abound, as in other parts of Sind.

The climate of Khairpur is agreeable during four months of the year,
when the minimum temperature falls to 40°, but is fiercely hot during
the remaining eight, when the maximum rises to 113°. The rainfall is
slight, but dust-storms are frequent and have the effect of cooling the
atmosphere to some extent.

The present chief of Khairpur belongs to a Baloch family called
Talpur; and, previous to the accession of this family, on the fall of the
Kalhora dynasty of Sind in 1783, the history of History
Khairpur belongs to the general history of Skxd.

In that year Mir Fateh All Khan Talpur established himself as Rais
or ruler of Sind ; and subsequently his nephew, Mir Sohrab Khan
Talpur, founded the Khairpur branch of the Talpur family. The
dominions of MTr Sohrab Khan were at first confined to the town
of Khairpur and a small adjacent tract of country; but by conquest
and intrigue he managed to enlarge them, until they extended to
Sabzalkot and Kashmor on the north, to the Jaisalmer desert on the
east, and to the borders of Cutch Gandava on the west. About
the year 1813, during the troubles in Kabul incidental to the estab¬
lishment of the Barakzai dynasty, the Mirs were able to withhold the
tribute which up to that date had been somewhat irregularly paid
to the rulers of Afghanistan. Two years earlier, in 1811, Mir Sohrab
had abdicated in favour of his son Mir Rustam. But he appears to
have endeavoured to modify this arrangement subsequently ; and
ultimately the jealousy between the two brothers, Mir Rustam and
All Murad, was one of the factors in the crisis that caused the inter¬
vention of the British power.

212

KHATRPUR STATE

In 1832 the individuality of the Khairpur State, as separate from the
other Talpiir Mlrs in Sind, was recognized by the British Government
in a treaty, under which the use of the river Indus and the roads of
Sind were secured to the British. When the first Kabul expedition
was decided on, the Sind Mirs were required to assist the passage of
the British through their territories, and allow of the occupation of
Shikarpur. Most of the princes showed great disinclination to comply
with these demands. But in Khairpur, All Murad, who gradually
succeeded in establishing his hold on the raisaf^ or chiefship, cordially
supported the British policy; and the result was that, after the battles
of Miani and Daba had put the whole of Sind at the disposal of
the British Government, Khairpur was the only State that was allowed
to retain its political existence under the protection of the paramount
power. In 1866 a sauad was granted to the Mir, under which the
British Government promised to recognize any succession to the chief-
ship that might be in accordance with Muhammadan law. Mir AlT
Murad died in 1894, and was succeeded by his son Mir Faiz
Muhammad Khan, who is entitled to a personal salute of 17 guns.
The ordinary salute is 15 guns.

The State contains one town and 153 villages. The population
was: (1872) 126,962, (1881) 125,919, (1891) 128,611, and (1901)

Population. ^ 99 , 313 - The density is 33 persons per square
mile. Distributed by religion, there are 36,000
Hindus and 163,000 Muhammadans. The Hindus are almost entirely
Lohnnas (33,000), traders and clerks. Among the Muhammadans
of foreign extraction, Arabs number 12,000 ; Baluchis, chiefly of the
Kind, Burdi, Chandia, Dombki, Jatoi, and Marri tribes, 24,000;
Jats, 4,000 ; and the fishermen or Mohanos, 5,700. Sindls include
T2,000 Sumras, 58,000 Sammas, and 41,000 returned as Sindls un-
specified. Agriculture supports 69 per cent, of the total population.
About 95 per cent, of the Muhammadan males and about one-fourth
of the Hindus follow agricultural pursuits. The rest are engaged in
trade and other callings. Sindl, Persian, Siraiki, and Baluchi are
the languages chiefly spoken.

The soil of Khairpur, especially in the strip adjoining the Indus,
is very productive. The tract lying between the Mir Wah Canal
and the Indus is the richest part of the State; but
cultivation even there is by no means so extensive
as it might be, though of late years the area under tillage has
greatly increased. The area of cultivable land in 1903-4 was 1,550
square miles, and fallow lands covered 1,226 square miles. The
principal crops are jowdr^ bdjra^ wheat, gram, various pulses, and
cotton. Indigo is also cultivated, but the area is decreasing. The
fruit trees are the mango, mulberry, apple, pomegranate, date, &c.

Agriculture.

TRADE AND COMMUNICATIONS

213

Recently cultivation has been greatly extended, owing to the con¬
struction of new canals and the improvement of old ones. Advances
are made to agriculturists, free of interest.

The domestic animals comprise the camel, horse, buffalo, bullock,
sheep, donkey, and mule. The State maintains both horse and donkey
stallions for breeding purposes.

Cultivation is dependent on irrigation from the Indus river by
canals. The largest and most important of these is the Mir Wah, ex¬
cavated by Mir Sohrab, with its feeder the Sathio Wah. The latter,
with the Abdul Wah, was excavated in the time of Mir Ali iMurad.
Under the rule of the present Mir a canal department has been
formed and the following important branch canals excavated: Faiz
• Wah, Faiz Bakhsh, Faiz Ganj, Faiz Bahar, and Faiz Manj. The
Sathio has been improved, so as to ensure a supply at all seasons.
Forced labour in the clearance of canals is now entirely abolished.
The Eastern Nara flows through the desert along an abandoned
course of the river, and there is a small area of cultivation along
it. The area irrigated by the State canals in 1903-4 was 246 square
miles. About 20 square miles of land were supplied from wells
and tanks in the same year.

The State possesses 331 square miles of forests, of which 200
square miles are reserved for game by the Mir. They are in charge
of a Forest officer, appointed by the State, and a small staff. The
forest trees are the /J//, hahati^ babul^ and kandi. The bush jungle
consists principally of tamarisk; reed grasses are abundant. The
game preserves bordering on the Indus supply good timber. The
valleys produce fair kandi wood. In 1903-4 the revenue from
forests amounted to Rs. 26,000.

In the desert portion of Khairpur are pits of natron—an impure
sesquicarbonate of sodium, always containing sulphate and chloride
of sodium. It is generally obtained by means of evaporation. The
natron pits are a source of income to the Mir, yielding about
Rs. 25,000.

The manufactures comprise cotton fabrics, such as woven sheets
and coloured cloth, silk fabrics, silver-ware of different kinds, lacquered
woodwork, boots, shoes, horse-trappings, swords,
matchlocks, and earthen pottery for local use. com^mSca”«ons.
Gambat is noted for bed-sheets called khais, and
Khairpur for cloth-dyeing. Khairpur town possesses one carpet
factory, attached to an industrial school.

The trade of the State resembles that of the adjoining British towns
and villages—the chief exports being cotton, wool, grain, indigo,
hand-made cloth, hides, tobacco, &:c. I'he only product which is
peculiar to Khairpur and is not common to the surrounding British

214

KHAIRPUR STATE

territory—the Thar and Parkar District excepted—is carbonate of
soda, which is chiefly bought by Bombay merchants. The value
of the articles annually exported from Khairpur to British Sind and
the Native State of Jaisalmer has been approximately estimated at
about 6 lakhs, and that of the imported articles at somewhat more
than 6 lakhs. Of the annual fairs, that of Ranipur, 45 miles from
Rohri, is the most important.

The railway from Hyderabad to Rohri runs through the whole length
of the State. In addition to the main trunk road between the same
towns, which passes through Khairpur at a distance of about 20 miles
from the Indus, and another road connecting them by a somewhat
more direct route, there are several roads connecting taluka head-quar¬
ters with Khairpur town and Kot Diji. Ten post offices are maintained
in the State. There are six ferries, chiefly on the Indus.

The rule of the Mir is patriarchal, but many changes have been
made introducing greater regularity of procedure into the adminis-

. . ... tration. The State is divided into five tdlnkas.

each under a miikhiia?'kar. 1 hese are : Khairpur
and Gambat (forming the Khairpur subdivision), I\Iir Wah, Faiz
Ganj, and Naro (forming the Mir Wah subdivision). Each sub¬
division is under a 7 miRwazir, The Wazir, an officer lent from British
service, conducts the administration under the Mir. The Collector
of Sukkur is ex-officio Political Agent for the State. The Mir himself
exercises the powers of a High Court, but cannot try British subjects
for capital offences without the Political Agent’s permission. The
Wazir is District Magistrate and District and Sessions Judge. The
naib-wazirs are subdivisional magistrates and first-class sub-judges,
and criminal and civil powers are also exercised by the mukhtidrkdrs^

as well as by two near relatives of the chief. The Indian Penal
Code and the Criminal Procedure Code have been adopted. There
is also a Court of Elders on the lines of the British Frontier Tribes
Act. Steps have recently been taken to remedy the indebtedness of
the agriculturists by the introduction of a Relief Act. Civil cases
are largely decided by arbitrators, but a more fixed procedure is being
introduced. In 1903-4, 765 offences were reported to the police,
mostly grievous hurt and thefts of cattle and property.

The revenue is collected almost entirely in kind according to the
primitive batai system, the Mir receiving a third of the produce of
the land, which yields on an average Rs. 58 per acre of cultivation.
The gross revenue, which amounted in 1882-3 5-7 lakhs, had

increased by 1902-3 to 13 lakhs. In 1903-4 the gross receipts
amounted to only 8*3 lakhs, the decrease being due to large stocks
of grain remaining unsold, untimely rain, and the presence of locusts.
Of the total receipts, which average about 13 lakhs, about Rs. 1,85,000

KHAIRPUR TOWX

215

represents the share of jagirddrs and other alienees. The former are
chiefly the ]\lir’s sons and the ladies of his family. The gross receipts
in 1903-4 included land revenue 6 lakhs, excise about Rs. 90,000,
miscellaneous taxes Rs. 58,000, and forests Rs. 26,000. The land
revenue amounts on the average to 10 lakhs a year; but as it is chiefly
paid in kind, considerable fluctuations occur in accordance with the
character of the harvest. The total expenditure in 1903-4 was ii-6
lakhs, of which more than 2 lakhs was spent on public works, such
as canals, buildings, roads, bridges, wells, and tanks. Until the end of
1902 coins of local issue were current in the State, but they have now
been replaced by the British silver currency. No tribute is payable
by the Mir.

No salt is manufactured, the British Go^'ernlnent supplying it at
a reduced rate. Poppy is cultivated sufficient to meet the demand for
local consumption. Liquor is manufactured, but may not be taken
into British territory.

The military force consists of 377 men, of whom 163 are mounted.
The total strength of the police, including officers, in 1903-4 was 220,
and a preventive service to check opium smuggling from Jaisahner
State has recently been organized. The Central jail is situated at
Kot Diji, and a sub-jail at Khairpur. The daily jail population in
1903-4 averaged 214.

Though recent years have shown some progress, Khairpur is very
backward in education. In 1881 there were 6 schools in the State,
with an attendance of 2,387 pupils. In 1903-4 the number of schools
was 95, attended by 4,586 pupils, of whom 387 were girls. Of the
total number of pupils, 4,242 were in primary, 83 in secondary schools,
and the remainder in an industrial school. Persian is taught by miillds^
who receive one pice weekly from the parents of each child. At the
industrial school, carpentry, smith-craft, embroidery, turnery, carpet¬
making, and tailoring are taught.

The State possesses 3 hospitals and 3 dispensaries. In 1903-4 the
number of cases treated was 160,640, of whom 1,292 were in-patients;
and the expenditure was Rs. 19,678. About 6,200 persons were vacci¬
nated in the same year.

[A. M. Hughes, Sind Gazetteer (1876); E. A. Langley, Narrative
of a Residence at the Court of Mir All Murdd^ 2 vols. (i860);
C. M. Aitchison, Treaties^ Engagements, and Sanadsi]

Khairpur Town (i).—Capital of the State of Khairpur, Sind,
Bombay, situated in 27° 31' N, and 68° 48' E., on the Mir Wah canal,
about 15 miles east of the Indus, and 17 miles south of Rohri.
The nearest railway station on the Kotri-Rohri section of the North-
Western Railway is Khairpur Mir, situated about 2 miles to the south¬
east of the town. Population (1901), 14,014, mainly Musalmans. The

KHAIRPUR TOWN

216

town, which is irregularly built, consists of a collection of mud hovels,
intermingled with a few houses of a better class. The palace is seldom
used by the ruler, who lives at Kot Diji, but there is a handsome guest¬
house. Outside the town stand the tombs of three ^luhammadan
saints—Pir Ruhan, Zia-ud-din, and Haji Jafar Shahid. The town
contains two hospitals, one of which is for women.

During the flourishing period of the Talpur dynasty, Khairpur is said
to have possessed not less than 15,000 inhabitants, but the place has
decreased in importance since the conquest of Sind. The manufactures
comprise the weaving and dyeing of cloths of various kinds, goldsmith’s
work, and the making of firearms, swords, <^c. A carpet factory has
recently been opened, the workers being under instruction by a teacher
brought from the Punjab. The trade is principally in indigo, grain,
and oilseeds, which form the chief articles of export; the imports are
piece-goods, silk, cotton, wool, metals, «J^c. On the present site of the
town, which owes its rise to Mir Sohrab Khan TMpur, there stood,
prior to the year 1787, the village of Boira and the zamlnddri or
estate of the Phulpotras. It was selected as the residence of the chief
Mirs of Northern Sind \ and for some time during Talpur rule a
British Resident was stationed here, in terms of the treaty of April 20,
1838, concluded between the British Government and the ]vlirs of Sind.

[E. A. Langley, Narrative of a Residence at the Court of Mir All
J/urad, 2 vols. (i860).]

Khairpur Tahsil.— Tahsil in the ]\Iinchinabad nizdmat^ Bahawalpur
State, Punjab, lying on the left bank of the Sutlej, between 28° 49'
and 30° N. and 72° 7' and 73° 18' E., with an area of 2,300 square
miles. The population in 1901 was 81,871, compared with 74,732 in
1891. It contains the towns of Khairpur (population, 5,013), the
head-quarters, and Hasilpur, which was created a municipality in 1902 ;
and 199 N'illages. The Hakra depression passes through the southern
portion of the tahsil^ the remainder of which is divided between the
central uplands and the riverain tract along the Sutlej. The land
revenue and cesses in 1905-6 amounted to 2-2 lakhs.

Khairpur Town (2).—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name
in Bahawalpur State, Punjab, situated in 29° 35' N. and 72° 18' E.,
38 miles north-east of Bahawalpur town on the Southern Punjab Rail¬
way. Population (1901), 5,013. It is a decaying town, as the sand
from the desert of Cholistan has for years been encroaching on it, but
contains a school and a dispensary. The municipality had an income
in 1903-4 of Rs. 6,200, chiefly from octroi.

Khairpur (3).—Town in the Allpur tahsil of Muzaffargarh District,
Punjab, situated in 29® 20' N. and 70^ 49' E., 57 miles south of
Muzaffargarh town, close to the junction of the Indus and Chenab.
Population (1901), 2,257. It was founded early in the nineteenth

khajrAho

2 I 7

century by Khair Shah, a Bukhari Saiyid, from whom it takes its name.
The town lies low, and is protected from inundation by an embank¬
ment built at considerable cost and 5 miles in circumference. The
municipality was created in 1873. income during the ten years

ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 3,100, and the expenditure Rs. 3,300.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 2,300, chiefly from octroi ] and the
expenditure was Rs. 2,800. The inhabitants are enterprising traders,
and their trade with Sukkur (Sind), ]\lultan, and other places at a dis¬
tance is larger than that of any other town in the District. The exports
consist jirincipally of wool, cotton, and grain; the imports, of cloth
and sundries.

Khajraho.—Village in Chhatarpur State, Central India, famous
for its magnificent collection of mediaeval temples, and situated in
24° 51' N. and 79° 56' E., 25 miles from the town of Chhatarpur.
Population (1901), 1,242.

The old name as given in inscriptions was Khajjuravahaka. By the
bard Chand it is called Khajurapura or Khajjinpura. Tradition ascribes
the origin of the name to two golden (date-palms) with

which the city gates were ornamented, but it was more probably due to
the prevalence of this tree in the neighbourhood. The place was in
early days of some importance, being the capital of the kingdom of
Jijhoti, which practically corresponded with modern Bundelkhand.

The earliest supposed reference to Khajraho is in the account of the
travels of Hiuen Tsiang, who visited the country of Chi-ki-to, which
has been identified with Jijhoti. The Chinese pilgrim does not men¬
tion any chief town by name, but notes that there were in the country
a number of sa?ighdrdmas (monasteries) with but few priests, and also
about ten temples.

There are no Buddhist remains on the spot, except a colossal Buddha
inscribed with the usual creed in characters of the seventh or eighth
century. Abu Rihan, who accompanied ISlahmud of Ghazni in his
campaign against Kalinjar in 1021, notices ‘ Kajuraha ’ as the capital
of Jijhoti. Ibn Batuta, who visited the place about 1335, calls it
‘ Kajura,’ and describes the lake, about a mile long, round which there
were idol temples frequented by a tribe of jogis^ with long and matted
hair, to whom even Muhammadans resorted in order to learn magic.
The place must, therefore, at this time have still been in the possession
of the Hindus, and important as a religious centre. It seems probable
that the partial demolition of its temples and consequent loss of impor¬
tance dates from 1494-5, when Sikandar Lodi, after his expedition into
Panna and Baghelkhand, retreated through this region and sacked the
country as far as Banda.

Its present importance lies solely in its magnificent series of temples,
which, with two exceptions, were all built between 950 and 1050.

2iS KHAJRAHO

The epigraphical records contained in them are of great historical
value.

The temples fall into three main groups : the western, northern, and
south-eastern, each group containing a principal shrine or cathedral and
several smaller temples. The western group consists entirely of Brah-
manical temples, both Saiva and Vaishnava. The northern group
contains one large and some small temples, all Vaishnava, and several
heaps of ruins. The south-eastern group consists entirely of Jain
temples. All the temples, with the exception of the Chaunsat Jogim
and Ghantai, are constructed of sandstone, and are in the same style.
Even the Jain temples in the south-eastern group show none of the
peculiarities commonly found in the temples of this religion, and
externally they are similar in appearance to the Hindu edifices. The
spire is here of more importance than the porch, there are no court¬
yards with circumambient cells, and no prominent domes.

The oldest temple in the western group is that known as the Chaun¬
sat Jogini. All that now remains is a celled courtyard, the cells being
of very simple design. Fergusson was of opinion that there had
originally been a central shrine of wood which has disappeared.
Unlike the other temples, this is built entirely of gneiss. It is
assigned to the end of the eighth or early part of the ninth century.
Of the remaining temples, the Kandarya Mahadeo is by far the finest.
Its construction is curious, as the sanctuary does not occupy the full
breadth of the building, a passage being left round the sanctuary for
the circumambulation of the image, and the outer wall iderced by
three porticoes to admit light to the passage. This gives the temple
the unusual form of a double instead of a single cross. The carving
is exceedingly rich and covers every available inch of space, but many
of the figures are highly indecent, not a usual defect in Saiva temples,
d'he other large temple in this group is the Ramachandra or Laksh-
manji, dedicated to Vishnu, which in plan and decoration is similar to
the Kandarya Mahadeo. It contains an inscription of the Chandel
dynasty, dated in 954. The Vishvanath temple, also in this group,
contains Chandel inscriptions of 1001 and 1117, and one of a
feudatory, dated 1000.

The northern group includes one large temple dedicated to the
Vamana or dwarf incarnation of Vishnu. It is, however, very inferior
in decoration to the best in the western group, and the remaining
temples in this group are small. The heaps of ruins or mounds in this
portion, which General Cunningham considered to be the remains of
the sanghdrdinas mentioned by Hiuen Tsiang, are situated near the
large temple.

The south-eastern group contains Jain remains only. The oldest
temple in this group is the Ghantai, now a mere skeleton, consisting of

KHAJUHA TOWN

219

a set of exquisitely delicate pillars still bearing the architraves. The
pillars are of sandstone, but the walls were of gneiss and quite plain.
The remains of this temple, which is assigned to the sixth or seventh
century, are very similar to those at Gyaraspur. The cathedral
of this group is the temple to Jinanath. Its design is unusual, consist¬
ing of a simple oblong with an open pillared vestibule and sanctuary,
and the interior decoration is very fine. A Chandel inscription of
954 exists in it.

On the Kurar Nala, not far from the village of Khajraho, stands the
magnificent temple known as the Kunwar Nath, which, though inferior
in size to some of those in the three groups, is quite equal to them in
design and the profuseness of its decoration. At the village of Jatkari,
miles away, stands another temple which is traditionally said to have
been built by Suja, sister of the famous Banaphar hero, Alha, who
figures so prominently in popular traditions of the wars between the
Chandels and Frithwl Raj of Delhi.

[A. Cunningham, Archaeological Survey Reports^ vol. ii, p. 412 ;
vol. vii, p. 5 ; vol. x, p. 16 ; vol. xxi, p. 55 ; Epigraphia Lidica, vol. i,
p. 121 ; Archaeological Survey of Western India P 7 ' 0 gress Report to
Juney 1904.]

Khajuha Tahsil.—Western tahsil of Fatehpur District, United
Provinces, comprising the fargaiias of BindkT, Kora, Kutia Giinlr, and
Tappa Jar, and lying between 25° 51' and 26° iCl N. and 80° 14^ and
80° 47' E., with an area of 504 square miles. Population fell from
206,711 in 1891 to 199,223 in 1901, the rate of decrease being the
highest in the District. There are 385 villages and three towns, the
largest being Bindki (population, 7,782). Khajuha, the tahsil head¬
quarters, has a population of 2,944. The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was Rs. 4,42,000, and for cesses Rs. 71,000. The density of
population, 395 persons per square mile, is below the District average.
The tahsil extends from the Jumna to the Ganges, and is crossed by
the Rind. A considerable area is covered by the ravines of the Jumna
and Rind, which are absolutely waste, though they provide grazing for
herds of cattle. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 276 square
miles, of which 83 were irrigated. The Fatehpur branch of the Lower
Ganges Canal at present serves about one-third of the irrigated area, but
is likely to take a larger share. Wells supply most of the remainder.

Khajuha Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Fatehpur District, United Provinces, situated in 26° 3' N. and 80° 32^
E., on the old Mughal road from Agra to Allahabad, 21 miles west of
Fatehpur town. Population (1901), 2,944. A town was founded in
the village of Khajuha by Aurangzeb to commemorate his victory over
Shuja in 1659, and was called Aurangabad, but the old name has sur¬
vived the new. The sa/'ai and luh^adarl, built at the same time, are

VOL. XV.

220

KHAJUHA TOWN

fine buildings which have been restored. In 1712 Farrukhsiyar de¬
feated his cousin, Azz-ud-din, near here, and proceeded on his victorious
inarch to Delhi. The town is administered under Act XX of 1856,
with an income of about Rs. 600. The trade of the place has largely
been diverted to Bindkl; but brass vessels are still made in some quan¬
tities, and the playing-cards made here have some reputation. There
is a school with 50 pupils.

Khajuri. — Thakurai in the Bhopal Agenxy, Central India.

Khalilabad.—South-eastern iahsil of Bast! District, United Pro¬
vinces, comprising the parganas of Maghar (East) and Mahull (East),
and lying between 26° 25' and 27® 5' N. and 82° 50' and 83° 13' E.,
with an area of 564 square miles. Population increased from 380,486
in 1891 to 394,675 in 190T. There are 1,388 villages and only one
town, Mehndawal (population, io,r43). The demand for land
revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 3,75,000, and for cesses Rs. 70,000. The
density of population, 700 persons per square mile, is above the District
average. The tahsil lies entirely in the fertile upland tract which ex¬
tends northwards from the Gogra. It is crossed by the Kuwana, Ami,
and several smaller streams. The area under cultivation in 1903-4 was
394 square miles, of which 234 were irrigated. Tanks and swamps
supply more than half the irrigated area, and wells about one-third.

Khambhaliya.—Fortified town in the State of Navanagar, Kathi¬
awar, Bombay, situated in 22° 12' N. and 69^^ 50' E., at the confluence
of two small streams, the Teli and Ghi, flowing into the Salaya creek,
about 10 miles east of the port of Salaya. Population (1901), 9,182.
After Navanagar, it is the most important town in the State. It was
formerly a possession of the Vadhels, from whom it was conquered by
Jam Rawal, and was the residence of the Jam or chief until the death
of the emperor Aurangzeb. It contains several old temples. The iron-
smiths of the town are renowned for their skill, and the gunsmiths are
capable of making breech-loading firearms. A tax is levied on all pil¬
grims passing through to Dwarka and Pindtarak, a seaport under
Khambhaliya which contains a celebrated shrine. It is said that the
remains of several ancient temples, now covered by the sea, are visible
at extremely low tides. Khambhaliya is the head-quarters of a viahCtl
or revenue division of the Navanagar State.

Khambhtav.—Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Khamgaon Subdivision.—Subdivision of Buldana District, Berar,
consisting of the ialuks of Jalgaox and Khamg.von.

Khamgaon Taluk.— Taluk of Buldana District, Berar, lying
between 20^ 26' and 20® 55' N. and 76° 32' and 76^ 48' E., with an
area of 443 square miles. The population rose from 99,785 in 1891 to
102,948 in 1901, the density in the latter year being 232 persons per
square mile. The taluk contains 134 villages and two towns, Kham-

KHAMTI HILLS

221

GAON (population, 18,341), the head-quarters, and Shegaon (15,057).
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 3,04,000, and for
cesses Rs. 23,000. The Khamgaon State Railway, connecting Kham-
gaon with Jalam on the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, lies within the
tdluk^ which is bounded on the east by the Mun river and on the north
by the Puma. The taluk formerly belonged to Akola District, and
was transferred to Buldana in 1905.

Khamgaon Town.—Head-quarters of the subdivision and taluk of
the same name in Buldana District, Berar, situated in 20° 43' N. and
76° 38' E. Population (1901), 18,341. Khamgaon was the largest
cotton market in Berar before AmraotT outstripped it. Its cotton trade
dates from about the year 1820, when a few merchants opened shops
and began to trade in ghi^ raw thread, and a little cotton; and it now
has several cotton-presses and ginning factories. A state railway,
8 miles in length, connects the town with the Nagpur branch of the
Great Indian Peninsula Railway at Jalam station. The weekly market
is held on Thursdays, and during the busy season it is very largely
attended. The town has also a special cotton market. The munici¬
pality was created in 1867. The receipts and expenditure during the
ten years ending 1901 averaged Rs. 35,000 and Rs. 39,000. In
1903-4 the income was Rs. 34,000, derived chiefly from taxes and
cesses; and the expenditure was Rs. 25,000, the principal heads being
conservancy and education. The town is supplied with water from
a tank about t| miles distant, and several gardens produce good oranges
and vegetables.

Khammamett.—Southern taluk of Warangal District, Hyderabad
State, with an area of 990 square miles. The population in 1901, in¬
cluding was 154,540, compared with 154,159 The

tdliik contains 195 villages, of which 13 are jd^r, and Khammamett
(population, 3,001) is the head-quarters. The land revenue in 1901
was 4*6 lakhs. Rice is largely grown and irrigated from tanks and
wells. The Nizam’s Guaranteed State Railway runs through the tdluk
from north to south.

Khamti Hills.—A hilly country on the frontier of Assam, lying at
the eastern end of the Brahmaputra Valley and inhabited by the Khani-
tis, a tribe of Shan origin, who are said to have migrated northwards to
the hills near the upper waters of the Irrawaddy and Mekong when
Mogaung was conquered by the Burmese king, Alaungpaya, about
the middle of the eighteenth century. A section of the tribe moved
on into Assam and settled near Sadiya, and their leader succeeded
in establishing his position as the feudal chief of the surrounding
country. He was recognized by the British when they took over the
territories of the Ahom prince; but his son declined to abide by the
decisions of the local British officer, and was deprived of his office and

2 2 2

KHAMTI HILLS

dignities. The Khamtis then rose, raided the settlement at Sadiya,
and killed the commanding officer, Colonel White, in 1839. The rising
was, however, quickly suppressed, and no trouble has since been given
by the tribe.

Bor Khamti, the principal stronghold of this people, consists of the
valley of the Namkiu (the western branch of the Irrawaddy) with the
surrounding hills. It can be reached via the Patkai and the Ilukawng
valley, or by a route running south-east from .Sadiya up the valley of the
Diyun, over the Chaukan pass, which is 8,400 feet above the level of
the sea. The distance from Sadiya to Putau, the principal Bor Khamti
village, is 197 miles. After Bishi the path is very difficult in places,
running through dense forests where there are no villages and no means
of obtaining supplies. Oaks, rhododendrons, and beeches grow freely
on the hills, and large game, such as elephants and rhinoceros, are
common. Putau is situated in a valley, shut in on eveiy side except the
south by hills, which in the winter are crowned with snow. The valley
is about 25 miles long by 15 broad, and is about 1,500 feet above sea-
level. The villages are surrounded with a palisade about 12 feet high,
made of split trees interlaced with bamboo. The houses are large, com¬
modious structures built on piles, and the audience chamber in the
Raja’s house is 50 feet in length by 40 wide. Rice is the staple crop
grown in the valley, but pulse and poppy are also cultivated, the Kham¬
tis being much addicted to the use of opium. The people are much
more civilized than most of the hill tribes on the north-east frontier,
and near Putau there is a brick-built temple 95 feet high with a gilded
cupola. Some of the images of Buddha in this temple are of consider¬
able artistic merit. The Khamtis seem to stand in some awe of the
Singphos, who adjoin them on the west, and also of the Khakus, said to
be of the same race as the Singphos, who occupy the hills on the east.
Little is known about the geology of the tract, but pyrite, calcho-pyrite,
and galena have been found.

[An account of the Khamtis will be found in Colonel Dalton’s
EtJmoIogy of BeiigalI\

Khana.—Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Burdwan Dis¬
trict, Bengal, situated in 23° 20' N. and 87° 46'E. Population (1901),
1,600. Khana is an important junction on the East Indian Railway,
where the chord-line branches off from the loop-line.

Khanakul.—Village in the Arambagh subdivision of Hoogbly Dis¬
trict, Bengal, situated in 22® 43' N. and 87® 52^ E., on the west bank
of the Kana Nadi. Population (1901), 886. There is some trade, in
brass-ware, and cotton fabrics of a superior quality are manufactured
in the neighbourhood. Vegetables are extensively grown for the
Calcutta market. A large temple to Siva stands on the river bank.

Khanapur Taluka (i). — Southernmost taluha of Belgaum District,

khandAla

223

Bombay, lying between 15° 22' and 15® 4Y X. and 74° 5' and 74® 44'
E., with an area of 633 square miles. It contains 217 villages, include
ing X^ANDGAD (population, 6,257). The population in 1901 was
81,902, compared with 85,596 in 1891. The density, 129 persons
per square mile, is much below the District average, and it is the most
sparsely peopled idliika in the District. The head-quarters are at
Khanapur. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was 1*45 lakhs,
and for cesses Rs. 11,000. In the south and south-west the country is
covered with hills and dense forest; the inhabitants are few' and
unsettled; and, except in patches, tillage disappears. In the north¬
west the hills are especially lofty. In the centre, north-east, and east,
the country is an open, well-tilled, black-soil plain, with many rich and
populous villages. The climate is temperate and healthy during the
hot months, but feverish in the cold season and during the south¬
west rains. The annual rainfall, averaging 71 inches, is heavier than
in other tdlukas.

Khanapur Taluka (2).— Tdluka of Satara District, Bombay, lying
between 17° 8"^ and 17*^ 2Y X^. and 74° 14'' and 74° 51' E., with an area
of 510 square miles. It contains 91 villages, including Khanapur
(population, 5,229) and Vita (5,035), the head-quarters. The population
in 1901 w'as 86,049, compared with 95,931 in 1891. The density, 169
persons per square mile, is much below the District average. The
demand for land revenue in 1903-4 w'as i*6 lakhs, and for cesses
Rs. 13,000. Khanapur is an upland, rising more than 200 feet above
the Karad valley on the w'est and the great plain of the Man on the
east. It is sparingly wooded, except near the feeders of the Yerla ri\ er,
which crosses the tdluka from north to south on its way to join the
Kistna. The climate is fairly temperate, save for occasional hot winds ;
but the rainfall, w’hich measures only 24 inches annually, is uncertain,
and water is often scarce in the hot season. The soil is either black or
grey murram with its intermediate varieties.

Khanapur Village.—Village in the tdluka of the same name
in Satara District, Bombay, situated in 17° 15' N. and 74° 43^^ E.,
about 10 miles east of Vita. Topulation (1901), 5,229. From its
proximity to the fort of Bhopalgarh it w’as probably in early times the
administrative head-quarters of the surrounding country. The town
has stone and mud walls, now^ much decayed, and gates at the north¬
west and cast flanked w'ith bastions. Within the village is an old
mosque, containing the tomb of a female saint, supposed to ha^•e been
the daughter of one of the Bijapur Sultans. The mosque contains two
inscriptions, in Arabic and Kanarese.

Khandala.—Sanitarium in the iMaval tdluka of Poona District,
Bombay, situated in 18° 46' N. and 73° 22' E., on the Western Ghats,
about 41 miles north-west of Poona city. It is a favourite retreat of

224

khandAla

the inhabitants of Bombay during the summer months. Population
(1901), 2,322. A much-admired waterfall, distant about half a mile,
consists in the rainy season of two cataracts, divided into an upper and
a lower fall. The upper cataract has a sheer fall of 300 feet. Khan-
dala owes its importance entirely to the Great Indian Peninsula
Railway, on which it is a station. The climate is temperate in the hot
season, owing to the cool sea-breezes. There are a hotel for Euro¬
peans, a convalescent home, and a dispensary. Khandala contains
4 schools with 175 boys and 65 girls, three of which are supported by
missions. One is a Roman Catholic Mission school, connected with
the St. Mary’s College in Bombay, the second is St. Peter’s Protestant
High School, and the third is maintained by the All Saints’ Community
of Bombay. Several bungalows have been built by native merchants of
Bombay, who resort hither during May and October. In the vicinity
are many fine views of the Ghat range, which runs north and south
in lines of great natural beauty. Khandala is a military sanitarium
in the Poona division of the Western Command.

Khandela.—Principal town of an estate of the same name in the
Torawati iiizdmat of the State of Jaipur, Rajputana, situated in 27® 37'
N. and 75® 30' E., about 55 miles north*by-north-west of Jaipur city.
Population (1901), 9,156. The town has a local reputation for its
lacquered articles and toys, and possesses a fort and three indigenous
schools attended by 155 pupils. The Khandela estate is held by two
Rajas, who pay a tribute of Rs. 72,550 to the Jaipur Darbar.

Khanderi (or Kenery).—Small island in the Alibag tdluka of
Kolaba District, Bombay, situated in 18° 42'N. and 72^49' E., near
the entrance of Bombay harbour, ii miles south of Bombay and
6 north-west of Alibag. It lies 2\ miles from the Kolaba mainland and
li miles from its sister island of Underi. Population (1901), 130.
The island is a mile and a half long by half a mile broad. A lighthouse,
which was built in 1867, stands on the highest part. It is an octagonal
masonry tower 78 feet high on the centre of a flat-roofed house, the
centre of the lantern being 1,581 feet above the level of high-water.
The light is a catadioptric of order i, and is a single light with groups
of flashes showing white with red sector. The period of revolution is
ten seconds, and it is visible for 18 miles. A flagstaff 200 feet high
stands north-east-by-north from the light tower.

In 1679 Sivaji, whom no advantage escaj^d, sent 300 soldiers and as
many labourers, with arms and materials, to Khanderi, and began to
raise breast-works at the landing-places. The island had never before
been inhabited, and its only produce was fuel, which had formerly been
sent to Bombay. When they heard of Sivaji’s works on Khanderi, the
English claimed it as part of Bombay, the Portuguese as an old settle¬
ment. Two attempts to turn out the Marathas failed ; and even after

KHAiYDESIf DISTRICT

225

a naval battle in which the British fleet of eight ships put to flight 50
sail, the English were not able to prevent the Marathas strengthening
their forces on Khanderi. The Sldi, as jMughal admiral, joined the Eng¬
lish with a strong fleet \ but the English commander found that the Sidi
did not mean to give up the island if he took it, and held aloof. The
Sidi continued to batter Khanderi and then suddenly fortified Underi.
Daulat Khan, Sivajfs admiral, tried to stop this, bringing guns on the
mainland opposite. But he was defeated and severely wounded, his
small open boats not being able to stand against the Sidi’s stronger and
larger vessels. For several years after this there were constant struggles
between the Sidi and the Marathas for the possession of these islands.
In 1693 Khafi Khan mentions ‘ Kalaba and Gandiri’ as the strongest
of Sivaji’s newly built forts on the sea-shore. In 1695 Gemelli Careri
calls them Underin and Canderin, two forts on the island and continent,
a rock with some dwellings of Sivaji, who was at war with the Great
Mughal and consequently in action against the Sidl. About 1706 Mr.
Strutt, Deputy-Governor of Bombay, described Khanderi as strongly
fortified by Angria and covered with houses. Khanderi was one of the
ten forts and sixteen fortified places of less strength which, in 1713,
Kanhoji Angria obtained on siding with Raja Sahu. In October, 1718,
the English tried to take Khanderi and failed. This failure is said to
have been due to the treachery of one Rama Kamati who held a con¬
fidential post under Governor Boone, while a year later a Portuguese
captain, who lay on one quarter of it with some war-vessels to hinder
relief coming to it, betrayed his trust, and let some boats pass in the
night with provisions and ammunition which the island greatly needed.
About 1740 it was settled between the English and the Sidi that, if
Khanderi was taken, it should be delivered with all its guns and stores
to the English. The cession of Khanderi to the English was again pro¬
posed in 1755. not actually ceded until 1775 under the terms

of the Treaty of Surat, and shortly after was taken back under the
Treaty of Purandhar. Khanderi was then held by the ^larathas till it
passed to the British in 1818 as part of the Peshwa’s dominions.

Khandesh Districts—District in the Central Division of the
Bombay Presidency, lying between 20° 16' and 22° 2' N. and 73® 35'
and 76° 24' E., with an area of 10,041 square miles. It is bounded on
the north by the Satpura Hills and the Narbada river; on the east by
Berar and the Nimar District of the Central Provinces; on the south
by the Satmala, Chandor, or Ajanta hills; on the south-west by the

^ In 1906 the District was divided into two new Districts called West and East
Khandesh, with head-quarters at Dhiilia and Jalgaon. The former contains 7 taliikas
and one petha, with an area of 5,497 square miles, a population of 469,654, and a land
revenue of I5‘7 lakhs. The latter contains 10 tdlukas and 3 pcihaSy with an area of
4,544 square miles, a population of 957,7-S, and a land revenue of ^7-4 lakhs.

226

KHAXDESH DISTRICT

Physical

aspects.

District of Nasik; and on the west by Baroda territory and the petty
State of Sagbara in the Rewa Kantha Agency.

Khandesh forms the most northerly section of the Deccan table-land.
The chief natural feature is the river Tapti, which, entering at the
north-east corner of the District, flows in a westerly
direction, dividing it into two unequal parts. Of
these, the larger lies towards the south, and is
drained by the rivers Girna, Bori, and Panjhra. Here is the long
central plain of Khandesh—an unbroken stretch of 150 miles, from
the border of Nimar to Nandurbar, comprising an extensive area of
rich alluvial soil. In this tract large and prosperous towns and villages,
surrounded by mango groves and gardens, are numerous. Except
when blasted by the hot winds of the dry season, the fields are clothed
with a harvest of various crops. Northwards beyond the alluvial plain
the land rises towards the Satpura Hills. In the centre and east, save
for some low ranges of barren hills, the country is level, and has in
general an arid, infertile appearance. Towards the north and west,
the plain rises into a difficult and rugged country, thickly wooded,
and inhabited by tribes of Bhlls, who chiefly live on the wild fruits
of the forest and are supported by the profits of wood-cutting. The
drainage of the District centres in the Tapti, which receives thirteen
principal tributaries in its winding course of 180 miles through Khan¬
desh. None of the rivers is navigable, and the Tapti flows in too
deep a bed to be made use of for irrigation. Its banks rise high
and bare at a distance of from 240 to 400 yards across. Except for two
waterfalls, one above and the other below the Bhusawal railway bridge,
the river rolls over long sandy stretches for forty miles till it meets the
waters of the Vaghar. During the rainy season the Tapti is not ford¬
able ; the only bridge across it is the railway bridge at Bhusawal. The
Narbada skirts the north-west corner of the District for 45 miles.
It occasionally serves to carry timber to the coast. Khandesh District
on the whole may be said to be fairly well supplied with surface water,
for, besides the rivers that flow during the whole year, the channels
of many of the smaller streams are seldom entirely without water.
The four principal mountain ranges are : in the north, the Satpura
Hills, dividing the valleys of the Tapti and the Narbada, including the
peak of Panchu-Pandu (3,000 feet) and plateau of Turanmal (3,300
feet), the starting-point of Khandesh history; in the south-east, the
Haiti; in the south, the Satmala, Chandor, or Ajanta range, sepa¬
rating Khandesh from the Deccan table-land, and, speaking roughly,
from the Nizam’s Dominions; on the west, between Khandesh and
Gujarat, is the northern extremity of the AVestern Ghats. The Arva
and Galna hills divide Khandesh from Nasik.

The geology of Khandesh has been examined only as far south

PHYSICAL ASPECTS

227

as the Tapti. The strip of varying breadth between the Tapti and
Satpura Hills is chiefly covered with alluvium. Basalt of the Deccan
trap group is the only other formation, composing the hills and showing
here and there in the deeper ravines. Basalt probably occurs in the
bed of the Tapti, as, in many places to the south, it rises at no great
distance from the stream; and though alluvium stretches north for
15 miles, rock appears near Bhusawal at the point where the railway
bridge crosses the Tapti. About 5 miles from Burhanpur, and about
a mile north-east of Chulkhan village, there is a singular patch of lime¬
stone, about 50 feet long. It shows no sign of crystallization and
appears to contain no fossils. At one end there is white sandy rock,
like decomposed gneiss, standing upright as if i)art of a vertical bed.
The presence of rounded grains points to its being sandstone 3 and
the whole rock is evidently part of an infra-trappean formation, either
Laineta or Bagh, brought up by a dike or included in a lava-flow. The
Deccan trap in the north of Khandesh shows signs of disturbance sub¬
sequent to its original formation. The beds are in some places hori¬
zontal, as in the Aner valley and near Daulet, north of Chopda, and
also westward as far as the Bombay-Agra road, where, on the top
of the ascent to Sindwa, the beds stretch in horizontal terraces. The
traps of Turanmal are nearly horizontal, but in the low rises from
Burhanpur to the neighbourhood of Raver the beds appear to dip
northwards. North-west of Turanmal is a low east-north-east dip
which continues as far as the Udai river. The trap along the north
boundary of Khandesh has a low irregular northerly dip. There are
four hot springs, three in Chopda and one in Shirpurh

Khandesh is usually considered a separate botanical province of the
Presidency, including the valley of the Tapti and the western half
of the Satpura Hills. The former is generally well wooded, and the
latter is clothed with dense forests. In the east of the Khandesh
Satpuras anjan and salai {Boswe/iia sermtd) predominate. In Chopda
and Shirpur teak is found in all the valleys. The Shahada forests are
chiefly kJiait\ and in iVkhrani anjan reappears on the banks of the
Narbada. On the west the spurs of the Ghats are remarkable for
the growth of aiijan^ and about Savda on the east the country has
quite a park-like appearance. In the south-east the forest area is small,
yielding only a small quantity of aiijafi. The chief trees are the banyan,
mango (^Mangifcra iiidica)^ mahud (^Bassia latifolia)^ pipal {Fiats reli~
giosa), palas {Bittea /ro/idosa)^ umbar {Inais glo}}ierata\ and tembunii
{Diospyros nielanoxylon). The chief flowering plants are the Hibiscus^
Sida^ Indigofera^ Croialaria^ Butea^ Cassia^ Echiiiops^ Trichodesnia^
Commelina^ Ipouwea^ and Ce/osia.

‘ \V. T. Blanfurd, ‘ Geology of the Tapti and Lower Narbada Valleys, &C.,'
Memoirs^ Geological Survey of India, vol. vi, pp. 2S6-90 and 344-51.

228

KHAiXDESH DISTRICT

^Mld beasts are numerous, comprising the tiger, leopard, hunting
cheetah, l:)ear, lynx, wolf, bison, sduibar deer, spotted deer, m/gai^
antelope, ‘ravine deer’ (gazelle), and the four-horned deer. Up to the
seventeenth century the hilly tracts to the north of the District were a
breeding-ground for wild elephants. At the time of the introduction of
British rule, and for many years after, tigers and leopards were found
in every part of the District. As late as 1858, tigers were numerous;
but since then they have been very closely hunted, and are now rare.

Owing to differences of elevation, the climate varies greatly in differ¬
ent parts of the District. In the western hills and forests and in the
Satpuras the rainfall is heavy; but over much of the centre and south
it is scanty. Nevertheless the District has till quite recently been
considered safe from famine. The town of Dhulia, which may be
taken to illustrate the average, has an annual rainfall of 22 inches.
In the District it varies from 20 to 45. In the cold season (October
to January), except on cloudy days, the climate is pleasant and bracing.
During the hot months the air is extremely dry. At Dhulia the
temperature falls as low as 52® in January, rising to 110° in May, when
the heat is excessive. The general health of the people is best in the
hot and worst in the cold season. ]\Ialaria is rife at the beginning of
the latter, when the ground commences to dry after the rains. In the
east and centre, the climate is trying to Europeans, but healthy to the
natives. In the west, all periods except the hot season are injurious
to native and European alike.

The early history of Khandesh extends from 150 B. c., the date of
the oldest rock inscription yet discovered and deciphered, to the year
A.D. 1295, when the Musalman emperor Ala-ud-din
suddenly appeared from Delhi. The mythical annals
of the Hindu period may be said to commence with the mention in
the IMahabharata of the hill forts of Turanmal and Asirgarh : the ruler
of Turanmal is recorded as having fought against the Pandavas; the
fort of Asirgarh is named as a place of worship to Ashvatthama. Local
tradition asserts that, from a time long previous to Christianity, the
dynasty in power was that of a Rajput chief whose ancestors had come
from Oudh. The first line of which distinct record remains is, how¬
ever, that of the Andhras. The Andhras were temporarily displaced
by the Western Satraps; in the fifth century a.d. the Chalukya dynasties
rose to power; local chiefs followed ; and Khandesh was under the
Chauhan ruler of Asirgarh when Ala-ud-din appeared.

Muhammadan rule lasted until the Marathas captured the stronghold
of Asirgarh in 1760. In the interval, until the Farukis, Khandesh was
subject to successive governors from Delhi, sent by the different
dynasties that rose in that city. Under ]\Iuhammad bin Tughlak, from
1325 to 1346, Khandesh was administered from Ellichpur in Berar.

HISTOR Y

229

From 1370 to 1600 the Arab dynasty of the Farukis administered the
District, and, though nominally subject to the Sultans of Gujarat, were
practically independent. The last year of the sixteenth century (1599)
saw the coming of the IMughals. In that year Akbar in person overran
Khandesh at the head of an army, captured Asirgarh, and sent the
reigning prince, Bahadur Khan, to Gwalior for safe keeping. Khandesh
then became incorporated into the Delhi empire. Its name was
changed for a time to Dandesh in honour of its new governor, prince
Daniyal. In the middle of the seventeenth century it was highly pros¬
perous. From 1670 IMaratha raids commenced, and it was for more
than a century given up to every species of calamity, internal and
external. In that year Sivaji, after his second sack of Surat, sent an
officer to demand chauth in Khandesh. The Marathas captured and
held Salher fort, and afterwards Khande Rao Dabhade established
himself in the western hills. Thenceforward the District was the
scene of numerous plundering raids. Sivaji, Sambhaji, and the
emperor Aurangzeb ravaged it in turn. In 1720 Nizam-ul-mulk an¬
nexed Khandesh and held it throughout his life. His son was ousted
by the Marathas in 1760. The Peshwa, on recovering the District,
granted portions of it to Holkar and Sindia.

In 1802 the country was ravaged by Holkar’s army. For two
seasons the land remained uncared for, the destruction and ruin
bringing on a severe famine. In the years that followed, Khandesh
was further impoverished by the greed and misrule of the Peshwa.
The people, leaving their peaceful callings, joined together in bands,
wandering over the country, robbing and laying waste. It was in this
state that, in 1818, the District passed into British hands. For many
years after annexation the Bhil tribes gave trouble by outbreaks of
lawlessness, and were only brought into submission under the kindlier
measures adopted in the time of Elphinstone (1825), who entrusted
the work of pacification to the skilful hands of Outram, the founder
of the Bhil Corps. A serious riot occurred in 1852, and in 1857 the
Bhils broke out under the leadership of BhagojT and Kajarsing Naik;
but these disorders were easily suppressed.

Generally distributed over Khandesh, as well as in Ahmadnagar and
the Central Deccan, are the stone-built temples, reservoirs, and wells
locally known as Hemadpanti, or in Khandesh as Gauli Raj. The
term ‘ Hemadpanti ’ is derived from Hemadpant or Hemadri, the
minister {j}iantn) of Ramchandra (1271) the Yada^a ruler of Deogiri,
but is now applied to any old stone building. The local Khandesh term
‘ Gauli Raj' probably also refers to the Yadava kings. In Khandesh
thirty-nine Hemadpanti buildings are found, thirty-one of them being
temples, six step-wells, and two stone-lined reservoirs. Some may be
of greater age, but most of them were probably built in either the

230

khA.vdesi/ district

twelfth or the thirteenth century. These Hemadpanti buildings are
all of blocks of cut stone carefully joined and put together without
mortar. In some the stones are so large as to have given rise to the
saying that they are the work of giants.

Besides the Hemadpanti remains, the District possesses some !Musal>
man buildings, the most important of which is the mosque at Erandol.
Pitalkhora glen in the Chalisgaon tdluka contains a ruined chaitya and
vihdra^ very early Buddhist works, probably dating from two centuries
before Christ. In the valley beneath is the deserted city of Patna,
where there are old carved temples and inscriptions, while on the hill

opposite are other and later caves. The temple of Krishna in Vaghali,

built 200 years before Hemadpant lived, contains three fine inscribed
slabs in the inner wall of the hall.

There are 31 towns and 2,614 villages in the District. The Census
of 1901 disclosed a total population of 1,427,382, or an increase

of 40 per cent, in the last thirty years. In previous

years the numbers were : (1872) 1,030,106, (1881)
ij237,3o8, and (1891) 1,434,802. The increase of 20 per cent, in i88i
was due to immigration, attracted by the large area of unoccupied
fertile land available for cultivation. The population decreased by
0*5 per cent, in 1901 owing to a succession of bad harvests (i896'-i9oi)-
The distribution by tdhikas is as follows : —

Population.

Number of

1 i

W _ _ O'

0 JJ-U

cr* t/5

tfl

.2 ^

7 dtiikas.

rt -

1 a?

1 F

"s 2

s|l i-S

*2 "’'u ‘u

5 3 o ^

i S'

C, 1

Taloda

DDr

193

33)88i

- 40

1,080 1

Shahada

1 479

59:758

- 8

3:‘62

Xandurbar .

} 99 d

203

67^369

}

— I

2,818

,, X'avapur/irMa
Sindkheda .

20,06s

- 34

271

505

I4I

76.811

! >32

+ 5

2,963

Shirpur

651

50 }‘ 77

- 10

2,045

Chopda

368

9 ^

75 : 55 °

205

+ 4

2,763

Yaval....

230

82,299

329

+ 2

4,614

Raver....

481

106

80.36s

+ 5

4,667

Pimpalner .

9.^0

151

56,638

2,000

Dhidia

760

1 2

1 154

104,952

i ‘38

, + 7

6 ,-t 35

Amalner

} .-’sf

1 164

‘ 73 >oS 3

i + 4

2 :-| 5 S

,, Parola pctha .

1 ^4

38,210

- 4

>.S 93

Erandol

‘95 ,

1 ‘05:840

23 ‘

6,435

Jalgaoii

3^9

Sy 1

1 85,151

269

+ I

5,516

Bhusawal .

‘05

76,943 ,

}. 92 {

— 2

5-337

,, Pd ala bad pel ha

32.372

~ 9

1,163

Jamner

5-7 ,

J 55

9^739

‘74

+ 5

3,343

, Paehora . . . |

,, Bhad^aon pctha
Chalisgaon.

}

121

So, 724
44,612 j

}" 3 i{

+ I

+ 7

3.934

2,244

501 j

‘32

90.''^37 1

181

+ 21

3,532

District total

10,041

3 i

2,614

i. 4 -! 7 . 3 S-’

‘42

-*-0.5

68,773

POPULATION

The chief towns are : Dhulia (the head-quarters of the new District
of West Khandesh), Bhusawal, Dharangaox, NasIraead, Nandur-
BAR, Chalisgaox, Bhadgaon, Jamxer, Adavad, Chorda, Jalgaox
(the head-quarters of the new District of East Khandesh), Parola,
Eraxdol, Amalner, Faizapur, Pachora, Nagardevla, and Bodvad.
The average density is 142 persons per square mile, but the western
portion of the District is on the whole more thinly populated than the
east. Shahada and Taloda are the ialukas of smallest density, and
Yaval and Jalgaon are the most densely populated. Of the total
population, 90 per cent, are Hindus, 8 per cent. IMu.salmans, 12,298
or 0*9 per cent. Jains, and 11,600 or o-8 per cent. Animists;
Christians number 1,398. Gujarati is in use among the higher classes
of husbandmen to the north of the Tapti, and it is the language of
trade throughout the District; but Marathi, the speech of the people in
the south and west, is the language of Government offices and schools,
and is gradually gaining ground. In their homes the majority of the
people speak a dialect known as Khandeshi or Ahirani, a mixture of
Gujarati, Marathi, NemadT, and Hindustani, in which Gujarati pre¬
dominates.

The important castes are: Kunbi, 330,000; Bhil, 167,000 (of whom
10,000 are Musalmans); Mahar, 107,000; Maratha, 94,000; Mali
(gardener), 60,000; Koli, 57,000; Brahman, 50,000; Vdni, 47,000
(chiefly Gujars); Rajput, 40,000; Dhangar, 39,000; Vanjari, 32,000;
Teli (oil-men), 27,000; Sonar (goldsmith), 24,000; Nhavi (barber),
21,000; Chamar (leather-worker), 20,000; Sutar (carpenter), 16,000;
Shimpi (tailor), 16,000; and Mang, 13,000. Of the thirteen divisions
of Brahmans in the District, three understand but do not speak
IMarathi; the remaining ten use that language. As a rule, the main
divisions eat together but do not intermarry; the subdivisions as a rule
do both. Deshasths (32,546) are most numerous. The others are the
descendants of Brahmans from every part of India who found their
way to Khandesh. The Prabhus, a section of the ‘writer’ cla^s, are
scattered over the District, most of them in the service of Go. ^rnment.

Besides the general body of cultivators, who are Kur.Lis by caste,
large numbers of PardhTs (5,150)) ^ caste of wandciing hunters and
snarers, and Rajputs have long been settled in the District. i\nother
class of cultivators worthy of notice are the Gujar Yams, the most
industrious and well-to-do of the agricultural population. Their name,
and their habit of speaking Gujarati among themselves, show that they
are immigrants from Gujarat. Most of the traders are foreigners:
Banias from Marwar and Gujarat, and Bhatias, recent comers from
Bombay. Wandering and aboriginal tribes form a large section of the
population. Many of the Bhils are employed on police duties and as
village watchmen. But though most have settled down to peaceable

KHAXDESH DISTRICT

232

ways, they show little skill in farming. Since the introduction of
British rule into Khandesh, the efforts made, by kindly treatment and
the offer of suitable employment, to win the Bhlls from a disorderly life
have been most successful. With the Mahars they form the labouring
class in nearly all the villages of Khandesh. The Nirdhis dwell along
the foot of the Satmalas. In former times they were much dreaded.
During seasons of revolt the most atrocious acts were invariably the
work of the Nirdhis. Vanjaris or Lamanis, the pack-bullock carriers
of former and the gipsies of present times, have suffered much from
the increased use of carts and the introduction of the railway. A few
are well-to-do traders; but most of them live apart from the villages, in
bands or tandds^ each with its own leader or 7 iaik, Forced to give up
their old employment, they now live chiefly by grazing, and cutting
grass and wood. The majority of the IMusalmans are converts from
Hinduism and are styled Shaikhs (55,787). In 1901, 18,504 Pathans,
descendants of the Musalman invaders, were found in the District.
More than 50 per cent, of the population are agriculturists, and various
industries support 22 per cent.

Of the 821 native Christians in the District in 1901, 440 were Roman
Catholics and 132 Anglicans. There are Roman Catholic chapels at
Dhulia, Bhusawal, and Dharangaon. For missionary purposes the
District is divided into three parts, the western portion being occupied
by the Scandinavian-American Mission, the centre by the Church
’Missionary Society, and the east by the American Alliance Mission.
The head-quarters of the first-named society are at Nandurbar, of the
second at Dhulia, while the Alliance Mission has stations along the
Great Indian Peninsula Railway at Bhusawal, Jalgaon, Pachora, and
Chalisgaon. Besides these, there are two smaller semi-independent
missions: the Tapti Valley Railway Industrial Mission at Navapur,
which works chiefly among the Bhlls, and the Peniel Mission at
Dharangaon. The majority of the Christian population reside at
Nandurbar, Dhulia, Bhusawal, and Dharangaon.

The soils are composed of all grades, from the deep rich black
of the Tapti valley to the poor stony red and white of the low trap

Agriculture \oca\ husbandmen divide them into

four classes : Id/i (black), pdiidhari (white), khdran
(salt), and biirJd (white and salt).

The District is chiefly ryotwdri^ only about 2 per cent, of the total
area being held on vdhad tenure and 3 per cent, as Iidm land. The
chief statistics of cultivation in 1903-4 are shown in the table on the
next page, in square miles.

Jo2vdr and bdjra are both largely grown in Khandesh, the areas
under these crops being 667 and 929 square miles respectively.
Joivdr is chiefly grown as a kharif crop, in rotation with cotton.

AGRICULTURE

Bdj7‘a everywhere holds a far more important place. Wheat,
with an area of 182 square miles, is grown throughout the District,
though most common along the Tapti valley and in the west. The
chief pulses are tiir^ gram, udid^ kiilith^ and which together

occupied 581 square miles in 1903-4. Til and linseed are the
principal oilseeds, covering 250 and 63 square miles respectively. 'Vhe
former is considered the more profitable crop. The area under the
latter varies considerably according to the nature of the late rains.
Cotton, long one of the chief crops, occupied 2,013 square miles. It
is seldom grown oftener than once in three years in the same field,
and the local variety has been supplemented by Hinganghat and
Dharwar seed.

Talnka.

Total

area.

Cultivated.

Irrigated.

Cultivable

waste.

Forest.

Talocla

100

Shahada

4S2

i 284

Nan durbar .

992

243

Sindkheda .

505

377

34 ,

Shir pur

67S

201

Chopda

36S

228

Yaval

249

214

Raver

480

205

I 2

Pimpalner .

932

344

163

299

Dhulia

759

412

199

Amalner

528

409

Erandol

458

366

Jalgaon

319

22S

Bhusawal .

570

379

106

Jamner

.527

370

Pachora

542

388

Chalisgaon

504

306

Total

10,070*

5,°54

504

1,132 I

* For 2,530 square miles of this area statistics are not available. There have
been changes since iqoo in the areas of several ialitkas^ owitig to the introduction
of the revision survey.

Several attempts have been made, dating from 1829, to reclaim the
Pal tappa^ a waste tract in the neighbourhood of the Satpura Hills,
which is said to have been formerly well inhabited. At the time of
the British occupation in 1818, this was a deserted jungle, excessively
unhealthy, and infested with wild beasts. It is said to have been
deserted about the middle of the seventeenth century, owing to
famine; and the remains of ancient buildings show that the village of
Pal was formerly of considerable importance. Special efforts to improve
the staple of the local cotton have been made for many years, but the
cultivation of exotic varieties has not spread; it is found that the
exotics speedily deteriorate in quality and give an inferior yield to that
of the local variety. In 1903-4 a small plot of land was acquired
by Government at Dhiilia, and several varieties of cotton and jowdr^

234

KHANDRSlf DISTRICT

new to the Distriet, were sown. The experiment is reported to be more
promising than previous attempts, but definite results have not been
arrived at, Sugar-eane is grown in small areas where irrigation is
available. Chillies, fennel, and eoriander are the prineipal eondinients
and spices. The cultivation of betel-vines is carried on with consider¬
able success in garden lands.

The cultivators of Khandesh have availed themselves freely of the
Land Improvement and Agriculturists’ Loans Acts, and nearly 25 lakhs
was advanced during the decade ending 1904. Of this sum, nearly
20 lakhs represents advances made during the famine years 1899-1900,
1900-1, and 1901-2.

The District contains many fine cows and bullocks, brought chiefly
from Nimar and Berar. The Thilari herd of cattle of West Khandesh
has a good reputation in the Deccan; but the greater number of the
cattle are small and poor, reduced during the hot sea,son to the most
wretched condition. The horses also are small and of little value.
To improve the breed, the Civil Veterinary department maintains
two pony stallions at Dhulia and Chalisgaon, which are not, however,
fully utilized.

Irrigation is practised mainly from dams thrown across the streams,
particularly on the Girna and Panjhra rivers, and there are lakes
and reservoirs which also serve for irrigation. The area under various
classes of irrigation is 56^ square miles, or a little more than one per
cent, of the total cultivated area of the District. Government canals
supply r6 square miles, private canals one, wells 38, and other sources
1 1 square miles. The dams must at one time have been very
numerous. In the west there is scarcely a stream of any size without
traces of them. Of works carried out by the Irrigation department
the chief are: lower Panjhra river works, the Hartala tank, the Jamda
canals, and the Mhasva lake. The first two are old works improved
and extended ; the others are new. The lower Panjhra water-works,
which are estimated to command nearly 20 square miles, supply about
4 square miles in Dhiilia and Amalner. The Jamda canals on the
Girna, one of the earliest Government water-works, which are esti¬
mated to command 72 square miles, water about 2 square miles,
mostly in Chalisgaon and Pachora. The Hartala lake in the Bhu.sawal
taluka commands an area of 600 acres, but did not supply water in
1903-4. The Mhasva lake in the petty subdivision {pet/ia) of Parola
in Amalner irrigated a total area of 181 acres, and is estimated
to command 4,600 acres. Over most of the District water is found
near the surface. But near the Satpiiras and within 8 or 10 miles of
the Tapti, wells have sometimes to be dug as deep as 100 feet.
For drawing water the leathern bag or mot is in almost universal use.
Each bag waters a quarter of an acre daily. In 1903-4, 83 other

TRADE AXD COJ/J/DATCATIOiVS

235

Forests.

irrigation works (including the Parsul tank, irrigating 668 acres) watered
19,500 acres. Wells numbered 27,031, and minor tanks 12,

Khandesh is the most important forest District of the Bombay Presi¬
dency after Kanara. The absence of conservancy rules in the past and
the destructive habits of the hill tribes have robbed
the jungles of most of their valuable timber. The
forest Reserves now cover more than 2,168* square miles, and the area
of fodder reserves and pasture land under the control of the Revenue
department is 284 square miles. They lie chiefly on the hills to the
west and south-west, but much of the hilly land unsuited for cul¬
tivation may eventually be reserved for forest. In spite of its large
area, Khandesh uses more timber than it grows. The most impor¬
tant minor produce is the inahud flower. Myrabolams and mahud
seed are collected in the west. Teak, babiil^ and black-wood are of
common occurrence. The gross forest revenue in 1903-4 amounted to
2*3 lakhs. The District is divided into two forest divisions, which
are in charge of divisional Forest officers aided by two subdivisional
officers.

Khandesh has little mineral wealth. Building stone occurs every¬
where, the best quarry being in the bed of the Vaghur river near
Bhusawal. Ka7ikar or nodular limestone is found in all black soil
and yields good lime, while clay suitable for brick-making is obtain¬
able in all parts of the District.

The crafts and industries are of some importance. Cotton-pressing
and ginning is carried on in 36 presses with 2,228
operatives. 1 he weaving of coarse woollen blankets communications
is common all over the District. There is a cotton¬
spinning and weaving mill at Jalgaon, started in 1874, under the
name of the Khandesh Spinning and AVeaving Company. It has
425 looms and 20,948 spindles, and employs 1,185 hands. The out¬
turn is over 2 million pounds of yarn and i-| million pounds of cloth,
and the paid-up capital 7^ lakhs. The cloth is sold in Khandesh,
Berar, and the Nizam’s Dominions. There are railway workshops at
Bhusawal.

The most important article of export is cotton. The Bombay
Bhatias buy it from local dealers and growers, and press it for direct
shipment by sea. Of late years many Bombay mercantile houses
have established agencies in Khandesh, and towards the east in the
rich Tapti valley. Jalgaon and Bhusawal are rising into important
centres of trade. The other chief exports are food-grains, oilseeds,
butter, indigo, wax, and honey. Of imports the chief articles are salt,

^ This figure differs from ihat in the table on p. 233, owing to the omission of forest
statistics of certain villages in the Shahada tdluka and to the non-inclusion in the
revenue returns of the forest area of the Mehwas estates.

VOL. XV.

236

KHANDESH DISTRICT

spices, metals, piece-goods, yarn, and sugar. The internal trade is
carried on by means of weekly markets and a succession of fairs and
religious feasts.

At the beginning of British rule there \\ere no made roads. The
hrst to be constructed was the Bombay-Agra road, which runs via
ISIalegaon, Dhulia, and Shirpur through the District. Since then road¬
making has made considerable progress, and some of the passes
through the hills have been opened to cart traffic. Besides the
Bombay-Agra road, the chief roads are those from Dhulia to Surat
and from Dhulia to Mhasawad. The total length of roads is 955
miles, of which 325 are metalled. Of these, 300 miles of metalled
roads and 252 miles of unmetalled roads are maintained by the
Public Works department. Avenues of trees are planted on about
950 miles. The Great Indian Peninsula Railway runs for 137 miles
through the south of the District from Naydongri to Bhusawal, where
it divides, one branch going to Jubbulpore and the other to Nagpur.
Branches from Jalgaon to Amalner, 35 miles long, and from Ch^isgaon
to Dhulia, 35 miles in length, were opened in 1900. The Tapti Valley
Railway from Surat to Amalner, running for 108 miles through the
central portion of the District from east to west, was opened in March,
1900, and has ten stations within its limits.

The Tapti and lesser streams are liable to sudden and disastrous
rising of their waters. Six great floods caused more or less injury in

^ „ the District during the nineteenth century. In

Famine, &c. _ . ^ • 1 , j 1

1822 sixty-nve villages were entirely destroyed by

the Tapti, and fifty were partly washed away, causing a loss in money

value of 2\ lakhs. In 1872 the Girna and Panjhra rose 45 feet above

the level of the river-bed, the latter sweeping away five hundred houses

in the town of Dhulia. A whole village on the opposite side of the

river suddenly disappeared. One hundred and fifty-two villages were

damaged, and property to the value of 16 lakhs destroyed. Over one

thousand persons were on this occasion relieved by public and private

charity.

Besides the Durga-devI famine, which is said to have greatly reduced
the population of Khandesh, the only scarcity mentioned before the
beginning of the last century was in 1O29. In that year, following
the ravages of war, there was a total failure of rain which caused
widespread distress. A severe famine was recorded in 1802-4, when
the selling price of grain is reported to have risen to one seer per
rupee. Great numbers died, and extensive tracts were left deserted
and waste. This famine was due, not to any natural causes, but to
the ravages of Holkar’s army, which during two years (1802-3) spread
desolation and famine throughout the District. Scarcities not amount¬
ing to famine occurred in 1824, 1833-6, 1845, 1876-7, and 1896-7.

ADMIXISTRA TION

237

In 1896 the population suffered from a general rise in the prices of
food. The early rains, however, ^Yere excellent, and the kharif did
not fail. The hill tribes therefore suffered little, and West Khan-
desh was free from the pinch of the high prices. Relief works were
maintained for fourteen months, the workers reaching a maximum
of 36,560 in April, 1897. In 1S99 the failure of the rains affected
all parts of the District, and the distress lasted for fourteen months.
The kharif crop was a total failure and the rabi area was not sown,
except in irrigated lands, there being no late rains. As early as
October, 1899, the number on relief works exceeded 33,000. It
advanced steadily till in iSIarch of 1900 it was 257,000, while the
number on gratuitous relief was 13,000. From this it fell to 553
in February, 1901, rising again to 42,000 in July, 1901, and falling
to 1,800 in September, It is calculated that 79,000 deaths occurred
in excess of the normal during the period, and that 385,000 cattle
died. The total cost was about 76 lakhs. Remissions amounted
to 17 lakhs, and nearly 20 lakhs was granted in loans to agri¬
culturists.

Locusts have sometimes visited Khandesh, but seldom in sufficient
numbers to do much harm. In 1869 a large cloud crossed the Dis¬
trict from north to south, and in 1873 and 1878 they did some injury
to the late crop. Rats in 1847-8, 1878-9, and in 1901-2 caused much
havoc.

The District is divided’into seventeen tdlukas, in charge of three
covenanted Civilians and two Deputy-Collectors. Of the three cove¬
nanted Civilians, one is Personal Assistant to the . , ... ..

, , „ Aaministration.

Collector, who has also an extra Deputy-Collector

as daftarddr. There are four petty subdivisions or pethas : Parola,

Bhadgaon, Navapur, and Edalabad, in the tdlukas of Amalner, Pachora,

Nandurbar, and Bhusawal respectively. The formation of two separate

Districts is referred to in the note on p. 225. The Mehwas estates are

included in the District for administrative purposes.

The District and Sessions Judge at Dhulia is aided for civil business
by ten Subordinate Judges. Criminal justice is administered by 50
^Magistrates, including the District Magistrate. The commonest forms
of crime are theft, house-breaking, and dacoity.

On occupation by the British, 1,146 Government villages were found
entirely deserted, besides 413 which were uninhabited but partly tilled
by persons living in the neighbouring villages ; only 1,836 ^ illages
were inhabited. The establishment of order and the advent of high
prices soon caused a rapid increase in tillage and revenue. But a sub¬
sequent fall in prices checked improvement, and progress was slow for
several years. After 1832 the improvement began to be more marked,
and continued steadily up to 1852. One of the first measures of im-

g 2

238

KHANDESH DISTRICT

provement was the withdrawal from the hereditary officials of powers
the possession of which by them was found to be a source of oppression
to the people. The settlement of the revenue was then made direct
with the cultivators and not with the headmen of the villages. The
revenue was fixed on the average payments of ten previous years.
Gradually, inequalities of measurement were reduced to a common
standard. About 1830 it was found that the assessments were too
high, leaving no margin to the cultivator for improvements. Great
reductions were then made in the rates on irrigated lands; the rates
on ‘ dry-crop ’ lands were also reduced, wherever this was found to be
necessary, and liberal remissions were made. Still progress was slow;
and no attempt was made until 1852 to introduce a survey, which, it
was felt, would be very costly. In that year, as it appeared that the
rates in Khandesh were higher than in other Districts, it was determined
to carry out a survey on a plan suited to a country where so much of the
land was waste. The objects of it were misunderstood, and troops had
to be called out. But, on the leaders being seized, the opposition died
away and the work was carried out between the years 1854 and 1870.
Since then the District has made a most marked advance. Its popu¬
lation has largely increased and the area under cultivation has nearly
trebled. Cultivation has been pushed to the base of the hills ; and
only in a few parts can good land now be found untilled, while wild
beasts have been driven from the plain to the hills and the ravines.
This remarkable development is, no doubt, in great measure due to the
facilities offered by the railway for the export of produce to better
markets, and to the great demand for cotton, which Khandesh is in
a position to satisfy. The revision survey settlement was commenced
in 1886 and completed (with the exception of a small area, chiefly in
Nandurbar, originally settled in 1901-3) in 1904. The new survey
found an increase in the cultivated area of 4 per cent, over the amount
shown in the accounts, and the settlement enhanced the total revenue
from 31 to 40 lakhs. The average assessment per acre of Mry’ land is
Rs. 1-6; of rice land, Rs. i-io; and garden land, Rs. 2-14.

Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all sources
have been, in thousands of rupees :—

1S80-1.

1890-1. 1

1900-1. 1903-4.

I.and revenue .

Total revenue

34,13

46,27

39.76

57.40

1 50,32
64,72

48,60

67,59

The District has 21 municipalities: namely, Amalner, Parola,
Erandol, Dharangaon, Bhadgaon, Chopda, Shirpur, Sindkheda,
Betwad, Savada, Yaval, Bhusawal, Jalgaon, Dhulia, Songir,

KHANDGIRl

239

Taloda, Shahada, Prakasha, Nandurbar, Faizpur, and Raver.
The total receipts of these average nearly 3 lakhs. The District board
and 17 idhika boards had an income in 1903-4 of 4^ lakhs. The
principal source of income is the land cess. The expenditure
amounted to 4J lakhs, including nearly 2 lakhs devoted to the main¬
tenance and construction of roads and buildings.

The District Superintendent of police is aided by three Assistant
Superintendents, one probationary Assistant Superintendent, and four
inspectors. There are altogether 37 police stations. The force in 1904
numbered 1,636 : namely, 23 chief constables, 335 head constables,
and 1,278 constables. The mounted police number 62 under 8 daffa-
dars. In addition to the District jail at Dhiilia, with accommodation for
450 prisoners, there are 23 subsidiary jails and 21 lock-ups which can
accommodate 408 and 202 prisoners respectively. The daily average
number of prisoners in 1904 was 493, of whom 16 were females.

Khandesh stands twelfth as regards literacy among the twenty four
Districts of the Presidency. The Census of 1901 returned 4-8 percent,
of the population (9-3 males and 0-2 females) as able to read and write.
Education has made great progress of late years. In 1881 there were
only 317 schools, attended by 18,656 pupils. The number of pupils rose
to 29,346 in 1891 and to 30,293 in 1901. In 1903-4 the schools num¬
bered 538 (including 122 private schools with 1,713 pupils), attended
by 22,181 pupils, of whom 845 were girls. One is a high school, 12 are
middle schools, 401 primary, one is a training school, and one an indus¬
trial school. Three are maintained by Government, 332 by local boards,
70 by municipalities, and 11 are aided. The training school and the
industrial school are at Dhulia. The expenditure on education in
1903-4 ’^vas 2i lakhs, of which Local funds contributed Rs. 73,000
and Rs. 24,000 was recovered as fees. Of the total, nearly 80 per
cent, was devoted to primary schools.

The District contains twenty dis])ensaries, one hospital, and two other
medical institution.s, accommodating 167 in-patients. In these institu¬
tions 114,213 persons, including 1,229 in-patients, were treated in 1904,
3>797 operations performed. The total expenditure was over
Rs. 39,000, of which Rs. 16,940 was contributed by Local and muni¬
cipal funds.

The number of persons successfully vaccinated in 1903-4 was
39,000, representing a proportion of 27 per 1,000 of population, which
exceeds the average for the Presidency.

[Sir J. M. Campbell, Bombay Gazetteer^ vol. xii (1880); A. F. David¬
son, Settlement Repont (1854).]

Khandgiri. —Hill in the Khurda subdivision of Puri District, Ben¬
gal, situated in 20° 16' N. and 85° 47' E., about 4 miles west of
Bhubaneswar. It consists of two separate peaks, the northern one of

240

KHANDGIRI

^Yhich is called Udayagiri and the southern Khandgiri, the last name
being also applied to the entire group. The caves on this hill were
occupied by monks of the Jain sect, and not, as is usually stated, by
Buddhists. The earliest of them go back to the time of king Khara-
vela, whose large but mutilated inscription over the Hathi Gumpha
cave is dated in the year 165 of the Maurya era, or 155 b.c. ; and there
are also short inscriptions of his queen and immediate successors.
Various mediaeval Jain carvings and inscriptions show that the Jains
continued to occupy the caves till about the twelfth or thirteenth cen¬
tury; and there still exist later Jain temples, one of which, on the top
of the Khandgiri peak, is annually visited by Jain merchants from Cut¬
tack. Of the oldest caves the most interesting are the following: On
the Udayagiri peak, (i) the Rani Gumpha, comprising two storeys with
open verandas. The frieze of the upper veranda contains a series of
relief carvings, evidently representing one connected story, in which
occurred a fight with wild elephants, the rape of a female, and a hunt
after a winged antelope ; the legend to which it refers has not, however,
been traced. (2) The Ganesh Gumpha, with a carved frieze represent¬
ing the same story as in the RanT Gumpha; the steps of the cave are
flanked by the figures of two elephants. (3) The Hathi Gumpha, with
the famous inscription of king Kharavela, a purely historical record of
the principal events of his life. Unfortunately it has been badly muti¬
lated, but it has recently been protected by a shade to preserve it from
further destruction. (4) The Bagh Gumpha, shaped like the head of
a tiger ; and (5) the Svarga Gumpha, (6) the Maujapuri, and (7) the
Fatal Gumpha, three caves raised one above the other and consequently
now explained as a representation of heaven, earth, and hell. On the
Khandgiri peak, the most notable of the old caves are the Ananta
Gumpha, with carved panels over its gates, representing LakshmT, the
sun-god, an elephant, and the worship of a sacred tree; the Tentuli
Gumpha, so called from a tamarind-tree close to it; and the Tantua
Gumpha I and Tantua Gumpha II, one above the other. The name
ianfud means a diving-bird and has been given to these caves on
account of the figures of birds, with their heads bent down as if in the
act of diving, which have been carved over the arches of the doors.
The best specimens of mediaeval caves are: the Navamuni cave, with
an inscription dated in the eighteenth year of king Uddyota Kesari,
who preceded the Ganga kings and belonged to the family of the so-
called Somavansi, or kings of the lunar race, who ruled over Orissa
in the tenth and eleventh centuries ; and the Satghara cave, which has
numerous mediaeval Jain figures carved over its walls.

^Report of the Archaeological Survey of hidia for 1902-3 (Calcutta,
1904).]

Khandia. —Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

KHAXDWA TOWN

241

Khandpara.—One of the Tributary States of Orissa, Bengal, lying
between 20° it' and 20° 25' N. and 85^0' and 85° 22' E., with an area
of 244 square miles. It is bounded on the north by the MahanadT
river, which separates it from the States of Narsinghpur and Baramba :
on the east by Cuttack and Puri Districts; on the south by Purl
and the State of Nayagarh; and on the west by Daspalla State. Tbe
State originally formed part of Nayagarh, and was separated from it
about 200 years ago by a brother of the Nayagarh Raja, who estab¬
lished his independence. The State has an estimated revenue of
Rs. 30,000, and pays a tribute of Rs. 4,212 to the British Government.
The land is very fertile, and the State is one of the best cultivated in
Orissa. Fine sal timber {Shorea robiista) abounds in the hilly tracts,
and magnificent banyan and mango trees stud the plain. It is inter¬
sected by the Kuaria and Dauka rivers, small tributaries of the
Mahanadi. The population increased from 63,287 in 1891 to 69,450
in 1901. The number of villages is 325, of which the most important
is Kantilo, a large mart on the MahanadT. The density is 284 per¬
sons per square mile. The State maintains a charitable dispensary,
a middle vernacular and 30 lower primary schools.

Khandwa Tahsll.— North-western fahsll of Nimar District, Central
Provinces, lying between 21° 31' and 22° 20' N. and 76° 4' and 76°
59' E., with an area of 2,046 square miles. The population in 1901
was 181,684, compared with 163,003 in 1891. The density is 89
persons per square mile. The tahsll contains one town, Khandwa
(population, 19,401), the head-quarters of the District and tahsll\ and
437 inhabited villages. Excluding 671 square miles of Government
forest, 58 per cent, of the available area is occupied for cultivation.
The cultivated area in 1903-4 was 713 square miles. The demand
for land revenue in the same year was Rs. 1,67,000, and for cesses
Rs. 18,000. The tahsll consists of an undulating plain, forming the
valleys of the Abna and Sukta rivers, and fringed by low hills towards
the north and west.

Khandwa Town.—Head-quarters of Nimar District, Central Pro¬
vinces, situated in 21° 50' N. and 76° 22' E., on the Great Indian
Peninsula Railway, 353 miles from Bombay, and forming the junction
for the metre-gauge Rajputana-Malwa branch line to ^[how. The
town stands at an elevation of 1,007 i^et, on a sheet of basalt rock
covered with shallow surface soil; and, because of the proximity of the
rock to the surface, there is a noticeable absence of trees. The popu¬
lation at the last four enumerations was: (1872) 14,119, (i8Sr)
15,142, (1891) 15,589, and (1901) 19,401.

Khandwa is a place of considerable antiquity. Owing to its situation
at the junction of the two great roads leading from Northern and
Western India to the Deccan, it must have been occupied at an early

242

khandwA town

period, and Cunningham identifies it with the Kognabanda of Ptolemy.
It is mentioned by the geographer Albiruni, who wrote early in the
eleventh century. In the twelfth century it was a great seat of Jain
worship; and many finely carved pillars, cornices, and other stone¬
work belonging to old Jain temples may be seen in the more modern
buildings. The town has four old tanks with stone embankments. A
new Jain temple, constructed at a cost of Rs. 75,000, is now approach¬
ing completion. Khandwa is mentioned by the historian Firishta as
the seat of a local governor of the kingdom of Malwa in 1516. It was
burnt by Jaswant Rao Holkar in 1802, and again partially by Tantia
TopT in 1858.

Khandwa was created a municipality in 1867. The municipal
receipts and expenditure during the decade ending 1901 averaged one
lakh. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 1,07,000, the main heads of
receipt being octroi (Rs. 65,000), markets and slaughter-houses
(Rs. 5,000), and conservancy (Rs. 3,000); while the expenditure,
which amounted to Rs. 1,04,000, included refunds of duty on goods
in transit (Rs. 34,000), conservancy (Rs. 8,000), education (Rs. 10,000),
and general administration and collection of taxes (Rs. 8,000). The
town is supplied with water from the adjoining Mohghat reservoir.
The catchment area of the tank has been increased by the construction
of a canal 3I miles in length to Ajanti, and is now about 9 square
miles, the daily supply being calculated at 450,000 gallons. The
works were opened in 1897 at a cost of 4 lakhs. The maintenance
charges amount to about Rs. 5,000, to meet which a water rate has
recently been imposed. Cotton is an important crop in Nimar District,
and Khandwa is a centre for the export of the raw product. It now
contains 9 ginning and 5 pressing factories, which have a total capital
of about 6-| lakhs and employ 1,000 operatives. Seven out of the
fourteen factories have been opened within the last eight years. An
oil-pressing and timber-sawing factory has also been erected. The
depot for the supply of gajija {Catinabis saiivd) to the Central Pro¬
vinces is situated at Khandwa, the crop being grown under licence
in Nimar District. A rest camp for troops is maintained during the
trooping season. There is a printing press, which issues a weekly paper
in Marathi. The educational institutions comprise a high school,
with 46 pupils, two English middle schools, and four branch schools.
The Roman Catholic and Methodist Episcopal Churches carry on mis¬
sion and educational work in Khandwa, and maintain schools and an
orphanage. The town has three dispensaries, one of which is a police
hospital and another is maintained by the railway. A veterinary
dispensary has recently been opened.

Khangah Dogran Tahsll .—Tahsll of Gujranwala District, Punjab,
lying between 31° 31' and 31° 59' N. and 73° 14'' and 74° 5' E., with

KHANIADHANA

243

an area of 873 square miles. This tahsil was formed, mainly out of
the unwieldy tahsil of Hafizabad, in 1893. The population in 1901
was 237,843. It contains 239 villages, including KnAxriAH Dogran
(population, 5,349), the head-quarters. The land revenue and cesses
in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 3,41,000. The tahsil consists of a uni¬
form Bar tract with a soil of good loam. I’hrce-fourths of it are now
irrigated by the Chenab Canal.

Khangah Dogran Village.—flcad-quarters of the tahsil of the
same name in Gujranwala District, Punjab, situated in 31° 49' N. and
73° 41' E. Eying in the heart of the Bar, it was until recently famous
only for a number of Muhammadan shrines at which a fair is held in
June. In 1893 it was made the head-quarters of the newly constituted
tahsil named after it; and as it lies in the centre of the tract brought
under irrigation by the Chenab Canal, it is rapidly growing in impor¬
tance, as is testified by the increase of its population from 877 in i88t
and 1,646 in 1891 to 5,349 in 1901. The village is administered as
a ‘notified area.’ It contains a cotton-ginning factory, which in 1904
employed 34 hands.

Khangarh.—Town in the District and tahsil of Muzaffargarh, Pun¬
jab, situated in 29° 55' N. and 71° 10' E., ii miles south of Aluzaffar-
garh town and 4 miles west of the Chenab, on the road leading to
Sind. Population (1901), 3,621. It was built by Khan Bibi, sister
of Muzaffar Khan, and at the beginning of the last century was an
Afghan post; but the town has now outgrown the dimensions of the
circular fortification which originally enclosed at. At annexation in
1849 it became the head-quarters of the District, but was abandoned
in 1859 on account of floods from the Chenab. The municipality was
created in 1873. income during the ten years ending 1902-3

averaged Rs. 6,200, and the expenditure Rs. 6,400. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 6,400, chiefly from octroi; and the expenditure was
Rs. 5,600. The town contains a small cotton-ginning and rice-husking
factory, which gave employment in 1904 to 25 persons; but it owes
such importance as it possesses to its being the agricultural centre
for a fertile tract.

Khaniadhana.—Small sanad State in the Central India Agency,
under the Resident at Gwalior. It has an area of about 68 square
miles, lying round the town of the same name. It is bounded on the
east by Jhansi District of the United Provinces, and on all other
sides by Gwalior State. Although the State is situated politically in
the Gwalior Residency, it lies geographically in Bundelkhand, and
until 1888 was included in the Political Charge of that name.

Khaniadhana was originally a part of Orchha ; but in 1724 it was
granted by Maharaja Udot Singh of Orchha to his son Amar Singh,
together with the villages of Mohangarh and Ahar. On the dis-

244

KHANIADHANA

memberment of the Orchha State by the Marathas a sa 7 iad was granted
to Aniar Singh by the Peshwa in 1751, confirming him in his grant.
The question of suzerainty was, from this time onward, always a subject
of contention between the chiefs of Orchha and of the Maratha State
of Jhansi. On the lapse of the latter State in 1854, the Khaniadhana
chief, Pirthipal Bahadur Ju Deo, claimed absolute independence. It
was, however, ruled that he was dependent on the British Government
as successor to all the rights previously exercised by the Peshwa; and
saimd accordingly granted in 1862 confirming him in his posses*
sion, a sanad of adoption being granted at the same time. The chiefs
of Khaniadhana are Bundela Rajputs of the Orchha house, and bear
the title of Jagirdar. The present chief, Chitra Singh, who succeeded
in 1869, obtained the title of Raja as a personal distinction in
1877.

The population has been: (t88i) 13,494, (1891) 14,871, and (1901)
15,528. Hindus number 13,548, or 87 per cent.; and Animists, 1,208,
or 8 per cent., chiefly Saharias. The population has increased by 4 per
cent, since 1891, and its density is 243 persons per square mile. The
chief dialect is BundelkhandT. Only one per cent, of the inhabitants are
literate. The principal castes are Thakurs (Bundela) and other Raj¬
puts, and the population is almost entirely supported by agriculture.
The State contains 49 villages.

The country is rocky, belonging to the Bundelkhand gneiss area.
In the valleys, where intrusive dikes of trap are met with, good soil
is produced by its disintegration, bearing fair crops of all the ordinary
grains. Of the total area, 21 square miles, or 32 per cent., are under
cultivation, of which 13 are irrigated. About 27 square miles are
capable of cultivation, the rest being rocky and irreclaimable. The
chief exercises full powers in all general administrative matters. In
criminal cases he is required to report all heinous crimes to the
Resident at Gwalior. The total revenue is Rs. 22,000, of which
Rs. T8,000 is derived from the land. The British rupee was made
legal tender in 1886. There are two schools in the State and one
dispensary.

The chief place is Khaniadhana, situated in 25° 2' N. and 78° 8' E.
Population (1901), 2,192. It contains a small fort in which the chief
lives, and also a school and a dispensary.

Khanna.—Town in the Samrala tahsll of Ludhiana District, Punjab,
situated in 30® 42' N. and 76° 13' E., on the North-Western Railway,
27 miles from Ludhiana town. Population (1901), 3,838. The town
possesses two cotton-ginning factories, with a flour-mill attached to one
of them. The number of employes in the factories in 1904 was 145,
and in the mill 30. Khanna is a depot for the agricultural produce
of the neighbourhood. It contains an Anglo-Sanskrit middle school

KHAXUA

245

(unaided) and a Government dispensary. The municipality was created
in 1875. The income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged
Rs. 6,400, and the expenditure Rs. 6,100, In 1903-4 the income
was Rs. 6,600, chiefly derived from octroi; and the expenditure was
Rs. 5,900.

Khanpur Tahsil.—Head-quarters taJml of the Khanpur iiizdmat^
Bahawalpur State, Punjab, lying on the left bank of the Indus, between
27° 43' and 29° 4' N. and 70° 27' and 70° 53' E., with an area of
2,415 square miles. The population in 1901 was 120,810, compared
with 115,112 in 1891. It contains the towns of Khanpur (population,
8,611), the head-quarters, Garht Ikhtiar Khan (4,939), and Ghaus-
pur, which was created a municipality in 1903 ; and 52 villages. It is
traversed by the Hakra depression, south of which comes the desert. To
the north lie the central tract of barren soil and the fertile lowlands
along the Indus. The taJifil is famous for its date-palms, and is, after
Allahabad, the most fertile in the State. The land revenue and cesses
in 1905-6 amounted to r-8 lakhs.

Khanpur Town.—Head-quarters of the 7 iizdmat and tahsil of the
same name in P>ahawalpur State, Punjab, situated in 28° 39' X. and
70° 41' E., on the Xorth-Western Railway, 63 miles south-west of
Bahawalpur town. Population (1901), 8,611. Founded in 1806 by
X’awab Bahawal Khan 11 as a counterpoise to Garhi Ikhtiar Khan,
which lies 6 miles to the west, the town is now the chief centre of the
trade in agricultural produce in the State, and contains three steam
rice-husking mills, in one of which cotton-ginning is carried on as well.
It possesses a middle school and a dispensary. The municipality had
an income in 1903-4 of Rs. 12,800, chiefly from octroi.

Khanpur.—Name once given to Gujranwala Town in Gujranwala
District, Punjab.

Khanspur.—Part of the Ghora Dakka cantonment in Hazara Dis¬
trict, North-West Frontier Province, situated in 34° 2' N'. and 73°
30' E. During the summer months it is occupied by a detachment
of British infantry.

Khanua.—Village in the Rupb.as tahsil of the State of Bharatpur,
Rajputana, situated in 27° 2' N. and 77° 33' E,, close to the left bank
of the Banganga river, and about 13 miles south of Bharatpur city.
Population (1901), 1,857. Here, in March, 1527, was fought the great
battle between Babar and the confederated Rajputs under Rana
Sangram Singh of Mewar. In the preliminary skirmishes the latter
were successful, and the emperor, deeming his situation serious,
resolved to carry into effect his long-deferred vow and nevermore drink
wine. The gold and silver goblets and cups were broken up and the
fragments distributed among the poor. In the final battle (March 12,
1527) the Rajputs were completely defeated : the Rana was wounded

246 KHAiVUA

and escaped with difficulty, while among the slain was Rawal Udai
Singh of DCingarpur.

Khapa.—Town in the Ramtek tahsU of Nagpur District, Central
Provinces, situated in 21° 25' N. and 79® 2' E., on the Kanhan river,
22 miles north of Nagpur city, and 6 miles from the Chhindwara
road. Population (1901), 7,615. The town is built on a site high
above the river and immediately overhanging it, while on the land side
it is completely shut in by fine groves. Khapa was constituted a
municipality in 1867. The income during the decade ending 190T
averaged Rs. 6,500. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 9,000, octroi being
the principal head of receipt. I'hirty years ago Khapa was described
as one of the most flourishing towns in the District, and its decrease in
population is to be attributed to changes in the course of trade. Hand
cotton-weaving, the principal local industry, is now declining owing to
the competition of the mills. Khapa is not favourably situated for the
location of ginning and pressing factories, and is therefore being sup¬
planted by its younger rivals in the centre of the cotton area. Cotton
cloths in various colours for women are principally woven. Two
weekly markets are held here, and the town contains a vernacular
middle and a girls’ school, and a dispensary.

Kharaghoda.—Village in the Viramgam tahika of Ahmadabad
District, Bombay, situated in 23° N. and 71° 50' E., on the border of
the Little Rann of Cutch. Population {1901), 2,108. At the time
when Ahmadabad passed to the British, the eastern shore of the Little
Rann contained five large salt-works in the possession of petty chiefs.
These were gradually acquired by purchase between 1822 and 1840,
and were subsequently closed in 1875 in favour of a single manufactory
at Kharaghoda. This, however, proved unequal to meeting the con¬
stantly increasing demand for salt; and in 1881-2 new salt-works were
opened at Ooru, which is 6 miles north of Kharaghoda and is con¬
nected with it by a line of rail. In 1904-5 the total out-turn of salt
from these two works was 2,545,521 maunds, of which 2,313,965
maunds were sold. Kharaghoda is the head-quarters of two Assistant
Collectors of Salt Revenue, one of whom is in charge of the works and
the other of the preventive establishment which patrols a line extend¬
ing from Dhanduka to Jamaiya. The town contains a dispensary,
a library, a dharmsdla^ and a market; and water is supplied by pipes
from a tank built at a cost of 2| lakhs about a mile to the north
of the town.

Kharagpur.—Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Monghyr
District, Bengal, situated in 25° 7' N. and 86° 33' E. Population
(1901), 2,442. The pargana named after it now forms part of the
estates of the Maharaja of Darbhanga. The village is best known for
its irrigation works. These consist of a dam across the river ]\Ian,

khArax

247

by which its water is banked up in a valley in the hills, and about
28 square miles in the possession of the Raj tenants are irrigated.

Kharakpur.—Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Midnapore
District, Bengal, situated in 22° 20' N. and 87° 21' E. Population
(1901), 3,526. It is an important junction on the Bengal-Xagpur
Railway, from which the East Coast section runs south to Madras,
while the main line connects Calcutta with Bombay, and a branch runs
north to Bankura and Jherria. Kharakpur is 8 miles from Midnapore
town, with which it is connected by road. In the village is the shrine
of Pir Lohani, which is venerated by Hindus as well as by Muham¬
madans.

Kharakvasla.—Artificial reservoir in Poona District, Bombay.
See Lake Fife.

Kharan.—A quasi-independent tribal area of the Kalat State,
Baluchistmi, lying between 26° 52' and 29° 13' X. and 62*^ 49' and
66® 4' E., with an area of 14,210 square miles. It consists of a wide
plain, irregularly quadrilateral in shape, and varying in elevation from
2,500 feet on the north-east to 1,600 feet on the west. It is bounded
on the north by the Ras Koh hills ; on the south by the Siahan range;
on the east by the Garr hills of the Jhalawan country ; while on the
west the boundary runs with Persia. The country is generally regarded
as entirely desert; in reality, however, considerable tracts of cultivated
land are situated at the foot of the hills and along the courses of the
Baddo and Mashkel rivers. jNlost of the remainder of the country is
covered by immense stretches of sand. The hydrography of the
plain is peculiar. Torrents drain into it from the surrounding moun¬
tains, but find no outlet to the sea. Besides the Mashkel and Baddo,
the only streams of importance are the Garruk or Sarap and the
Korakan.

The only part of Kharan that has been geologically examined is the
Ras Koh range, the mass of which may be divided into three zones,
the northern consisting mainly of intrusive rocks, the central of shales,
and the southern of tall limestone ridges. The plain is covered in
parts with alluvial deposit and elsew’here with sand. The botany of
the country has never been studied. Trees are scarce, but the ravines
contain quantities of tamarisk, of Jlaloxylofi amviodendroji^ and in
years of good rainfall many grasses. Among the latter may be men¬
tioned magher {Rtanex vesicariiis)^ the seed of which is eaten as a
famine food and is also exported. Another famine food consists of
kulkusht {Citrullus Colocynthis\ the seeds of which are made into bread.
The surrounding hills produce asafoetida. Sind ibex and mountain
sheep inhabit the hills, and ‘ravine-deer’ (gazelle) their skirts. Herds
of wild asses are found in the neighbourhood of the Mashkel river.
Snakes are numerous.

248

khAran

The climate is dry but healthy. Severe dust-storms are experienced
throughout the year, being especially trying from June to September.
The heat in summer is great, but the nights are abvays cool. The
winter is cold. Most of the small amount of rain that falls is received
between January and IMarch.

Little is known of the history of the country previous to the end of
the seventeenth century, when Ibrahim Khan, the Nausherwani chief
of Kharan, ser^'ed the Ghilzai dynasty of Kandahar, except that it
appears to have formed part of the Persian province of Kirman. The
Nausherwani chiefs, round whom local history centres, claim descent
from the Kianian IMaliks, and have always been a race of strong-willed,
bold, and adventurous men, taking full advantage of their desert-pro¬
tected country for organizing raiding expeditions against their neigh¬
bours, and professing a fitful allegiance to Persia, to Kalat, and to
Afghanistan in turn. The most famous were Purdil Khan, against
whom Nadir Shah had to send an expedition about 1734; and Azad
Khan, who died in 1885. There is evidence that, in the time of Nadir
Shah, Kharan was still included in Kirman ; but Nasir Khan I appears
to have brought it under the control of Kalat, and the country remained
under that State until quarrels between 'Mir Khudadad Khan and Azad
Khan in the middle of the nineteenth century threw the latter into the
arms of Afghanistan. In 1884 Sir Robert Sandeman visited Kharan,
and succeeded in settling the chief points of difference between the chief
and Khudadad Khan. Kharan was brought under the political control
of the British, and an allowance of Rs. 6,000 per annum was given to
the chief. The only Europeans who had previously visited Kharan
were Pottinger, who marched through the whole length of the country
in 1810; and Macgregor, who crossed the western end in 1877.

The principal objects of archaeological interest are tombs, attributed
to the Kianian Maliks, bearing large brick slabs on which are engraved
rough representations of camels, horses, and other animals, the best
preserved being at Gwachig in Dehgwar. Inscriptions, presumably
Kufic, have been found in JMwar and Kallag.

The normal population is about 19,000 persons, but it is estimated
that 5,500 have recently emigrated. Almost all are nomads living in
mat huts and blanket tents. The permanent villages number twenty.
The head-quarters of the country are at Shahr-i-Karez or Kharan Kalat,
which possesses a population of 1,500. Baluchi is the language of the
majority, but in the east Brahui is also spoken. The name usually
applied by the people to themselves is Rakhshani; but this term is
strictly applicable only to the groups forming the majority, the
remainder being Muhammad Hasnis, and miscellaneous groups such
as Kambranis, Gurgnaris, ChhanMs, Loris, and servile dependants.
The dominant class, the Nausherwanis, consists of nine families.

KHARAX

249

Other Nausherwanis live in Makran, where their quarrels with the
Gichkis have long been a thorn in the side of the Makran adminis¬
tration. Camel-breeding and flock-owning are the principal occupa¬
tions, in addition to agriculture. Felts, rugs in the dari stitch, and
sacking are made by the women for home use. By religion the people
are Sunni Muhammadans.

The country is divided into six 7 iidbats : Kharan with Sarawan,
Gwash, Shimshan with Salambek, Hurmagai including JMwar, Mashkel,
and Washuk with Palantak. Raghai and Rakhshan in Makran also
belong to the Kharan chief, and he holds lands in Panjgur, Mashkai,
and elsewhere in the Jhalawan country.

The greater part of the cultivable area is ‘ dry crop,’ dependent on
flood irrigation. Four dams have been constructed in the Baddo river,
and one each in the Korakan and the Garruk. The nidbats of Kharan
with Sarawan, Gwash, and Washuk with Palantak possess a few irri¬
gated lands. The alluvial soil is fertile when irrigated. The spring
harvest consists of wheat with a little barley. In summer joivdr and
melons are grown. ^Vashuk and Mashkel contain large date-groves.
The system of planting the date-trees is peculiar, the root-suckers being
placed in pits, dug to the depth of the moisture-bearing strata, which
are kept clear of the wind-blown sand until the suckers have taken
root, when the pits are allowed to fill. Camels, sheep, and goats form
the live-stock of the country, and are sold in Afghanistan and many
parts of Baluchistan. About 100 horses are kept by the chief.
Bullocks are few in number. Good salt is obtained from \\'ad-i-Sultan
and Wadian in the Hamun-i-Mashkel.

Since the recent development of Nushki, much of the trade finds its
way to that place. Trade is also carried on with Nal in the J halawan
country and Panjgur in Makran. The exports consist of ghi and wool,
and the imports of piece-goods, tobacco, and grain, the latter chiefly
from the Helniand valley. Sheep and goats are sent to Quetta and
Karachi. Tracks, possessing a moderate supply of water from wells,
connect Shahr-i-Karez with Ladgasht and thence with Panjgur; with
Nal via Beseima; and with Panjgur via ^Vashuk.

Long periods of drought are common, causing the people to migrate.
That such migrations were not unknown in former days also is indicated
by a sa?tad from Ahmad Shah Durrani, which is still extant, permitting
the Kharan chief to collect his scattered people from the adjoining
countries. In recent years the rainfall has been constantly deficient
and much emigration has taken place. The chief always keeps the
granaries in his nidbats full, and when scarcity occurs makes advances
in grain without interest, which are recovered at the next harvest.
This system is quite exceptional for Baluchistan.

In 1884 the chief consented to sit in Kalat darbdrs with the Sarawan

250

A^I/AJ^AA^

division of the Brahuis ; but since then he has acquired a position of
(luashindependence, and is directly controlled by the Political Agent in
Kalat. Each of the niabats already mentioned is in charge of a naib^
whose business is to collect the revenue, pursue raiders and offenders,
and report cases after inquiry to the chief or to his agent, known as
the shdhghdsi. Civil cases are decided either by the chief or his agent,
or by the kdzt at Kharan Kalat in accordance with Muhammadan law.
Order is maintained by a force of about 450 men, armed with swords,
matchlocks, and breechloaders. About 170 of these form the garrison
of Dehgwar, to prevent raids by the Damanis of the Persian border,
and 69 are stationed in Raghai and Rakhshan. In addition, all the
tribesmen are liable to military service, when called upon. Those
living near Shahr-i-Karez and all sepoys must always keep ready for
emergencies a skin of water, a pair of sandals, and a bag containing
about 8 lb. of flour. The chief possesses three muzzle-loading cannon
and a mortar.

Besides an allowance of Rs. 6,000 from the Government, the chiefs
revenue consists of his share of grain in kind; a poll-tax on some
households; a goat, sheep, or felt from others; the equivalent of the
price of one or two camels from certain groups; fines; unclaimed
property; and transit dues. The aggregate income from local sources
fluctuates with the character of the agricultural seasons, but probably
amounts to about a lakh of rupees in a good year. The land revenue
is levied at the rate of one-fourth to one-tenth of the produce. The
chiefs own lands are cultivated by his dependants and servants, who
receive a share of the produce, generally one-fifth. The largest items
of expenditure are incurred on the maintenance of the chiefs per¬
manent force, which is estimated to cost about Rs. 2,000 a month, and
on the entertainment of guests, the system of Baloch hospitality
obliging the chief to keep his house open to all comers.

Kharar. — Tahsil oi Ambala District, Punjab, lying at the foot of the
Himalayas, between 30® 34' and 30° 56' N. and 76° 22'and 76° 55' E.,
with an area of 370 square miles, and forming part of the Riipar sub¬
division. The population in 1901 was 166,267, compared with 176,298
in 1891. It contains 369 villages, of which Kharar is the head-quarters.
The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to 3-1 lakhs. For
administrative purposes the hill station of Kasauli (population, 2,192)
and the town of Kalka (7,045) are included in this tahslL The
northern part lies in the SiwMiks. Between the hills and the Ghaggar,
in the east, is an unhealthy tract of jungle and rice-fields. The soil in
the centre and west is a fertile loam, which in the south stiffens into
clay. Communications are everywhere rendered difficult by the torrent-
beds which intersect the country.

Kharar.— Town in the Ghatal subdivision of Midnapore District,

KHARGOX

25 ^

Bengal, situated in 22^ 40' N. and 87® 44' E. Population (1901),
9,508. Brass and bell-metal wares are extensively manufactured.
Kharar was constituted a municipality in 1888. The income and
expenditure during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 3,500
and Rs. 3,600 respectively. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 4,800,
derived mainly from a tax on persons (or property tax) ; and the
expenditure was Rs. 4,100.

Kharari. —Town in Sirohi State, Rajputana. See Abu Road.

Kharda. —Town in the Jamkhed idluka of Ahmadnagar District,
Bombay, situated in 18'' 38^ X. and 75° 29' E., 56 miles south-east of
Ahmadnagar city. Population (1901), 5,930, including a hamlet of
798. In 1795 an engagement took place near here between the
]\Iarathas and the Nizam. The general of the latter, being defeated,
retreated to Kharda, where he was completely hemmed in, and
constrained to accede to an ignominious treaty. The town contains
upwards of 500 substantial merchants, shopkeepers, and money-lenders,
many of whom carry on a large trade in grain, country cloth, and other
articles. Kharda belonged to the Nimbalkar, one of the Nizam’s
Maratha nobles, whose handsome mansion in the middle of the town
is now in ruins. In 1745 the Nimbalkar built a fort to the south-east
of the town. The fort is square, in good repair, being built with cut
stone walls 25 or 30 feet high, and is surrounded by a ditch, now in
ruins. The walls have a massive gateway, and two gates at right angles
to each other. The cattle market on Tuesday is the largest in the
District. The municipality, which was constituted in 1890, had an
average income during the decade ending 1901 of Rs. 2,400. In
1903-4 the income was also Rs. 2,400.

Khardah. —Village in the Barrackpore subdivision of the District of
the Twenty-four Parganas, Bengal, situated in 22®44'N. and 88® 22'
E., on the left bank of the Hooghly river. Population (1901), 1,777.
Khardah is a favourite place of pilgrimage for Vaishnavas, who visit it
in honour of Nityananda, one of the disciples of Chaitanya, who took
up his residence here. His descendants are regarded as gurus^ or
spiritual guides, by the Vaishnavas. There is a hne temple, containing
the image of Syam Sundar, a name for the god Krishna. The village
lies within the South Barrackpore municipality, and is a station on the
Eastern Bengal State Railway. Shoe-brushes and bricks are manu¬
factured on a large scale.

Khargon. —Head-quarters of the Nimar district, Indore State, Cen¬
tral India, situated in 21° 50' N. and 75® 37' E., on the left bank of the
Kundi river, a tributary of the Narbada. Population (1901), 7,624.
Khargon appears to have been founded under the Mughals. It was the
chief town of a mahdl in the Bijagarh sarkdr of the Suhak of Malwa,
and later on became the chief town of the sarkdr. Its importance in

VOL. XV.

KHARGON

252

those days is shown by the remains of large houses and numerous
tombs. Besides the district and pargana offices, a jail, a school, a dis¬
pensary, a public library, and a State post office are situated in the
town. Local affairs are managed by a municipality, with an income of
Rs. 500, chiefly derived from octroi and other taxes.

Kharia.—River of Bengal, another name for the Jalangi.

Kharian .—Tahsll of Gujrat District, Punjab, lying between 32° 31'
and 33^ V N. and 73° 35' and 74° 12' E., with an area of 646 square
miles. The Jhelum river divides it on the north-west from Jhelum Dis¬
trict, while on the north-east a fixed boundary has now been laid down
between this taJml and Kashmir territory. The greater part consists
of a slightly undulating plain, well wooded, highly cultivated, and inter¬
sected by nullahs, especially towards the east. The Pabbi Hills run
north-east and south-\vest, roughly parallel to the Jhelum river. The
southern face of the range is steep, but tow'ards the river the slope is
more gradual. The population in 1901 was 242,687, compared with
248,076 in 1891. It contains the town of Dinga (population, 5,412)
and 507 villages, including Kharian, the head-quarters. The land
revenue and cesses in 1903-4 amounted to 2-9 lakhs. Lala Musa
railway junction is situated in this tahsll.

Kharsawan,—Feudatory State of Chota Nagpur, Bengal, lying
between 22° 41' and 22° 53' N. and 85*^ 38' and 85° 55' E., with an
area of 153^ square miles. It is bounded on the north by the Districts
of Ranchi and Manbhum ; on the east by the State of Saraikela; and
on the south and west by Singhbhum District. The river Sonai flow^s
through the State from north-west to south-east. The country on the
north and the Kolhan pir on the south of this river consist of long
ranges of jungle-clad hills, attaining in one place an elevation of 2,529
feet. The depressions between them are terraced for cultivation. The
rest of the State is a lowland tract, dotted here and there with isolated
small hills. In this part, almost the whole of the cultivable area has
been cleared of forest and turned into rice lands. Iron is found in
a nodular form in most of the hilly ranges. Gold is found in very
small quantities in the sands of the Sonai river. Copper must once
have been extracted on a very large scale in Kharsawan, and traces of
ancient mines can be seen at intervals throughout the whole breadth
of the State for a length of 15 miles; the most extensive were in the
neighbourhood of Lopso. Recent prospecting operations indicate that
the supply of copper is still far from exhausted, and it is probable that
in the near future the State may once more become an important
mining centre. Nodular limestone, a stalagmitic deposit called asurhad,
slate, and potstone are found in the hilly tracts. About 40 square

‘ This figure, which differs irom the area shown in the Census Report of 1901, was
su])plied by the burveyor-General.

kharsAwan

253

miles of the State are covered with forest, containing chiefly sal {Shorea
robusta)^ dsan {Terminalia tomeHtosa\ gamhdr {Gmelina arborea)^
kiisum {Schleichera trijuga)^ pidsdl [Fterocarpus Marsupium)^ kend
^Diospyros ?nelanoxylon)^ jdmun {Eugenia Jambolana)^ and bamboos.
Minor jungle products comprise lac, tasar cocoons, and myrabolams.
Tigers, leopards, bears, several kinds of deer, hares, and peafowl abound
in the forests. Snakes of several kinds are common everywhere.

The chief of Kharsawan belongs to a junior branch of the Porahat
Raja's family. Some generations before the establishment of British
rule, Kunwar Bikram Singh, a younger brother of the Raja, obtained
from him as a maintenance grant the eleven pirs which constitute the
present States of Saraikela and Kharsawan. Bikram Singh by his two
wives left live sons. The eldest succeeded to Saraikela, and the second
son, from whom the present chief is directly descended, to Kharsawan.
The State first came under the notice of the British in 1 793, when, in
consequence of disturbances on the frontier of the old Jungle Mahals,
the Thakur of Kharsawan and the Kunwar of Saraikela were compelled
to enter into certain agreements relating to the treatment of fugitive
rebels. I'he chief is bound, when called upon, to render service to the
British Government, but he has never had to pay tribute. His present
sanad was granted in 1899. He exercises all administrative powers,
executive and judicial, subject to the control of the Deputy-Com¬
missioner of Singhbhum and the Commissioner of (diota Nagpur,
and is empowered to pass sentences of imprisonment up to live years
and of fine to the extent of Rs. 200. Sentences of imprisonment tor
more than two years require the confirmation of the Commissioner.
Heinous offences calling for heavier punishment are dealt with by the
Deputy-Commissioner of Singhbhum. The present chief, Sri Ram
Chandra Singh Deo, being a minor, the State is, for the time being,
under direct British administration.

The population increased from 35,470 in 1891 to 36,540 in 1901,
the density being 239 persons per square mile. The inhabitants
dwell in 263 villages, the most important of which is Kharsawan,
the head-quarters of the State. Hindus number 19,864 and Animists
16,277, being the most numerous tribe. About 78 per cent,

of the population are supported by agriculture. The principal crops
grown in the State in order of importance are rice, maize, pulses,
mustard, sugar-cane, and tobacco. Coarse cotton cloths and iron
cooking utensils are manufactured for local use, and in some villages
leaf mats are made. The chief exports are rice, pulses, oilseeds, stick-
lac, lasar cocoons, and iron ; and the chief imports are salt, cotton
thread, cotton piece-goods, tobacco, and brass cooking utensils. Trade
has been stimulated by the opening of the Bengal-Nagpur Railway,
which runs through 12 miles of the State boundary; a station at Aiiiua

K 2

254

KIIARSA IVAN

Physical

aspects.

is 3 miles from its head-quarters. The State contains 8 miles of
metalled and 28 miles of unmetalled roads. The total revenue is
Rs. 42,000, of which Rs. 17,000 is derived from the land. The police
force consists of 4 officers and 13 constables, and there is a jail with
accommodation for ii prisoners. The State also maintains a dis¬
pensary, a middle English school, and two lower primary schools.

Kharsi. —Thakurdt in the Bhopal Agency, Central India.

Kharsiang.—Subdivision and town in Darjeeling District, Bengal.
See Kurseong.

Khasi and Jaintia Hills.—District in Eastern Bengal and Assam,
lying between 24° 58' and 26° 7' N. and 90° 45' and 92° 51'E., with
an area of 6,027 square miles. The District, which forms the central
section of the watershed between the valleys of the Brahmaputra and
the Surma, is bounded on the north by Kamrup and Nowgong; on
the east by Nowgong and Cachar; on the south by Sylhet; and
on the west by the Garo Hills. To the north the hills rise gradually
from the Brahmaputra Valley in a succession of
low ranges, covered with dense evergreen forest;
but on the south the Khasi Hills spring immedi¬
ately from the plain to a height of 4,000 feet, and form a level wall
along the north of the Surma Valley. The Jaintia Hills slope more
gently to the plain, but these also have no low outlying ranges. The
southern and central portions of the District consist of a wide plateau
between 4,000 and 6,000' feet above sea-level, the highest point of
which, the Shillong peak, rises to 6,450 feet. On the north towards
Kamrup are two similar plateaux of lower elevation. The general
appearance of these table-lands is that of undulating downs. They
are covered with short grass, but destitute both of the dense forest and
of the high jungle with one or other of which waste land in Assam is
almost invariably covered. Here and there are to be seen clumps of
oak and pine, the hills are broken up with deep gorges and smiling
valleys, and the scenery is not unlike that found in many parts of
England. A considerable number of rivers rise in the hills, but are
of little importance as a means of communication within the boun¬
daries of the District. The largest streams flowing towards the north
are the Kapili, Barpani, Umiam or Kiling, and Digru, all of
which fall either direct or through other channels into the Kalang in
Nowgong 5 and the Khri, which is called the Kulsi in Kamrup. To
the south the best-known rivers are the Lubha, Bogapani, and
Kynchiang or Jadukata. Where they flow through the plateau, the
larger rivers have cut for themselves deep gorges of great beauty, whose
precipitous sides are generally clothed with forest.

The Shillong plateau consists of a great mass of gneiss, which is bare
on the northern border, but in the central region is covered by tran-

KHAST AXD /AIXT/A HILLS

255

sition or sub-metamorphic rocks. To the south, in contact with the
gneiss and sub-metamori)hic, is a great volcanic outburst of trap, which
is stratified and brought to the surface south of Chcrrapiinji. Still
farther south are Cretaceous and Nummulitic strata, which contain
deposits of coal and lime.

The characteristic trees of the central plateau are those of a tem¬
perate zone. At an elevation of 3,000 feet the indigenous pine i^Pinus
Khasya) predominates over all other vegetation, and forms almost pure
pine forests. The highest peaks are clothed with fine clumps of oak,
chestnut, magnolia, beech, and other trees, which superstition has
preserved from the axe of the wood-cutter. Azaleas and rhododen¬
drons gro\v wild, and many kinds of beautiful orchids are found in
the woods.

Wild animals include elephants, bison {Bos gaurus)^ tigers, bears,
leopards, wild dogs, wild biiffeloes in the lower ranges, and various
kinds of deer.

The climate is cool and pleasant. In the hottest weather the ther¬
mometer at Shillong rarely rises above 80°, and in the winter ice
often forms. Snow seldom falls, but this is partly due to the fact
that there is little or no precipitation of moisture in the cold season.
Malaria lurks in the low ranges of hills on the north, but the climate
of the high plateau is extremely healthy, and is admirably adapted to
European constitutions.

There is no station in India where the recorded rainfall is as heavy
as at Cherrapunji, on the southern face of the Khasi Hills. The
average annual fall at this place is 458 inches ; but the clouds are
rapidly drained of their moisture, and at Shillong, which is less than
30 miles away, it is only 82 inches. At Jowai, which lies at about the
same distance south-east of Shillong, the average annual fall is 237
inches. The rainfall has never been recorded in the northern hills,
but it is probably between 80 and 90 inches in the year. The District
has always been subject to earthquakes, but all previous shocks were
thrown into insignificance by the catastrophe of June 12, 1897. The
whole of Shillong was levelled with the ground, masonry houses
collapsed, and roads and bridges were destroyed all over the District.
The total number of lives lost was 916. Most of these casualties
occurred in the cliff villages near Cherrapunji, and were due to the
falling of the hill-sides, which carried villages with them or buried
them in their ruins.

On ethnological grounds there are reasons for supposing that the
Khasis and Syntengs have been established in these hills for many
centuries; but, living as they did in comparative History
isolation in their mountain strongholds, little is
known of their early liistory. At the end of the eighteenth century

KHAST AND JATNTTA HILLS

256

they harried the plains on the north and south of the District, and
their raids were thus described by Peni]:)erton in 1835 :—

‘They descended into the plains both of Assam and Sylhet, and
ravaged with fire and sword the villages which stretched along the base
of this lofty region. Night was the time almost invariably chosen for
these murderous assaults, when neither sex nor age were spared h’

The Khasi Hills were first visited by Europeans in 1826, when
Mr. David Scott entered into arrangements with the chiefs for the
construction of a road through their territory from Assam into Sylhet.
Work was begun; but in 1829 the Khasis took alarm at the threats
of a Bengali chaprasi, who declared that the hills were to he brought
under taxation. The tribes suddenly rose and massacred two Euro¬
pean officers, Lieutenants Bedingfield and Burlton, near Nongkhlao,
with about 60 of their native followers. Military operations were at
once commenced, but were protracted through several seasons, and
it was not till 1833 that the last of the Khasi chiefs tendered his sub¬
mission. Engagements were then entered into with the heads of the
various Khasi States. Their independence was recognized. Govern¬
ment abstained from imposing any taxation upon their subjects, and
their territories were held to be beyond the borders of British India.
Since that date the history of the Khasi States has been one of peace¬
ful development, only checked by the great earthquake of 1897. The
Jaintia Hills lapsed to the British Government in 1835, when the Raja
was deprived of the Jaintia Parganas in the District of Sylhet, on
account of his complicity in the murder of three British subjects. For
the next twenty years the Syntengs, as the inhabitants of the Jaintia
Hills are called, were left almost entirely to their own devices. The
administration was entrusted to their own headmen, who were un¬
doubtedly corrupt; but the only tax levied was that dating from the
Raja’s time, which consisted of one male goat from each village. In
i860 a house tax was imposed, as in the other hill tracts of the
Province, and within a few months the people rose in open rebellion.
Fortunately, a large force of troops was close at hand, and before the
revolt could make headway it was stamped out. Scarcely, however,
had the agitation subsided when the income tax was introduced into
the hills. The total amount assessed was only Rs. 1,259,
highest individual assessment Rs. 9 ; but this was enough to irritate
a people who had never been accustomed to pay anything but the
lightest of tribute to their own princes, and who had never been taught
by conquest the extent of the British resources. In January, 1862,
a revolt began ; and, though apparently crushed in four months, it broke
out again, and it was not till November, 1863, that the last of the

^ Report on the Eastern Frontier of Rritish India, by Captain U. 15 . Pemberton,
p. 221 (Calcutta, 1S35).

POPULA TIOX

leaders surrendered, and the pacification of Jaintia could be said to
be complete. Since that date a British officer has been posted
in the Jaintia Hills, and the people have given no trouble. Cherra-
punji was originally selected as the head-quarters of the hills, but the
rainfall was found to be so excessive that the District officer moved
to Shillong in 1864; and Shillong was constituted the head-quarters of
the Administration when Assam was formed into a separate Province
ten years later.

The population of the District, as returned at the last four enumera¬
tions, was: (1872) 140,356, (1881) 167,804,(1891) 197,904, and (1901)
202,250. The slow rate of increase which occurred Population
during the last decade was due to the unfavourable
conditions prevailing after the earthquake of 1897. The first two
enumerations were probably incomplete. The District contains two
subdivisions, Shillong and Jowai, with head-quarters at places of
the same names. Shillong (population, 8,384) is the only town, and
there are 1,839 villages.

The following table gives for each subdivision particulars of area,
population, lS:c., according to the Census of 1901 : —

Number of

Subdivision.

S, 5 .

u s ^ s

Shillong
j owai

.[ 3,941 I 1,199 134^329 34
. ; 2,086 ... , 640 67,921 33

+ C.7
+ ^-2

u-2 C ,•
ii ^ zi Z

■ I

District total 16,027 ^ G ^39 202,250 34

n.47'^ I

About 88 per cent, of the population of 1901 were still faithful to
their tribal religion, 3 per cent, were Hindus, and nearly all the
remainder Christians. The female element in the population is very
large, and there were 1,080 women to every 1,000 men enumerated
in 1901, a fact which is probably connected with the independent
position enjoyed by women. Of the total population, 59 per cent,
spoke Khasi, a language which belongs to the Mon-Anam family, and
27 per cent. Synteng. The principal tribes were Khasis (107,500),
Syntengs, a cognate tribe in the jaintia Hills (47,900), and Mikirs
(12,800). The proportion of the population .supported by agriculture,
76 per cent., is comparatively low for Assam ; but the Khasis are keen
traders, and ready to earn money in any honest way.

The Khasis and Syntengs, like the other tribes of Assam, are
descendants of the great Indo-Chinese race, who.se head-quarters are
supposed to have been in North-Western China between the upper
waters of the Ho-ang-ho and the ^^ang-tse-kiang. They are. however,

25S

KHASI AXD JAIXTIA HILLS

thought to belong to one of the earliest bands of immigrants, and their
language is quite unlike any other form of tribal speech now found in
Assam, but is connected with the Mon-Khmer language used by
various tribes in Anam and Cambodia. While the rest of the horde
pressed onwards towards the sea, the Khasis remained behind in their
new highland home, and for many centuries have maintained their
nationality intact, though surrounded on every side by people of
a different stock. The tribe is subdivided into a large number of
exogamous clans, which are in theory composed of persons descended
from the same female ancestor. Each clan possesses distinctive
religious rites, and a special place in which the uncalcined bones
are buried after cremation. Politically, they are divided into a large
number of petty States, most of which are ruled by a chief, or Siem,
and some of which have less than 1,000 inhabitants. The Siemship
usually remains in one family, but the succession was originally con¬
trolled by a small electoral body, constituted from the heads of certain
priestly clans. Of recent years there has been a tendency to broaden
the elective basis, and the constitution of a Khasi State has always
been of a very democratic character, a Siem exercising but little control
over his people.

In personal appearance the Khasis are short and sturdy, with great
muscular development of the leg. The features are of a distinctly
Mongolian type, with oblique eyes, a low nasal index, and high cheek
bones. They are of a cheerful, friendly disposition, but, though
peaceful in their habits, are unused to discipline or restraint.

Among many of the north-east frontier tribes there is little security
of life and property, and the people are compelled to live in large
villages on sites selected for their defensive capabilities. The Khasis
seem, however, to have been less distracted by internal warfare, and
the villages, as a rule, are small. The houses are low, with roofs nearly
reaching to the ground, and are usually made of wooden planks.
They are not built on platforms, as is commonly the case with the
hill tribes ; but the floor is often made of boards, and the roofs of
the well-to-do are covered with corrugated iron or oil tins beaten flat.
The interior is generally divided into two compartments.

The men usually wear a sleeveless cotton shirt, a loin-cloth, and
a wrap, and on their heads a turban, or a curious cloth cap with a peak
over the forehead. The women are well clad in chemises and body-
cloths, and both sexes often wear stockings with the feet cut off. The
costumes brought out on gala days are most elaborate. The men wear
silk loin-cloths and finely embroidered coats, while the women appear
in really handsome silk cloths of different colours. The jewellery
is massive, but handsome, consisting of silver coronets and pendants
and heavy necklaces of coral and lac overlaid with gold. Their

POPULATION

259

weapons are bows and arrows, with which they are always practising,
swords, and shields. Their staple diet is dried fish and rice ; but they
eat, when they can afford it, pork, beef, and any kind of game. Dog,
however, they avoid, as, according to their legends, he was created to
be the companion of man and his assistant in the chase. They drink
large quantities of liquor, prepared from rice and millet, both fer¬
mented and distilled, and continually chew pan.

At a marriage the parties are pronounced man and wife in the
presence of their friends, and a feast usually follows. The essential
part of the ceremony consists in the mixing of liquor from two different
gourds, representing the two contracting parties, and the eating by the
bride and groom out of the same plate. The bride at first remains in
her mother's house, where she is visited by her husband ; but when
children are born, the parents, if they continue satisfied with one
another, set up housekeeping together. This union between the sexes,
however, can be terminated by mutual consent \ and as the initial
ceremony costs but little, a man is not deterred from changing his wife
by the expense of obtaining a new partner. Divorce is very common,
and is effected by a public declaration, coupled with the presentation
by the man to the woman of five cowries or copper coins, which she
returns to him with five similar coins of her own. He then throws
them away. The public proclamation is occasionally dispensed with,
and the marriage dissolved by the simple tearing of a pan leaf. The
facility with which divorce can be obtained renders adultery or inter¬
course prior to marriage uncommon. ]\tarriage, in fact, is merely a
union of the sexes, dissoluble at will, and the people have no tempta¬
tion to embark on secret intrigues. A woman who commits adultery
is, moreover, regarded with extreme disfavour; and, according to the
Khasi code of morals, there is only one thing worse, and that is to
marry in one’s own clan. A widow is allowed to remarry, but not into
the family of her late husband, a practice exactly the converse of that
prevailing in the Garo Hills, to the west.

The Khasis burn their dead, each clan or family having its own
burning-ground. Two arrows are shot, one to the east and the other
to the west, to protect the dead man, and a cock is sacrificed, which is
supposed to show the spirit the way to the other world, and to wake
him at dawn so that he may pursue his journey. The bones are
subsequently collected from the pyre and removed to the common
burial-place of the tribe. The stones erected to the memory of the
dead form a special feature, being very numerous and often of great
size; the largest are as much as 27 feet in height with an average
breadth of nearly 7 feet. These monuments are of two kinds, some
being tall upright monoliths, others flat slabs resting on smaller stones
about 18 inches high. The monoliths are generally placed in rows.

26 o

KTfASI A YD JATNTIA HILLS

the central stone being erected in memory of the maternal uncle and
one on either side in honour of the deceased and the deceased’s father.
As with all monuments, these stones are erected near villages and
paths, where they will be most often seen. The matriarchal theory
is in full force, and inheritance goes through the female line. A Siem
is usually succeeded by his uterine brothers, and failing them by his
sisters’ sons. If he has no such nephews, the succession falls to his
first cousins or grandnephews, but only to such as are cognates,
his own sons and his kinsmen through the male line having no claim
at all to the inheritance. So long as a man remains in his mother’s
house, whether married or unmarried, he is earning for his mother’s
family, and his mother or sisters and their children are his heirs.
If, however, he is living separately with his wife, she and her daughters
are entitled to succeed.

The natural religion of the Kbasis, like that of most of the hill
tribes, is somewhat vague and ill defined. They believe in a future
state, but do not trouble themselves much about it. Misfortunes are
attributed to evil spirits, and steps are at once taken to ascertain who
is offended, and how he best may be propitiated. One of their most
curious superstitions is that of the thioi. The tradition runs that there
was once in a cave near Cherrapunji a gigantic snake or thien, which
caused great havoc among men and animals. At last, one man took
with him to the cave a herd of goats, and offered them one by one to
the monster. The snake soon learnt to open its mouth to be fed at
a given signal, and the man then made a lump of iron red hot, threw it
into its mouth, and thus killed it. The body was then cut up and
eaten, but one small piece remained, from which sprang a multitude of
thlens. These thlens attach themselves to different families, and bring
wealth and prosperity, but only if they are from time to time fed on
human blood. To satisfy this craving a human being must be killed,
and the hair, the tips of the fingers, and a little blood offered to the
snake. Many families are known or suspected to be ri fhle 7 i, or
keepers of the and murders are not unfrequently committed in

consequence of this awful superstition.

The people have shown themselves extremely receptive of Chris¬
tianity, but have little taste for Hinduism. One of their chief char-
acteri.stics is a dislike of all re.straint, including the restraint of tradition,
which is of such binding force among most of the inhabitants of the
East. There are few people less conservative than the Khasis, and
they are ever ready to take up a novelty. To this healthy spirit of
enterprise is due the marked progress they have made in the develop¬
ment of material comfort, and the extent to which they have outstripped
the other tribes on the north-east frontier in their progress towards
civilization.

AGRICULTURE

261

The Syntengs are very closely allied to the Khasis in language,
religion, and customs. They are, however, less sturdily built and
have darker complexions, the result, in all probability, of closer con¬
nexion with the plains. They owned allegiance to the Jaintia Raja,
whose local representatives were twelve dollois or headmen ; but he
received little in the way of tribute, and it is doubtful whether his
influence in the hills was ever very strong.

The Welsh Presbyterian Mission, which has been established in
these hills since 1841, has met with a large measure of success. The
schools of the District are under the management of this society, which
has succeeded not only in converting, but in imparting the elements of
instruction to, a large proportion of the animistic population. In 1903
they had nine centres in the hills, at which twenty-one missionaries
were employed. Of recent years a Roman Catholic mission has
started work. The total number of native Christians in the District
at the Census of 1901 was 17,125.

The soil of the Khasi Hills consists of a stiff clay, often indurated
with particles of iron, which in its natural state is far from fertile.

Manure is accordinglv much prized, and cow-dung ^ .

1, 1' 1 1 , , Agriculture.

IS carefully collected and stored. 1 owards the

east, the land becomes more fertile, and is often a rich black

loam, and manure is not so necessary. In the inore level valleys,

in which the central plateau abounds, rice is grown in terraces and

irrigated : and such fields are also found on the northern margin

of the District, wherever the conformation of the surface admits of

them. Water is run on these fields in winter, to keep the soil soft

and free from cracks. Elsewhere, the crop is raised on the hill-side.

Turf and scrub are dug up, arranged in beds and burnt, and seed is

sown in the ashes which serve as manure. In addition to rice, the

principal crops are maize, job's-tears {Coix Lacryma), various kinds of

millet and pulse, and a leguminous plant called sohphlang {Fl€miny;ia

vesfita)^ which produces large numbers of tubers about the size of

pigeons’ eggs among its roots. Cotton is grown in the forest clearings

to the north, and oranges, bay leaves, areca-nut, and ])ine-apples on the

southern slopes of the hills. This portion of the District was much

affected by the earthquake of 1897, and many valuable groves were

destroyed by deposits of .sand.

There are no statistics to show the area under cultivation : hut the
Khasis are energetic and enterprising farmers, and readily adopt fresli
staples that seem likely to yield a profit. Potatoes were first introduced
in 1830, and were soon widely cultivated. In 1882 nearly 5,000 tons
of this tuber were exported from the hills, but a few years later blight
appeared, and there has since been a great decrease in the exports.
An experimental farm has been started near Shillong, and new varieties

262

K//AS/ Ayn /ALYT/A HILLS

of potato introduced, which have been readily adopted by the Khasis.
Peach- and pear-trees are grown in the higher hills, and efforts have
recently been made to acclimatize various kinds of English fruit.
A serious obstacle is, however, to be found in the heavy rainfall of
May and June, and only early-ripening varieties are likely to do well.

The cattle are fat and handsome little animals, much superior to
those found in the plains. The cows yield little milk, but what they
give is very rich in cream. The Khasis do not milk their cows, and in
many places do not use the plough, cattle being chiefly kept for the
sake of the manure they yield, and for food. Ponies are bred, which
in appearance and manners are not unlike the sturdy little animals of
P>hutan. Pigs are kept in almost every house, and efforts have been
recently made to improve the breed by the introduction of English
and Australian animals.

Two square miles of pine forest near Shillong have been formally
reserved, and there is a ‘reserved’ forest 50 square miles in area at
Saipung in the south-east corner of the Jaintia Hills. This forest is
said to contain a certain quantity of jiahor {Mesua fer7’ed) and sain
{^Ariocai'pus Chaplasha\ but up to date it has not been worked. Pine
and oak are the predominating trees in the higher plateaux; but this
portion of the District is very sparsely wooded, the trees having been
killed out by forest fires and shifting cultivation. The ravines on the
southern face of the hills and the low hills to the north are, however,
clothed with dense evergreen forest. The area of these forests is not
known, but there is very little trade in timber.

The mineral wealth of the District consists of coal, iron, and lime¬
stone. Iron is derived from minute crystals of titaniferous iron ore.
Minerals 'vhich are found in the decomposed granite on the
surface of the central dike of that rock, near the
highest portion of the plateau. The iron industry was originally of
considerable importance, but is now almost extinct. Cretaceous coal
is found at Maobehlarkhar, near Maoflang, which is worked by the
villagers in a primitive way for the supply of the station of Shillong.
Another outcrop occurs at Langrin on the Jadukata river. Nummulitic
coal is found at Cherrapunji, Lakadong, Thanjinath, Lynkerdem,
Maolong, and Mustoh. The Maolong field, which is estimated to
contain 15,000,000 tons of good workable coal, has lately been taken
on lease by a limited company. Limestone is found all along the
southern face of the hills as far as the Hari river, but it can only be
economically worked where special facilities exist for its transport from
the quarries to the kiln. Altogether thirty-four limestone tracts are
separately treated as quarries. The most important are those situated
on the Jadukata and Panatirtha rivers, the Dwara quarries, the Sheila
quarries on the Bogapani, the quarries which lie immediately under

ADMINISTRA TION

263

Cherrapunji, and the Utma quarries a little to the east on an affluent
of the Piyain. The stone is quarried for the most part during the dry
months, and rolled down to the river banks. When the hill streams
rise, it is conveyed in small boats over the rapids, which occur before
the rivers issue on the plains. Below the rapids it is generally reloaded
on larger boats and carried down to the Surma river, on the banks of
which it is burnt into lime during the cold season. The earthquake
of 1897 considerably increased the difficulties of transport, and the
lime business has of recent years been suffering from a depressed
market. The output in 1904 amounted in round figures to 123,000
tons. The quarries are worked by private individuals, usually them¬
selves Khasis, employing local labour. Stone quarries are also worked
in the Jaintia Hills. Government realized in royalties in 1903—4 about
Rs. 12,000 from lime, and Rs. 1,600 from coal.

The manufactures of the District are not important. Handsome but
rather heavy jewellery is made to order, and the Khasis manufacture
rough pottery and iron hoes and daos^ or hill knives.

Cloths and jackets are woven in the Jaintia Hills

from thread spun from the eri silkworm, and from

cotton grown in the jliiims. Bamboo mats and cane baskets and

sieves are also made.

The hillmen are keen traders, and a considerable proportion of the
people earn their living by travelling from one market to another.
The chief centres of business are at Cherrapunji, Laitlyngkot, Shillong,
Jowai, and a market on the border of Sylhet near Jaintiapur. The
principal exports are potatoes, cotton, lac, sesamum, oranges, bay-
leaves, areca-nuts, and lime. The imports are rice and other food-
grains, general oilman’s stores, cotton piece-goods, kerosene oil,
corrugated iron, and hand-woven cotton and silk cloths from the
plains. There are a few Marwari merchants at Shillong, but they
have no shops in the interior of the District, where trade is left in
the hands of the Khasis and Syntengs.

An excellent metalled cart-road runs from Gauhati to Cherrapunji,
via Shillong, a distance of 97 miles. The gradients between Shillong
and Gauhati have been most carefully adjusted, and a tonga and
bullock-train service is maintained between these two towns. Except
in the immediate neighbourhood of Shillong, few roads are suitable
for wheeled traffic; but in 1903-4 there were altogether 356 miles of
bridle-paths in the District.

The District is divided into two subdivisions, Shillong and Jowai.
Shillong is the head-quarters of the Deputy-Commissioner and the
summer head-quarters of the Local Government.

The Jowai subdivision is in charge of a European

Subordinate IMagistrate. In addition to these officers, an Assistant

264

KHASl AXD JAhYTIA HILLS

Magistrate is stationed at Shillong, and an Engineer who is also in
charge of Kanirup District. The Jaintia Hills, with Shillong, and 34
villages in the Khasi Hills, are British territory. The rest of the Khasi
Hills is included in twenty-five petty Native States, which have treaties
or agreements with the British Government. These States vary in
size from Khyrim, with a population of 31,327, to Nonglewai, with
a population of 169. Nine of these States had a population of less
than 1,000 persons in 1901.

The High Court at Calcutta has no jurisdiction in the hills, except
over European British subjects. The Codes of Civil and Criminal
Procedure are not in force, and the Deputy-Commissioner exercises
powers of life and death, subject to confirmation by the Lieutenant-
Governor. Petty criminal and civil cases, in which natives of the
District are concerned, are decided by the village authorities. Serious
offences and civil suits in which foreigners are concerned are tried by
the Deputy-Commissioner and his Assistants. There is, on the whole,
very little serious crime in the District, but savage murders are
occasionally committed.

Land revenue is assessed only on building sites and on flat rice land
in the Jaintia Hills, which pays Rs. 1-14 per acre. The principal
source of revenue in British territory is a tax of Rs. 2 on each house.

The revenue from house-tax and total revenue is shown in the
following table, in thousands of rupees : —

1880-1. 1890-1.

1900-1.

1903-4.

Revenue from house-tax . 15 27

Total revenue . . . j 71 • I 1,15

i ,35

L 44

^ Exclusive of forest revenue.

There are police stations in the hills, at Shillong, Cherrapunji, and
Jowai, and an outpost at Nongpoh, half-way between Shillong and
Gauhati. 'Phe force has a sanctioned strength of 23 oflicers and 183
men, who are under the immediate charge of the Deputy-Com¬
missioner, but ordinary police duties are discharged by the village
officials. The only jail in the District is at Shillong; it has accommo¬
dation for 78 prisoners.

Thanks to the efforts of the WTlsh Presbyterian Mission, education
has made considerable progress, and in 1901 the proportion of literate
persons (5*7 per cent.) was higher than that in any District in
Assam. The number of pupils under instruction in 1880-1, 1890-1,
1900-1, and 1903-4 was 2,670, 3,582, 6,555, and 7,275 respectively.
The Khasi Hills owes its position to the spread of female education,
3*4 per cent, of the women being able to read and write, as compared
wilii 0-4 per cent, in Assam as a whole. In 1903-4 there were

KHATAO

265

348 primary, 8 secondary schools, and one special school in the District.
The number of female scholars was 2,395. great majority of

the pupils under instruction were only in primary classes. Of the male
population of school-going age 28 per cent, were in the primary stage
of instruction, and ol the female population of the same age 14 per
cent. The total expenditure on education was Rs. 1,21,000, of which
Rs. 7,000 was derived from fees; about 40 per cent, of the direct
expenditure was devoted to primary schools.

The District possesses two hospitals and four dispensaries, with
accommodation for 23 in-patients. In 1904 the number of cases
treated was 25,000, of whom 200 were in-patients, and 500 ojjerations
were performed. The expenditure was Rs. 10,000, the greater part of
which was met from 1 Provincial revenues.

Vaccination is compulsory only in Shillong town, and has been
somewhat neglected in the District. In 1903-4 only 28 per 1,000 of
the population were protected, as compared with 44 per 1,000 in
Assam as a whole.

[A. Mackenzie, History of the Relations of the Government ivith the
Hill Tt'ibes of the HortJiHast Frontier of Bengal (Calcutta, 1884) ;
W. J. Allen, Report on the Administration of the Cossyah and fynteah
Hill Territory (Calcutta, 1858); J. D, Hooker, Himalayan Journals
(1854); B. C. Allen, District Gazetteer of the Khdsi and Jaifitia Hills
(1906) ; Major P. R. T. Gurdon, The Khdsis (1907).]

Khaspur.—Village in the Silchar subdivision of Cachar District,
Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24® 55' N. and 92° 57' E., near
the southern face of the Barail range. This was the capital of the
Rajas of Cachar from the beginning of the eighteenth century to the
death of the last Raja in 1830. \\Tile living here the Kacharis came
under the influence of Hinduism, and in 1790 the Raja and his
brother entered the body of a copper image of a cow and emerged as
Kshattriyas. The only traces of the former capital are to be found
in the remains of four temples, two other buildings, and three tanks.
The village is no longer of any importance.

Khatao.— Tdluka of Satara District, Bombay, lying between 17° 18'
and 17° 48' N. and 74° 14' and 74° 51' E., with an area of 501 square
miles. There are 85 villages, but no town. The head-quarters are at
Vaduj. The population in 1901 was 96,416, compared with 95,223 in
1891. The density, 241 persons per square mile, is almost equal to
the District average. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was 1-4
lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 12,000 Khatao is a northerly continuation
of the Khanapur plateau, and consists of the valley of the Verla, which,
rising at the northern jioint of the tdluka^ flows southward through it.
Of the two ranges of hills which enclose the valley, the western range is
the higher, while the eastern rises but little above the Khatao upland.

266

KHATAO

The rainfall, which averages 20 inches annually at Vaduj, is scanty and
fitful; but the climate is fairly healthy.

Khatauli.—Town in the Jansath tahsil of Muzaffarnagar District,
United Provinces, situated in 29® 17' N. and ']'f 44' E., on the North-
Western Railway and on the road from Meerut to Roorkee. Popu¬
lation is increasing steadily, and was 8,695 1901. The town is of

some age, and contains four large Jain temples and a large sarai built
by Shah Jahan. It first became of importance during the Bihar famine
of 1874, when all the surplus grain in the District was exported from
the railway station. The streets have recently been paved and masonry
drains constructed. Khatauli is administered under Act XX of 1856,
with an income of about Rs. 3,000. Its trade is chiefly connected with
the export of grain and sugar, and is largely in the hands of Jain
merchants. The tahsili school has 64 pupils, and an aided Jain
school 38.

Khatmandu.—Capital of NepM. See Katmandu.

Khed Taluka (i ).—Tdluka of Poona District, Bombay, including the
petty subdivision {petha) of Ambegaon, and lying between 18"^ 37' and
19® 13' N. and 73® 31' and 74° 10' E., with an area of 876 square miles.
There are two towns, Khed (population, 3,932), the head-quarters,
and Aland! (2,019); 242 villages, including Ghod (5,720) and

Manchak (5,300). The population in 1901 was 156,275, compared
with 162,391 in 1891. The density, 179 persons per square mile, is
slightly below the District average. The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was 2*3 lakhs, and for cesses Rs. 18,000. There are two large
chains of hills, one in the north and the other in the south. The east
is a series of table-lands crossed by mountains and hills, the country
becoming rapidly more rugged as it approaches the Western Ghats.
Most of the soil is red or grey. The Maval or west has little ‘dry-
crop’ tillage. Khed contains the largest forest area in the District.
The climate is generally good. The annual rainfall averages about
26 inches.

Khed Town. — Head-quarters of the tdluka of the same name in
Poona District, Bombay, situated in 18° 51' N. and 73^ 53' E., on the
left bank of the Bhima river, 26 miles north of Poona city. Population
(1901), 3,932. Khed has an area of upwards of 20 square miles,
within which limits are at least three places of interest from an archi¬
tectural or archaeological point of view : namely, the tomb and mosque
of Dilawar Khan, an old Hindu temple of Siddheswar on the left bank
of the Bhima river, and a temple of Tukai-devi some centuries old
a few yards to the right of the Poona-Nasik road. The mosque is a
graceful specimen of Musalman carved stone-work. The town con¬
tains a Sub-Judge’s court, a dispensary, and one school with 171 boys
and 25 girls. The municipality was established in 1863. For the

KIIE}[ KARAX

267

decade ending 1901 the average income was Rs. 3,000. In 1903-4 the
income was Rs. 3,500, chiefly derived from a house tax. A branch of
the Church Missionary Society, stationed here, carries on evangelistic
work in the tdliika.

Khed Taluka (2).—North-eastern tdiuka of Ratnagiri District, Bom¬
bay, lying between 17° 33'and 17° 54' N. and 73° 20' and 73° 42' E., with
an area of 392 square miles. It contains 146 villages^ including Khed
(population, 5,053), the head-quarters ; but no town. The population in
1901 was 95,594 j compared with 100,550 in 1891. The decrease is
ascribed to a virulent cholera epidemic and considerable emigration
during the fair season. The density, 244 persons per square mile, is
much below the District average. The demand for land revenue in
i 903-4 Rs. 86,000, and cesses Rs. 6,000. The tdiuka consists of

a rugged and hilly surface, with patches of poor land. The north-west
is much broken by ravines ; in the north-east are three hills, Mahipat*
garb, Sumargarh, and Rasalgarh, detaclied from the Western Ghats
by the deep valley of the Jagbudi. The principal passes across the
Ghats are the Hatlot and the Amboli, the latter passable by pack-
bullocks. The village sites are protected by shade-giving trees;
near the villages are numerous sacred groves. The river Jagbudi is
navigable by small craft as far as Khed. The greater part of the idluka
lies beyond the influence of the sea-breeze, and is consequently very
hot during March, April, and May. The annual rainfall is heavy,
averaging about 143 inches.

Khed Village. —Head-quarters of the tdiuka of the same name in
Ratnagiri District, Bombay, situated in 1 7° 43'' N. and 73° 24' E,, at
the head of the Jagbudi river, and surrounded by hills. Population
(1901), 5,053. A cart-road connects Khed with the port of Harnai, 26
miles distant. Boats of light draught work up from Dabhol and Anjan-
vel to Khed. East of the village are three small rock temples. The
place contains a dispensary, and two schools with 150 boys and 9 girls.

Kheda. — District and town in Bombay. See Kaira.

Khejri. —Village in Midnapore District, Bengal. See Kedgeree.

Khekra. —Town in the Baghpat tahsil of Meerut District, United
Provinces, situated in 28° 52'' N. and 77° 17' E,, 26 miles west of
Meerut city. Population (1901), 8,918. It is said to have been
founded 1,600 years ago by Ahirs, who were ousted by Jats from
Sikandarpur. In the Mutiny the owners rebelled, and the land was
confiscated. The place is administered under Act XX of 1856, with
an income of about Rs. 2,000. It is rising in importance as a centre
of the grain and sugar trade. There is a primary school with 60 pupils.

Khelat. —State and town in Baluchistan. See Kalat.

Khem Karan. —Town in the Kasur tahsiloi Lahore District, Punjab,
situated in 31° 9' N. and 74° 34' E., 7 miles from Kasur town, on the

VOL. XV. s

268

KITEM KARA.\

North-\\'eslern Railway. Population (1901), 6,083. The Kasur branch
of the Bari Doab Canal flows near the town, and the population, which
is mainly agricultural, is well-to-do. The municipality was created in
1867. The income during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged
Rs. 5,200, and the expenditure Rs. 4,800. In 1903-4 the income
was Rs. 5,700, chiefly derived from octroi; and the expenditure was
Rs. 6,200. The town has a vernacular middle .school, maintained
by the municipality.

Kherali. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Kheralu Taluka.—North-eastern ialiika of the Kadi prant^ Baroda
State, with an area of 246 square miles. The population fell from
98,682 in 1891 to 76,463 in 1901. The taluka contains three towns,
Kheralu (population, 7,617), the head-quarters, Vadnagar (13,716),
and Umta (5,242); and 88 villages. It is level throughout, and is
fairly well wooded. The surface soil is for the most part sandy, but
there is a little black soil. The Khari flows through it from east to
west. The land revenue in 1904-5 was Rs. 42,000.

Kheralu Town.—Head-quarters of the taluka of the .same name.
Kadi prdnt^ Baroda State, situated in 23° 54' N. and 72° 39' E., on the
Gaikwar’s State line from Mehsana on the Rajputana-Malwa Railway.
Population (1901), 7,617. The town contains a magistrate’s court,
a dispensary, two dhannsdlas^ local oflfices, and a vernacular school, and
is celebrated for the temple founded by the Vaishnavite reformer
Vallabhacharya, who is said to have dwelt here. It is administered
by a municipality, which receives an annual grant of Rs. 1,600 from
the State.

Kheravada {Khedavdda), — Petty State in MahI Kanth.\, Bombay.

Khen District i^Khiri ).—Northern District of the Lucknow Division,
United Provinces, lying between 27° 41' and 28° 42' N. and 80° 2'
and 8t° 19' E., with an area of 2,963 .square miles. In shape it is
roughly triangular, the flattened apex pointing north. The District is
hounded on the north by the river Mohan, separating it from Nepal;
on the east by the Kauriala river, separating it from Bahraich; on the
south by Sitapur and Hardoi Districts ; and on the west by Pilibhit
and Shahjahanpur. An old bed of the Sarda or Chauka, called the
Ul, which again joins that river, divides Kherl into
aspects portions. The area lying north-east of the Ul

is a wild tract of country, which forms practically
a vast river-bed in which the Sarda has worn several channels. The
widely scattered village sites are perched on the highest ground avail¬
able, and in the north stretch large areas of forest. During the rains
the old channels All with water, and the courses of the rivers vary from
year to year. The greatest volume of water is carried by the Sarda or
Chauka, which divides into two branches on the southern border. One

KFIERI DISTRICT

269

of these, called the Dahawar, forms, for a short distance, the boundary
between Kherl and Sitapiir, and flows into the Kauriala. North of the
Sarda lies an old bed called the Sarju or SiihelT, which also discharges
into the Kauriala and receives many small tributaries from the north.
The portion of the District lying south-west of the U 1 is drier and more
stable, but is also traversed by a number of streams, of which the most
important are the Sarayan, Kathna, and Gumti, while the Sukheta flows
along the south-west border. The District is .studded with many lakes,
which in the north-east take the form of deep pools marking the beds
of old channels of the rivers, while in the south-west they are large
shallow swamps or sheets of water, drying up in the hot season.

The District exposes nothing but alluvium, and kankar or nodular
limestone is the only stony formation.

Kheri contains the luxurious vegetation found in the damp submon¬
tane tract. Besides the forests, which chiefly produce sal and will be
described separately, groves of mangoes are common, and there are
a few areas of dhak [Butea frondosd) and other scrub jungle.

The large forest area gives shelter to many wild animals. Tigers,
bears, and wolves are not rare, while leopards, wild dogs, hyenas,
jungle-cats, and jackals are more common. Five species of deer are
found, the swamp deer being the commonest, and a fair number of
antelope, and great quantities of nilgai and hog. Game-birds are in
abundance. Fish are plentiful, and mahseer are caught in all the
large rivers.

South-west of the U 1 the country is generally healthy. The strip of
jungle along the Kathna is still malarious, but is gradually being re¬
claimed. North-east of the Ul, and especially beyond the Chauka, the
climate is exceedingly damp and feverish. The District generally is
comparatively cool, and enjoys a mean annual temperature of about 79°.

The rainfall is high; the annual average amounts to 46 inches, the
south-west receiving less than the north-east. Variations from year to
year are considerable, and the total has fluctuated from 70 inches to 24.

Traditions point to the inclusion of this tract in the realm of the

Lunar race of Hastinapur, and se\'eral places arc associated with

episodes in the Mahabharata. The early history is, ^

, . , , , History,

however, entirely unknown. Ihe northern part was

held by Rajputs in the tenth century, and tradition relates that they
dispossessed the Basis and other aboriginal tribes. Musalman rule
spread slowly to this remote and inhospitable tract; and it was pro¬
bably not before the fourteenth century that a chain of forts was con¬
structed along the northern frontier, to prevent the incursions of
marauders from Nepal. Under Akbar the District formed part of
the sarkdr of Khairauad in the SFida/i of Oudh. The later history
is merely that of the rise and decline of individual families, and is

270

KHERl DISTRICT

of purely local importance. When Rohilkhand was ceded to the
British in i8ot part of this District was included in the cession, but
it was restored to Oudh after the Nepalese War of 1814-6. On the
annexation of Oudh in 1856 the west of the present area was formed
into a District called Muhamdl and the cast into .Mallanpur, which also
included part of .Sitapur. A year later MuhamdT became one of the
chief centres of disaffection in northern Oudh. The refugees from
Shahjahanpur reached MuhamdT on June 2, and two days later that
place was abandoned; but the whole party, with few exceptions, were
shot down on the way to Sitapur, and the survivors died or were
murdered later at Lucknow. The British officials at Mallanpur, with
a few who had fled from Sitapur, escaped to Nepal, where most of
them died. No real attempt to recover the District was made till
October, 1858, but peace was restored before the end of that year.
The head-quarters of the single District then formed were moved to
LakhTmpur shortly afterwards.

Many villages contain ancient mounds in which fragments of
sculpture have been found, Balmiar-Barkhar and KhairTgarh being the
most remarkable. A stone horse found near KhairTgarh bears an
inscription of Samudra Gupta, king of Magadha, dated in the fourth
century a.p. Gola possesses a celebrated temple.

There are 5 towns and 1,659 villages. Population is increasing
steadily. At the four enumerations the numbers were : (1869) 738,089,

Population, 831,922, (1891) 903,615, (1901) 905,138.

The District is divided into three iahsils — Muhamdi,
Nighasan, and LakhTmpur — each named after its head-quarters.
The municipality of LakhTmpur, the ‘notified area’ of MuhamdT,
and the town of Gola are the principal places. The following
table gives the chief statistics of population in 190T :—

Tahsil.

Area in square
miles.

Number of

1 rt ^

MuhamdT

651

I 607

Nighasan.

L237

2 386

LakhTmpur

L075

2 666

District total

2)963

? L659

Population.

1 Population per
s<iuare mile.

Percentage of
variation in
population be¬
tween 1891
and 1901.

Number of
persons able to
read and
write.

257 ) 9^9

.^96

— 0.2 j

5,296

281,123

227

+ 0.6

3,609

366,026

.MO

+ 0.,

7^326 ^

905.1.^8

30.-

+ 0.2 1

16,231 ■

About 86 per cent, of the total population are Plindus and nearly
14 per cent. Musalmans. Between 1891 and 1901 the District
suffered both from floods and from droughts, and the rate of increase
was thus smaller than in previous decades. The density of population

AGRICULTURE

271

is the lowest in Oudh. Eastern Hindi is the language principally
spoken.

Kheri is remarkable for the small proportion of high-caste Hindus
found in it. Brahmans number only 65,000 and Rajputs 30,000. The
most numerous castes are Chamars (tanners and cultivators), 104,000 ;
Rurmis (agriculturists), 82,000; Basis (toddy-drawers and cultivators),
69,000; Ahirs (graziers and cultivators), 60,000; Lodhas (cultivators),
44,000 ; and Muraos (market-gardeners), 34,000. Among Musalmans
are Julahas (weavers), 20,000; Pathans, 16,000; Rajputs, 12,000;
Shaikhs, 11,000; and Behnas (cotton-carders), 11,000. The Banjaras
of this District number 6,800, found only in the submontane tracts.
They are largely carriers of grain. Kurmis, Brahmans, Rajputs,
]Muraos, Chamfe, and Basis are the principal cultivators. Agriculture
supports as many as 7 7 per cent, of the total population.

Out of 417 native Christians in 1901, 337 were Methodists. The
American Methodist Mission, opened in 1862, has a number of
branches in the District.

Kheri is divided by its rivers into four tracts of varying conditions.
The south-west corner between the Sukhcta and the Gumti consists of
fertile loam, which turns to sand along the Gumti.

Between the Gumti and the Kathna lies a high sandy
tract called the Parehar, in which cultivation is extremely precarious,
but which is celebrated as a breeding-ground for cattle. The richest
part of the District is included between the Kathna and the Ul, where
the soil is a rich loam. Beyond the Ul, cultivation shifts over wide
tracts. The floods of the Kauriala usually deposit coarse, infertile
sand, while the Sarda and Dahawar bring down finer silt in which rice
can be grown.

The tenures in Kheri are those commonly found in Oudh. Of
the total area, 71 per cent, is held by fdlukddrs^ but only a very small
area is sub-settled. Most of the rest is included in zaminddri mahdls.
The main agricultural statistics for 1903-4 are given below, in square
miles :—

7'a/ijiil.

Total.

Cultivated.

Irrigated.

Culti\ able
i waste.

1 Muhamdi

651

406

161

1 Nighasan

I ;237

1 439

297

^ Lakhimpur .

^075

529

Total

' 2,963

1 H 374

176 j

^•73

is the crop most

largely

grown, covering 343 square

^ uaiicy

(^57)5 gram (151)? kodon (i48\ and pulses (138) are also important.
Sugar-cane (49) and oilseeds (50) are the chief non-food crops.

KHERl DISTRICT

2 ^'2

The District was very i)ackward at the time of the first regular
settlement, but in thirty years the cultivated area had increased by
18 per cent. A series of bad seasons from 1892 to 1896 reduced
cultivation considerably; but in 1903-4 the area was 25 per cent.,
greater than it had been forty years before. There has also been
a rise in the area double cropped. The area under sugar-cane,
wheat, and rice has increased to some extent, but the improvement
in the kind of staple grown is not so marked as elsewhere. The
demand for advances under the Ivand Improvement and Agricul¬
turists’ Loans Acts is small, except in unfavourable years. Only
Rs. 88,000 was lent during ten years ending 1900, and half of this
sum was advanced in the famine year, 1897. Practically no loans
have been given since 1900.

Kheri is the most - important centre for cattle-breeding in the
United Provinces. It supplies a large number of draught bullocks
to the whole of Oudh and the Gorakhpur Division. The most
distinctive breed is called Parehar, from the tract of country where
it is found. The bullocks are small, but fiery tempered, fast movers,
and very enduring. Other breeds are the Bhiir, Khairigarh, Majhra,
Singahl, and Dhaurahra, which are larger and coarser. During the
hot season cattle are taken in large numbers to graze in the jungles
of Nepal. Ponies are numerous, but of a very inferior type, and are
chiefly kept as pack-animals. Sheep and goats are kept for meat, and
for their wool and hair.

Only 176 square miles were irrigated in 1903-4, of which 109 were
supplied by wells, 60 by tanks or jh'ih^ and 7 by other sources.
Irrigation is practically confined to the south-west of the District,
excluding the Parehar tract, in which there is hardly any. The
s|)ring-level is high, and the dhoikli or lever is used to raise water from
wells. Irrigation from is carried on by the swing-basket.

‘ Rescr^•ed ’ forests cover an area of 443 square miles in the north of
the District. The chief timber tree is sal (Shorea robusta) ; but the
forests also contain asalna (Terminalla iomcntosa\ haldu {Adina cordi
folia)^ kliau' {Acacia Catechu)^ and other valuable species. The minor
products include fuel, thatching-grass, and grass used as fibre. In
1903-4 the total revenue from forest jiroduce was 2-6 lakhs, the
receijits from timber being the most important item. The forests are
included in the Kheri diN'ision of the Oudh circle.

Kaukar is the only mineral product, and is used for making lime
and metalling roads. It is, however, scarce and of poor quality, as is
usual in the submontane Districts.

The most important industry is sugar refining, and this is only carried
on south-west of the Gumti. Cotton cloth for local use is woven at a
few places, and at Oel there is a small manufacture of brass utensils.

ADJ/I.y/SmA TIOX

273

Trade and
communications.

The District exports grain, sugar, forest produce, -cattle, and ghi,
while the chief imports are piece-goods, metals, and salt. There is also
some trade with Nepal, from which timber, rice, and
spices are received. The principal trading centres
are Lakhimpur, Muhamdi, and Gola.

The Lucknow-Bareilly State Railway (managed by the Rohilkhand
and Kumaun Railway) crosses the District south-west of the Ul. From
Mailani a branch strikes off through the forest to Marauncha Ghat on
the Sarda, which is crossed by a temporary bridge, the line being
continued from the opposite bank to Sonaripur. A short branch of
this line from Dudhwa to the Nepal frontier, opened in 1903, is used
chiefly for the export of grain and forest produce. The whole line
from jMailani is open only from January to June. The Pawayan
steam tramw’ay, which connects ^lailani with Shahjahanpur, has a
short length in the District.

Communications by road are very poor. Only 40 miles are metalled
out of a total length of 656. About 250 miles are maintained by the
Public Works department, but the cost of all but 17 miles is charged to
Local funds. The chief metalled road is that from Sitapur to Shah¬
jahanpur, which passes through the south-west corner of the District,
and the other metalled roads are merely short lengths of feeder-roads
to railway stations. The improvement of communications, and in
particular the construction of bridges, is rendered difficult by the
vagaries of the streams which intersect the District. Avenues of trees
are maintained on only 8 miles.

Owing to the natural moisture of the soil and the rarity of a serious
failure of the rainfall, scarcity from drought is not severely felt in this
District. Distress was experienced in 1769, and
tradition relates that in 1783 there was severe famine
and many deaths occurred from starvation. Scarcity was again felt in
1865, 1869, and 1874. In 1878 relief works and poorhouses were
opened, but were not much resorted to. Up to that time the difficulties
of transport had added to the distress caused by a local failure of
the crops; but the railway, opened in 1887, now makes it possible
to import grain when needed. From 1892 to 1895 excessive rain
injured the crops in the low-lying parts of the District. The drought
of 1896 thus caused an increase in the cultivated area north-east of
the Ul, though it was followed by a contraction in the area under
spring crops in 1897. Relief works and poorhouses were opened, but
famine was not severe.

The Deputy-Commissioner is assisted by a staff of three Deputy-
Collectors recruited in India, and a tahsildar resides
at the head-quarters of each tdhslL A Deputy-Con¬
servator of Forests is stationed at Lakhimpur.

Famine.

Administration.

-74

KJIERl DISTRICT

4 'he civil courts are those of the ^lunsif and Subordinate Judge,
and the District is included in the Civil and Sessions Judgeship of
Sitapur, Crime is generally light, though thefts and burglaries are
common, owing to the fact that the houses in many parts are simply
wattle sheds. The jungle along the Kathna formerly had a bad
reputation for sheltering criminals. An attempt has been made, with
only partial success, to reclaim the criminal tribe known as Bhatus
or Sansias by settling them on the land. Female infanticide was
formerly rife, but is no longer suspected.

The records of the first summary settlement made after annexation
perished in the Mutiny. It is, however, certain that under it the taluk-
ddrs lost few villages. After the Mutiny a second summary settlement
was made on the basis of the accounts under native rule, the demand
amounting to 4-9 lakhs. A survey was commenced in 1864 and
a regular settlement followed, which was completed by 1872. The
assessments were based on estimates of produce and on selected rent
rates, while they also anticipated a great extension of cultivation
and proved too high. The necessity for revision was increased by a
succession of bad years, and the whole settlement was again examined
between 1872 and 1877, with the result that the demand was reduced
from 12-2 to 8 lakhs. 'Fhe settlement officers sat as civil courts to
determine claims to rights in land, but their work was lighter here than
in most Districts of Oudh. A new settlement, preceded by a resurvey,
was made between 1897 and 1900, and was characterized by speed
and economy. Rents are payable in kind over a large area, and the
valuation of this portion of the District was made by ascertaining
the actual receipts over a series of years. In some cases rents are paid
by cash rates on the area actually cultivated in each harvest, and for
the finer staples cash rents are invariably paid. The demand fixed
amounted to 10-3 lakhs, which represented 46 per cent, of the estimated
net ‘assets.’ In different parts of the District the incidence varies
from Rs. 2 to R. 0-4, the a\'erage being R. 0-7.

Collections on account of land revenue and revenue from all sources
have been, in thousands of rupees :—

i88u 1.

1 890- 1.

1900-1. 1903-4.

l.ancl revenue

• 7 ,-14

95O3 ^

9,86

1 Total revenue

• 8,39

1 11,02

12,42 1

14^47

4 'he District contains one municipality, Lakhimpur, one ‘notified
area,’ MuhamdI, and two towns administered under Act XX of 1856.
Local affairs beyond the limits of these are managed by the District
board, which in 1903-4 had an income and expenditure of i-i lakhs

KHER WAR A

275

About half the income is derived from rates, and the expenditure
included Rs. 58,000 spent on roads and buildings.

The District Superintendent of police has under him a force ot

3 inspectors, 85 subordinate officers, and 256 constables, distributed in
12 police stations; and there are also 44 municipal and town police,
and 1,762 rural and road police. The District jail contained a daily
average of 286 prisoners in 1903.

Kherl is one of the most backward Districts in the United Provinces
in regard to education, and only i-S per cent, of the population
(3-3 males and 0*2 females) could read and write in 1901. The
number of public schools increased from 95 with 3,430 pupils in
iSSo”i to 116 with 4,046 pupils in 1900-1. In 1903-4 there were
162 such schools with 5,676 pupils, of whom 189 were girls, besides

4 private schools with 61 pupils. Three schools are maintained by
Government and 89 are managed by the District and municipal boards.
The total expenditure on education in the same >'ear was Rs. 40,000,
of which Rs. 34,800 was provided from Local funds and Rs. 4,400
by fees.

There are 8 hospitals and dispensaries, with accommodation for
39 in-patients. In 1903 the number of cases treated was 46,000,
including 415 in-patients, and 1,988 operations were performed. The
expenditure amounted to Rs. 10,000, chiefly met from Local funds.

About 13,000 persons were successfully vaccinated in 1903-4, repre¬
senting a proportion of 34 per 1,000 of population. Vaccination is
compulsory only in the municipality of Lakhimpur.

[S. H. Butler, Settleme?it Report (1901); H. R. Nevill, District
Gazetteer (1905).]

Kheri Town {Khiri ),—'rown in the Lakhimpur tahsil of Kheri
District, United Provinces, situated in 27° 54' X. and 80^^ 48' E., on
the Lucknow-Bareilly State Railway. Population (1901), 6,223. Rberi
is a place of some antiquity, and contains a fine tomb built over the
remains of Saiyid Khurd, who died in 1563. It is administered under
Act XX of 1856, with an income of about Rs. 800. Though giving
its name to the District, it is of small importance. A daily market
is held, and the town contains a branch of the American Methodist
Mission and a school with 144 pupils.

Kheri-Rajapur. — Thakurat in the Malwa *\.gencv, Central India.

Kherwara (i).—Cantonment included in the fifth or Mhow division
of the Western Command of the Indian army, and situated in 23° 59' X\
and 73® 36' E., in the south-west corner of the State of Udaipur,
Rajputana, about 50 miles south of Udaipur city. It stands in a valley
1,050 feet above the sea, and on the banks of a small stream called the
Godavari. Population (1901), 2,289. Kherwara is the head-quarters
of the Mewar Bhil Corps, which was raised between 1840 and 1844,

276

KIIER WAR A

^Yith the objects of weaning a senii-savagc race from its predatory
habits, giving them honourable employment, and assisting the Mewar
State in preserving order. The uniform of the Bhll sepoy of those
early days was a scanty loin-cloth (he would wear no other) j his arms
were a bow and arrows ; and his distrust and suspicion was such that
he would serve for daily pay only, deserting if that were withheld.
Throughout the Mutiny of 1857 the corps remained staunch. At that
time a squadron of Bengal cavalry was stationed here, and left in
a body for Ximach after endeavouring to persuade the Bhils to join
them. The latter followed up the squadron, killed every man, and
brought back their horses and accoutrements to Kherwara. A detach¬
ment operated against Tantia Topi’s adherents in Banswara and Partab-
garh, and gained the Mutiny medal. The corps received its colours in
1862, and was placed under the Commander-in-Chief in 1897. It con¬
sists of eight companies (seven of Bhils and one of Hindustanis), and
furnishes detachments at Kotra, Udaipur city, and the town of Dungar-
pur. Much good has been effected by the enlistment of these hill-
men; and, through the influence of those in the service and'of the
numerous pensioners in the districts, the Bhils have largely forsaken
their predatory habits. During the famines of 1899-1900 and 1901-2
the corps did excellent work in hunting down dacoits and keeping
order generally. Besides the regimental school and hospital, the
cantonment contains a school maintained by the Church Missionary
Society, which has a branch here, and a hospital with accommodation
for 10 in-patients, which is kept up from private subscriptions and a
grant from the Darbar. The commandant of the Bhil Corps is also
Political Superintendent of the Hilly Tracts, a wild country, com¬
prising the two bhumidts or districts of Kherwara and Kotra, con¬
taining altogether 361 villages and 34,296 inhabitants, almost all of
whom are Bhils. The villages are for the most part held by petty
Girasia chiefs, who pay a small tribute or quit-rent to the Mewar
Darbar. The principal chiefs in the Kherwara district are the Raos
of Jawas, Para, and Madri.

Kherwara (2). —Thakurdt in the Malwa Agency, Central India.

Khetri, —Head-quarters of the chiefship of the same name in Jaipur
State, Rajputana, situated in 28° N. and 75® 47' E., about 80 miles
north of Jaipur city. Population (1901), 8,537. The town is pic¬
turesquely situated in the midst of hills, and is difficult of access, there
being only one cart-road and two or three bridle-paths into the valley in
which it stands. It is commanded by a fort of some strength on the
summit of a hill 2,337 feet above sca-levcl. In the town the Raja
maintains an Anglo-vernacular high school attended by 66 boys,
a Hindi school attended by 112 boys, and a hospital with accom¬
modation for 6 in-patients. There are also 5 indigenous schools, and

KlHLCniPUR STATE

277

a combined post and telegrai)h office. In the immediate neighbour¬
hood are valuable copper-mines, which, about 1854, yielded an income
of Rs. 30,000, but which, owing to the absence of proper appliances for
keeping down the water and a scarcity of fuel, have not been worked
for many years. Nickel and cobalt have been found ; but these minerals
are quarried principally at Babai, about 7 miles to the south, the ore
being extensively used for enamelling and exported for this jmrpose to
Jaipur, Delhi, and other places. The chiefship, which lies partly in the
Shekhawati and partly in the Torawati iiizamat^ consists of 3 towns —
Khetri, Chirawa, and Kox POtli— and 255 villages; and the popu¬
lation in 1901 was 131,913, Hindus forming nearly 92 per cent, and
Musalmans 8 per cent. In addition, the Raja has a share in 26
villages not enumerated above, and possesses half of the town of Six-
GHAXA. The town and paj'gana of Kot Putli are held as a free grant
from the British Government, while for the rest of his territory the Raja
pays to the Jaipur Darbar a tribute of Rs. 73,780. The normal income
of the estate is about 5-3 lakhs, and the expenditure 3*5 lakhs.

Khetur.—Village in the head-quarters subdivision of Rajshahi Dis¬
trict, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 24° 24' N. and 88° 25' E.
Population (1901), 440. It enjoys a high repute for sanctity from its
having been visited by Chaitanya, the great Hindu religious reformer
of the sixteenth century, in whose honour a temple has been erected
in the village. A religious fair held annually in October is attended
by 25,000 persons.

Khewra. — Salt mines in Jhelum District, Punjab. See Mavo^Mine.

Khiaoda. — Thakurat in the Gwalior Residexxv, Central India.

Khiching.—Village in Mayurbhanj, one of the Orissa Tributary
States, Bengal, situated in 21° 55' N. and 85° 50' E. Population
(1901), 269. It contains archaeological remains, such as statues, pillars,
mounds, and the ruins of several brick and stone temples. A group of
temples adjoining the village is of great interest. One of the temples
(to Siva) seems to have been repaired in the time of Man Singh,
Akbar’s Hindu general, to whom another (unfinished) temple should
probably be ascribed.

\Aixhaeological Survey Reports^ \ ol. xiii, pp. 74-6.]

Khijadia. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Khijadia Dosaji.—Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Khijadia Najani. — Petty State in Kathiawar, Bombay.

Khilchipur State.—ISIediatized chiefship in Central India, under
the Bhopal Agency, lying between 23° 52' and 24° 17' N. and 76° 26'
and 76° 42' E., with an area of about 273 square miles. It is bounded
on the north by the Kotah State of the Rajputana Agency ; on the east
by Rajgarh; on the west by Indore ; and on the south by Narsingh-
garh. The State is situated in the district of Malwa known as

278

KHILCHIPUR STATE

Khichiwara, mainly in the Deccan trap area, ljut over its more northern
j)ortion sandstones of the Kaimur and other allied series are exposed.
I'he climate is temperate, the annual rainfall averaging about 32 inches.

The chiefs are Khlchl Rajputs, a section of the great Chauhan clan.
This State was founded in 1544 by Ugrasen, who was forced by family
dissensions to migrate from the Khichl capital of G%raun. A grant of
land was subsequently made to him by the Delhi emperor, which
included the adjoining Zirapur and Machalpur parganas^ now a part of
Indore State, and Shujalpur, now in Gwalior. This territory was lost in
1770, when Abhai Singh was obliged to make terms with Sindhia. At
the time of the settlement of Malwa in 1819 a dispute existed regarding
the succession, which at the request of the Gwalior Darbar was settled
by the mediation of the British authorities, Dlwan Slier Singh succeed¬
ing as a boy of five. He was followed in 1869 by his nephew Amar
Singh, who received the hereditary title of Rao Bahadur in 1873. In
1884 he abolished all transit duties in the State, except those on opium.
The present chief, Bhawani Singh, succeeded in 1899. The Rao
Bahadur of Khilchipur is entitled to a salute of 9 guns.

The population was : (1881) 36,125, (1891) 36,302, and (1901)
31,143, giving a density of 114 persons per square mile. The State
contains one town, Khilchipur (population, 5,121), the capital; and
283 villages. Hindus number 29,258, or 94 per cent.; Musalmans,
1,051, or 3 per cent.; and Animists, 796, mostly Bhils. The chief
castes and tribes are Sondhias, 4,900; Dhakads, 3,800; Deswalis
(allied to Sondhias), 3,070; (diamars, 2,550; Dangis, 2,520; Lodhas,
2,340; and Rajputs, 2,210.

The soil in the south-west is of the fertile black variety, bearing good
crops of all the ordinary grains ; but the northern portions are covered
with a rough stony soil of little agricultural value. Of the total area, 84
square miles, or 31 per cent., are cultivated, of which 5 square miles
are irrigable; 80 square miles are under forest; 46 square miles, or 17
per cent., are cultivable but not cultivated; and the rest is waste.
/o 7 vdr occupies 38 square miles, or 44 per cent, of the cultivated area;
cotton, 4 square miles : poppy, 2 square miles ; and wheat, i square
mile.

The State is divided for administrative purposes into three iahsils^
each under a tahstlddn The chief has full powers in civil and revenue
matters, but all serious cases of crime are dealt with by the Political
Agent in Bhopal. The total revenue amounts to about i*i lakhs, of
which Rs. 85,000 is derived from land, Rs. 11,000 from td?ika^ and
Rs. 10,000 from customs dues, including Rs. 2,000 from opium. The
principal heads of expenditure are: Rs. 7,000 on the chiefs establish¬
ment, Rs. 4,000 on general administration, Rs. 10,000 on army and
police, and Rs. 3,000 on public works. A tribute of Rs. 12,625, formerly

made direct to Sindhia, has been since 1844 paid to the British Govern¬
ment through the Political Agent, in adjustment of Sindhians contribu¬
tion towards the local cor})s in Mahva. The land revenue is farmed
out and is realized in British coin, which has been legal tender since
1898. The vState keeps up a small force of regular infantry, 161 strong,
as a body-guard to the chief. There are also 25 horse and 288 foot,
who act as police, and serve 4 guns. A British post office, a school,
and a hospital are maintained at the chief town.

Khilchipur Town. —Chief town of fhe State of the same name in
Central India, situated in 24® 3' X. and 76° 35' E., about 1,400 feet
above the level of the sea, in the rugged country at the foot of the arm
of the Vindhyas which strikes eastwards from Chitor to Chanderl. The
name was originally KhTchIj)ur ; and the corruption may be due to an
attempt on the part of the Muhammadan rulers to substitute Khiljlpur,
the name under which the town is mentioned in the Ai 7 t 4 -Akbarl.
Population (1901), 5,121. A British post office, a jail, a school, and
a hospital are situated in the town. Khilchipur is connected with
the Agra-Bombay high road by a feeder-road, 25 miles long, whence
traffic passes to Guna station on the Bma-Baran branch of the Great
Indian Peninsula Railway, 53 miles distant.

Khipro. — Taluka of Thar and Parkar District, Sind, Bombay, lying
between 25® 26' and 26® 15' N. and 69° 3' and 70® 16' E., with an area
of 2,249 square miles. Population in 1901 was 54,681, compared with
47,199 in 1891. The density, 24 persons per square mile, is almost
equal to the District average. The taluka contains 125 villages, the
head-quarters being at Khipro. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to nearly 2 lakhs. Excepting the desert portion, known as
Ranahu tapa^ the taluka is irrigated by the Mithrao Canal and the
Dhoro Naro.

Khirasra. —Petty State in Kathia\var, Bombay.

Khirpai. —Town in the Ghatal subdivision of Midnapore District,
Bengal, situated in 22° 43' N. and 87° 37' E. The population in 1901
was 5,045, compared with 8,046 in 1872. The decrease is due to the
ravages of the Burdwan fever. Khirpai was constituted a municipality
in 1876. The income and expenditure during the decade ending
1901-2 averaged Rs. 2,300. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 4,100,
mainly derived from a tax on jiersons (or jiroperty tax); and the
expenditure was Rs. 3,450.

Khojak {Kozhak ).—An historic pass across the Khwaja Amran off¬
shoot of the Toba-Kakar mountains in the Quetta-PishTn District,
Baluchistan. It lies in 30*^ 51' N. and 66® 34' E., 70 miles from Quetta
by rail. From Kila Abdullah, on the south, there is a gradual ascent
to Shelabagh, whence the summit (7,457 feet) is reached in 3I miles.
A cart-road through the pass connects Kila Abdullah with Chaman. At

KHOJA K

280

Shelabagh the railway runs through the Khojak tunnel, which is just
under 2\ miles long, and cost rather less than 70 lakhs of rupees, or
about Rs. 530 per lineal foot. It was constructed between 1888 and
1891. Lying on the route from Kandahar to India, the Khojak Pass
has been crossed and recrossed for centuries by conqueror, soldier, and
merchant; and its passage was twice effected by the British arms, in
1839 and in 1879.

Khojankhera.— Thakurat in the Malwa Agency, Central India.

Kholapur.—Town in the District and ialuk of Amraoti, Berar,
situated in 20° 57' N. and 77° 33' E., 18 miles west of Amraoti town.
Population (1901), 5,373. Its silk trade was once considerable. In
1809 Vithal Bhag Deo, Suhahdar of Ellichpur, demanded a contribu¬
tion of Rs. r,00,000* On payment being refused he captured the town,
which was then protected by walls, and it was sacked by his troops.
Its rapid decadence is partly attributable to the annual fights which
formerly occurred between the Musalmans and the Rajputs, when
the victorious party always took occasion to plunder at least part of
the town.

Khond {Kandh). —A Dravidian tribe mostly found in the Tributary
States of Orissa, and in the adjoining ^Agency tract of Ganjam District,
Madras. The total number of Khonds or Kandhs (including Konda
Dora) returned at the Census of 1901 was 701,198, of whom no less
than 517,771 retained their animistic faith, while 494,099 still spoke
Kandh or Kui. The following description chiefly relates to the 103,000
Khonds in the Orissa State of KMahandT, a large tract of which is
known as the Kondhan ; —

The Khonds call themselves Kuiloka or Kuienju, which may possibly
be derived from ko or meaning a ‘ mountain ’ in Telugu. Their
own traditions as to their origin are of no historical value. They were,
however, probably in possession of the country before the Oriya
immigration, as is shown by the fact that the Raja of Kalahandl was
accustomed until recently to sit in the lap of a Khond on his accession,
while his turban was tied on and he received the oaths of fealty. The
Rajas were also accustomed to take a Khond girl as one of their wives,
while many of the zamindars or large landholders in Kalahandl, Patna,
and Son pur are Khonds.

There is no strict endogamy in the Khond tribe. It has two main
divisions: the Kutia Khonds, who are hill-men and retain their primi¬
tive tribal customs ; and the plain-dwelling Khonds, who have acquired
a tincture of Hinduism. The latter have formed .several divisions
which are supposed to be endogamous, though the rule is not strictly
observed. Among these are the Raj Khonds, Dal, d'aonla, Porkhia,
Kandharra, Gouria, Nagla, and others. The Raj Khonds are the
highest, and are usually landed proprietors. Unless they have land they

K/IOXD

281

are not called Raj Khonds, and if a Raj Khond marries in another
division he descends to it. The Dais, also called Balmudia or ‘ shaven/
may have been soldiers. The Porkhias eat por^ or buffalo ; the Kan-
dharras grow turmeric; the Gourias graze cattle; and the Nagla, or
‘ naked,^ are apparently so called because of their paucity of clothing.
The divisions therefore are mainly due to differences of social practice.
The Kutia or hill Khonds are said to be so called because they break
the skulls of animals when they kill them for food. Traditionally the
Khonds have thirty-two exogamous septs, but the number has now
increased. The septs are further divided into sub-septs, which are
also exogamous, and are usually totemistic. The .same sub-sept is
found in different septs, and a man may not marry a girl belonging to

the same sept or sub-sept as himself. But there is no restriction as

to marriage on the mother's side, and he can marry his maternal
uncle’s daughter.

Marriage is adult, and a price is paid for the bride, which was

formerly from 12 to 20 head of cattle, but has now been reduced in

some localities to two or three, and a rupee in lieu of each of the
others. A proposal for marriage is made by placing a brass cup and
three arrows at the girl’s door. If these are not removed by her father
in token of refusal, the terms are discussed. The wedding procession
goes from the bride’s to the bridegroom’s house. At the marriage the
bride and bridegroom come out, each sitting on the shoulders of one
of their relatives. The bridegroom pulls the bride to his side, when
a piece of cloth is thrown over them, and they are tied together with
a piece of new yarn wound round them seven times. A cock is
sacrificed, and the cheeks of the couple are singed with burnt bread.
They pass the night in a veranda, and next day are taken to a tank,
the bridegroom being armed with a bow and arrows. He shoots one
through each of seven cow-dung cakes, the bride after each shot wash¬
ing his forehead and giving him a green twig for a toothbrush, and
some sweets. This is symbolical of their future course of life, the
husband procuring food by hunting, while the wife waits on him and
prepares his food. Sexual intercourse before marriage between a man
and girl of the tribe is condoned, so long as they are not within the
prohibited degrees of relationship. A trace of polyandry survives in
the custom by which the younger brothers are allowed access to the
elder brother’s wife till the time of their own marriage.

On the sixth day after a male child has been born, his mother takes
a bow and arrows, and stands with the child facing successively to
the four points of the compass. This is to make the child a skilful
hunter when he grows up.

The dead are usually buried, but the practice of cremating the bodies
of adults is increasing. When a body is buried a rupee or a copper

282

KHOXD

coin is tied in the sheet, so that the deceased may not go penniless to
the other world. Sometimes the dead man’s clothes and bows and
arrows are buried with him. On the tenth day the soul is brought
back. Outside the village, where two roads meet, rice is offered to
a cock, and if it eats, this is a sign that the soul has come. The soul
is then asked to ride on a bow-stick covered with cloth, and is brought
to the house and placed in a corner with those of other relatives.
The souls are fed twice a year with rice. In Sambalpur a ball of
powdered rice is placed under a tree with a lamp near it, and the first
insect that settles on the ball is taken to be the soul, and is brought
home and worshipped.

The Khond pantheon consists of eighty-four gods, of whom DharnI
Deota, the earth-god, is the chief. He is usually accompanied by
BhatbarsI Deota, the god of hunting. The earth-god is represented
by a rectangular piece of wood buried in the ground, while BhatbarsI
has a place at his feet in the shape of a granulated piece of stone.
Three great festivals are held annually, marking the dates from which
the new mahua flowers and rice may be first eaten. Once in four or
five years a huffiilo is offered to the earth-god, in lieu of the human
sacrifice which was formerly in vogue. The animal is predestined for
sacrifice from its birth, and is allowed to wander loose and graze on
the crops at its will. The stone representing BhatbarsI is examined
periodically, and when the granules on it appear to have increased it is
decided that the time has come for the sacrifice. In Kalahandl a lamb
is sacrificed every year, and strips of its flesh distributed to all the
villagers, who bury it in their fields as a divine agent of fertilization,
in the same way as the flesh of the human victim was formerly buried.
The Khond worships his bows and arrows before he goes out hunting,
and believes that every hill and valley has its separate deity, who must
be propitiated with the promise of a sacrifice before his territory is
entered, or he will hide the animals within it from the hunter, and
enable them to escape when wounded. They apparently believe that
the souls of the departed are born again in children. Some boys are
named Majhian Budhi, which means an ‘old headwoman,’ whom they
suppose to have been born again with a change of sex. Children are
weaned in the fifth or sixth year, and are then made to ride a goat or
pig, as a mark of respect, it is said, to the ancestor who has been
reborn in them. Names usually recur after the third generation.

The Khond traditionally despises all occupations except those of
husbandry, hunting, and war. They are considered very skilful culti¬
vators in places, but usually, like other forest tribes, they are
improvident and fond of drink.

In 1882 occurred an armed rising of the Khonds of Kalahandl,
as a result of their grievances against members of the Kolta caste, who

KIIONDMALS

283

had ousted them from some of their villages, and reduced many of
their headmen to a hopeless condition of debt. A number of Koltas
were murdered and offered to temples, the Khonds calling them their
goats, and in one case a Kolta was offered as the ineiiah sacrifice to
the earth-god. The rising was promptly suppressed by a Political
officer appointed to the charge of the State.

The Khond or Kandh language, called Kul by the Khonds them¬
selves, is spoken by 32 per cent, of the members of the tribe in Kala-
handi. It is much more nearly related to Telugu than is Gondi, and
has no written character. Further information about the Khonds will be
found in the articles on the Khondmals, Axgul District, and ]\Ialiahs.

Khondmals.—Subdivision of Angul District, Bengal, lying between
20° 13' and 20° 41' N. and 83° 50' and 84° 36' E., with an area of
800 square miles. The population fell from 66,352 in 1891 to 64,214
in 1901, the decrease being due to the prevalence of cholera and other
diseases, and to short crops in 1896 and 1899 which stimulated emigra¬
tion. The density in 1901 was 80 persons per square mile. The
subdivision consists of a plateau 1,700 feet in height, intersected by
circular ranges of hills. Heavy forest still covers much of the area,
and the cultivated lands lie in scattered clearings on the hill-sides and
in the valleys below. A range of hills 3,000 to 3,300 feet in height
separates the Khondmals from Ganjam, forming the southern watershed
of the IMahanadi. The head-quarters are at Phulbani, and there are
995 other villages. The Khonds, a Dravidian tribe, here survive as
a distinct nationality with a history, a religion, a language, and a system
of law and landed property of their own. The villages are divided
from each other by rugged peaks and dense forests ; but a regular
system of government on the aboriginal plan is maintained, the hamlets
being distributed into mi/fhas each under the supervision of its own
chief. Throughout this wild tract the Khonds claim an indefeasible
right in the soil. At no time were they more than nominally subject
to the Baud Raja, who was totally unable to control or coerce them.
They first came into prominence in the early part of the nineteenth
century, owing to the prevalence among them of human sacrifices and
female infanticide. The human sacrifice was a propitiatory offering to
the earth-god, and the flesh of the victims was buried in the field
to ensure good crops; it was firmly believed that turmeric could not
have a deep-red colour without the shedding of blood. The victims,
or meriahs as they were called, were purchased, as an ancient rule
ordained that the meriah must be bought with a price. The duty of
providing them rested with the Pans, who are attached to every Khond
village as serfs, and who either kidnapped them from the plains or
purchased them locally. These human sacrifices were suppressed with
difficulty by the British Government.

VOL. XV.

284

KHONDMALS

The Khonds hold their lands directly under the Government and
pay no rent or tax, except a contribution of 3 annas per plough for the
impro\’ement of communications. Infant and adult marriages are both
common ; in the former case, the girl is often older than the boy.
The Khonds of the Khondmals recognize two principal gods, Saru
Pennu and Taru Pennu, of whom Saru Pennu may be described as
the god of the hills and Taru Pennu as the earth-god.

[H. H. Risley, Tribes a?id Castes of Bengal (1891).]

Khonoma,—A large and powerful Angami Naga village in the
Naga Hills District, Eastern Bengal and Assam, situated in 25° 39' N.
and 94° 1' E. In 1879 T^Ir. Damant, the Political officer, was
treacherously attacked here, and was killed, together with thirty-five
of his escort. Khonoma was besieged and taken in November, 1879;
but two European officers lost their lives in the assault, and the de¬
fenders retreated to a very strong position above the village on a spur
of Mount Japvo, where they maintained themselves till the end of the
campaign. In January, 1880, a party of these Nagas, though their
village was at that very time occupied by our troops, made a daring
raid on the Baladhan garden in Cachar, more than 80 miles distant,
where they killed the manager, Mr. Blyth, and sixteen coolies.

Khowai.—River of Assam, which rises in the State of Hill Tippera,
and, after flowing north-west through the Habiganj subdivision of
Sylhet District, falls into the Barak near Habiganj. The river passes
by numerous local centres of trade, the most important of which are
Tvluchikandi and Habiganj, and is largely used as a trade route.
During the rains boats of 4 tons burden can proceed as far as Balia
Bazar in Hill Tippera, and even in the dry season a vessel half that
size can nearly reach the frontier of the District. The total length of
the river is 84 miles.

Khudabad.—Ruined town in the Dadu idlnka of Larkana District,
Sind, Bombay, situated in 26° 40' N. and 67° 46' E., 16 miles north¬
east of Sehwan on the North-Western Railway. Thornton writes of it
as follows :—

‘ Little more than thirty years ago it rivalled Hyderabad in size and
population ; yet now not one habitable dwelling remains. It was a
favourite residence of the Talpur chiefs of Sind, and the remains of
many of them rest here in tombs of neat but plain construction.^

At present the chief objects of interest are the Masjid, built in 1710,
and decorated with coloured tiles; and the tomb of Yar Muhammad
Kalhora, about a mile away, which is similarly decorated. The tomb
is in fair repair, but the mosque has been greatly damaged and is
falling into ruin.

Khudaganj.—Towm in the Tilhar tahsil of Shahjahanpur District,
United Provinces, situated in 28® 8' N. and 79® 44' E., 24 miles north-

KHULNA DISTRICT

285

west of Shahjahanpur city. Population (1901), 6,356. It is said
to have been founded as a market in the middle of the eighteenth
century, and under British rule was the head-quarters of a tahsil as
late as 1850. Khudaganj is administered under Act XX of 1856,
with an income of about Rs. 2,000. It is a thriving place, with a
considerable trade in agricultural products. The middle school has
95 pupils.

Khudian.—Town in the Chunian tahsil of Lahore District, Punjab,
situated in 30° 59' N. and 74° 17' E., on the Multan-Ferozepore road,
12 miles south-west of Kasur. Population (1901) 3,401, chiefly agricul¬
turists. The Katora Inundation Canal of the Upper Sutlej system
runs close to the towm. The municipality was created in 1875. The
income and expenditure during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged
Rs. 2,300. In 1903—4 the income w^as Rs. 2,700, derived chiefly
from octroi; and the expenditure was Rs. 2,400. The town contains
a dispensary.

Khuldabad Taluk (or Rauza).—‘ Crown ’ taluk in the north-west
of AurangabM District, Hyderabad State, with an area of 129 square
miles. The population in 1901, including jdgirs, was 14,512, com¬
pared with 16,353 in 1891, the decrease being due to the famines of
1897 and 1899-1900. The taluk contains 38 villages, of which 9 are
jdgirj and Khuldabad (population, 2,845) is the head-quarters. The
land revenue in 1901 was Rs. 43,300. The country is hilly towards
the east and north.

Khuldabad Village (or Rauza).—Village in the Khuldabad taluk
of AurangabM District, Hyderabad State, situated in 20° C N". and
75° 12' E., 2,732Heet above sea-level and 500 feet above the plains,
14 miles north-west of Aurangabad city. Population (1901), 2,845.
Khuldabad contains the tombs of Aurangzeb and of his son Azam
Shah ; of Asaf Jah, the founder of the HyderabM State; of N’asir Jang,
Nizam Shah, king of Ahmadnagar; of Malik Ambar, the Nizam Shahr
minister; of Tana Shah, the last of the Kutb Shahi kings; and of
several Musalman saints. The former name of the place was Rauza,
which was changed to KhuldabM in consequence of the title of Khuld
Makdn conferred on Aurangzeb after his death. The extensive ruins
of the ancient Hindu city of Buddravanti are situated on an adjoining
table-land. In addition to the taluk office, Khuldabad contains a
post office, a school, a police amhls office, and a police station. It is
largely resorted to as a sanitarium.

Khulna District.—District of the Presidency Division, Bengal,
lying between 21° 38' and 23° i' N. and 88° 54' and 89° 58' E. Its
area, exclusive of 2,688 square miles in the Sundarbans on the south,
is 2,077 square miles. It occupies the south central portion of the
delta between the Hooghly and Meghna estuary, and is bounded on

286

KHULNA DISTRICT

the north by Jessore District; on the east by Backergunge; on the
west by the Twenty-four Parganas; and on the south by the Bay of
Bengal.

The general shape of the District is an irregular parallelogram, and
it may be divided into four parts : the north-western portion, where

the land is well raised : the north-eastern portion,
Physical ^ ’

aspects Jessore boundary down to the latitude of

Bagherhat, where the land is low and covered with
swamps ; the central portion, also low-lying but now brought under
cultivation; and the southern portion, which forms the Khulna Sun-
darbans, a. tangled network of sw^amps and rivers, in the greater part of
which tillage is impossible and there is no settled population. The
whole District forms an alluvial plain intersected by rivers flowing from
north to south; their banks, as in all deltaic tracts, rise above the
adjacent country, and the land slopes away from them, thus forming
a depression betw^een the main lines of the rivers. They have, how¬
ever, with the exception of the Madhumati, which forms the eastern
boundary of the District, ceased to be true deltaic streams owing to
the silting up of their heads. The Madhumati, with its continuation
the Balesw^ar and its estuary the Haringhata, still brings dowm a great
quantity of Ganges water to the sea. The other rivers are connected
by numerous cross-channels, and are known by a confusing multiplicity
of names in different portions of their courses. The most important
are the Ichamati (2), the Jamuna (2), and the Kabadak, which discharge
into the sea by the Raimangal and Malancha estuaries respectively;
and the Bhairab, now a tributary of the Madhumati, though a great deal
of its w’ater finds its \vay into the Bay of Bengal through the Rupsa
river. There are no lakes; but the District is studded wnth marshes,
the largest of which, the Bayra Bil, extends over 40 miles, but has to
a great extent been brought under cultivation.

The District is covered by recent alluvium, consisting of sandy clay
and sand along the course of the rivers, and fine silt consolidating into
clay in the flatter parts of the river plain, while beds of impure peat
commonly occur.

In the north-w^est of the District there are extensive groves of date-
palms {Phoenix acaulis)^ especially on the outskirts of villages. The
north-east and centre of the District are generally inundated during
the rainy season, only the river banks and the artificial mounds on
w’hich habitations are situated rising above the water. These elevated
embankments are, wfliere not occupied by gardens, densely covered
with a scrubby jungle or semi-spontaneous species, from w'hich rise
bamboos, betel-nut and coco-nut palms, w'ith a few taller trees, the
commonest being the Odina JVodier, and the most conspicuous the red
cotton-tree (Pomhax fnalabaricum). The surface of the marshes show’s

POPULATION

287

either huge stretches of inundated rice or is covered with matted
floating islets of sedges and grasses and various water-lilies, the most
striking of these being the makana {Euryale ferox). The forests of
the Sundarbans in the south produce many kinds of timber and an
abundant supply of firewood.

The same forests also abound in tigers, leopards, wild buffaloes, hog,
swamp deer, spotted deer, hog deer, barking-deer, porcupines, otters,
and monkeys. Tigers are very numerous, and their ravages often
interfere with the extension of cultivation. Crocodiles are common in
the Madhumatl and Bhairab and in all the rivers in the Sundarbans.
Snakes of various kinds infest the whole District.

Statistics of temperature are not available. Rainfall commences
early, and the annual fall averages 65 inches, of which 6-5 inches fall
in May, 12*6 in June, 12-8 in July, ii*8 in August, 8-8 in September,
and 4-9 in October. Serious floods occurred in 1885, 1890, and 1900,
but they are less now than they were before the Madhumatl had
opened out its present channel and the other rivers had silted up at
their heads. A cyclone accompanied by a storm-wave occurred in
the Bagherhat subdivision in 1895.

In ancient times the District formed part of the old kingdom of Banga
or Samatata, and subsequently of the Bagri division of Bengal con¬
stituted by Ballal Sen. The earliest traditions are,
however, associated with the name of Khanja All,
who came to the District four and a half centuries ago. He obtained
a jdglr from the king of Gaur and made extensive clearances in the
Sundarbans, where he appears to have exercised all the rights of sove¬
reignty till his death in 1459. covered the country with numerous

mosques and tombs, the remains of some of which are still to be seen at
Bagherhat and Masjidkur. Vikramaditya, one of the chief ministers
of Daud Khan, the last king of Bengal, obtained a grant in the Sun¬
darbans when that monarch rebelled against the king of Delhi, and
established at Iswaripur a city from which the District of Jessore took
its name. He was succeeded by his son Pratapaditya, the popular hero
of the Sundarbans, who gained pre-eminence over the twelve chiefs
or Bhuiyas then holding possession of Southern Bengal, but was eventu¬
ally defeated and captured by Man Singh, Akbar’s Hindu general.
'Phe present District of Khulna was formed in 1882 out of the Khulna
and Bagherhat subdivisions of Jessore and the Satkhira subdivision of
the Twenty-four Parganas, and its history after the British accession
to the dizvani is comprised in the accounts of those Districts.

The population has grown rapidly since 1872, the figures being
1,046,878 in 1872, 1,079,948 in 1881, 1,177,652 in
1891, and 1,253,043 in 1901. The increase is due to
a large expansion of cultivation in the south, central, and south-west

History.

Population.

288

KHULNA DISTRICT

portions of the District, and a steady but less rapid growth in the
marshy country to the north-east, on the confines of Faridpur. There
has been a decrease of population in the north-western corner, and also
in a narrow strip of country running from it first in a southerly and
then in a south-easterly direction; in this tract fever is very prevalent.
In the northern part of the Satkhira subdivision the drainage is bad,
there are numerous swamps, and malaria is always present. The other
northern thdnas are also low-lying, but though there are numerous
marshes, the country is more open; and there is less jungle, while the
stagnant pools and tanks which are so common in North Satkhira are
rarely to- be seen. Dyspepsia, diarrhoea, and dysentery are common
when the river water becomes brackish, and cholera sometimes breaks
out in an epidemic form. The chief statistics of the Census of 1901
are given below :—-

Subdivision.

Area in square
miles.

NU!

inber of

(ft

biO

Population.

Population per
square mile.

Percentage of
variation in

population be¬

tween 1891
and 1901.

Number of

persons able to

read and

write.

Khnlna .

649

929

401,785

619

+ 17 7

24,615

Bagherhat

679

UO45

3<53.04>

535

-1- 6-6

3»,279

Satkhira.

749

1,467

488,2 17

652

- 1-5

30,491

District total

2,077*

3,441

1,253,043

603*

-1- 6*4

86,385

* These fibres exclude 2,688 squafe miles in the Sundarbans. If this area be
included, the density for the whole District is 263 persons per square mile.

The three towms are Khulna, the head-quarters, ,Debhata, and
Satkhira. There is a large immigration from the Districts of Backer-
gunge, Jessore, and P''aTidpur, which supply many of the cultivators
on new clearances in the Sundarbans ; some of these have settled
permanently, but many are still domiciled elsewhere. The dialects
spoken are Eastern Bengali, or Musalmani, and East Central Bengali.
Hindus (619,123) and Muhammadans (632,216) are almost equally
divided.

The great majority of the Muhammadans are Shaikhs (292,000) and
Ajlafs (285,000), while of the remainder the weaving caste of Jolahas
(27,000) is the most largely represented. Probably most of these are
descended from local converts from Hinduism, and chiefly from the
Chandals (Namasudras) and Pods, who still number 191,000 and
105,000 respectively. Of other castes, Kayasths (39,000), Kaibarttas
(36,000), and Brahmans (31,000) are the most numerous. Agriculture
supports 77 per cent, of the population, industries 11*7 per cent., and
the professions i-8 per cent.

Christians in 1901 numbered 1,275, including 1,228 native Christians,

AGRICULTURE

289

the most important mission at work being the Baptist Missionary
Society, which has 18 churches and 24 schools, mostly among the
cultivating classes in the Sundarbans. The Oxford Mission has
a station at Shelaburia on the Pusur, about 30 miles south of Khulna;
and some Roman Catholics at Malgachi, also in the Sundarbans, are
visited occasionally by their priests.

The clay land of the river plain {mathidl) is most suitable for rice,
while cold-season crops, such as pulses, oilseeds, and the betel-vine
{Piper Beile\ grow best on the sandy clay known as
dodshia. In the decomposed vegetable deposits of
the marshes winter rice of the coarsest sort is the only crop grown.
Except in the higher land and in the north of the Satkhira subdivision,
partial failure of crops is not uncommon owing to the deposits of salt
left by the tide. The south-west of the District suffers especially from
this cause; elsewhere the salt is as a rule annually washed away during
the rainy season, and the soil is renovated by the deposits left by
the overflow of the rivers. The cultivators in some places put up small
embankments, known locally as bheris^ to keep out the salt water. It
is estimated that 1,343 square miles were cultivated in 1903-4, and
that the cultivable waste amounted to 334 square miles ; separate
statistics for the subdivisions are not available.

Rice is the staple food-grain, covering 1,213 square miles. The
principal crop is the winter variety, for which the reclaimed portions
of the Sundarbans are famous; the soil is here new and unexhausted,
and the out-turn is abundant. In the Sundarbans this crop is sown
broadcast in the early part of July and reaped in January. Elsewhere
it is sown in nurseries during April and May, transplanted about July,
and reaped in November and December; in low lands, however, it is
occasionally sown broadcast. Oilseeds, principally mustard, are gro\Mi
on 100 square miles, while jute covers 14 and tobacco 8 square miles.
Date-palms {Phoenix acaulis) and betel-nut palms {Areca Catechu) are
also largely grown. Fisheries are plentiful, and fishing constitutes an
important industry.

Cultivation is being steadily extended into the shallow blis which
form so marked a feature of this part of Bengal. In the south progress
is being made in pushing back the jungle of the Sundarbans, where the
new clearances attract cultivators not only from other parts of the Dis¬
trict, but also from Nadia, Jessore, Faridpur, and elsewhere. There
was some scarcity in 1896-8, when Rs. 69,000 was advanced under the
Agriculturists’ Loans Act; the annual average of the sums advanced
under that Act during the ten years ending 1901-2 was Rs. 7,000, while
the sums advanced under the Land Improvement Loans Act averaged
Rs. 5,000 per annum.

There is little real pasture land in the District, and fodder is scarce.

2 90 KHULNA DISTRICT

No attempts have been made to improve the breed of cattle, which
is very poor.

The Forest department administers 2,081 square miles of ‘reserved’
forests in the Sundarbans, but this area includes 533 square miles of
Forests channels; large quantities of forest produce are

exported to the adjoining Districts. The principal
trees are stmdri (^Heriiiera liitoralis)^ pastir i^Carapa 7 ?ioIucce 7 tsis\ a??iur
{Amoora cucuUaia\ keord (So/ineratia apeta/a), gardii {Ceriops Ca7i-
dollea?ia)^ and geod {Excoecaria Agallochd), The minor produce con¬
sists of golpdta {Nipa frutescens\ ha^itdl {Phoenix paludosa)^ 7ial or
thatching-grass, honey, wax, and shells. The gross revenue from the
forests in 1903-4 was 3-33 lakhs.

The chief industry is the manufacture of sugar and molasses from

the juice of the date-palm, but for some years it was seriously affected

by the competition of imported sugar. The out-turn
Trade and r . ^ j i j

communications. ^ 903-4 "'as 19,000 maunds valued at

1-96 lakhs, and of molasses 68,000 maunds valued

at 1*83 lakhs. The earthen pottery, cutlery, and horn industries of

KalTganj are of considerable importance. Coarse cotton cloths are

manufactured on hand-looms, and are said to be preferred by the

poorer classes to machine-made goods on account of their durability;

but the industry is not flourishing.

The chief exports are rice and paddy to Calcutta, the Twenty-four
Parganas, Nadia, and Jessore; and gram, pulses, oilseeds, jute, tobacco
(unmanufactured), sugar (unrefined), firewood, timber, minor forest
produce, pan leaf, betel-nuts, coco-nuts, and fish to Calcutta. The
chief imports are raw cotton, cotton twist, European cotton piece-goods,
hardware, glassware, sugar (refined), shoes, English liquors, kerosene
oil, coal and coke, lime, and tobacco. The chief trade centres are
Khulna, Daulatpur, Phultala, Alipur, Kapilmuni, Chaknagar, Chalna,
Jalma, Dumria, and KutTrhat, all in the head-quarters subdivision;
Bagherhat, Fakirhat, Mausha, Jatrapur, Kachua, Chitalmari, Gaur-
ambha, and INIorrelganj in the Bagherhat subdivision ; and Baradal,
Patkelghata, KalTganj, Kalaroa, Debhata, Chanduria, Basantpur,
Asasuni, Tala, and Naobanki in the Satkhira subdivision. The
principal castes engaged in trade are Kayasths, Telis, Baruis, Sahas,
!Malos, Baniks, Namasudras, and Muhammadans.

The Eastern Bengal State Railway connects Khulna with Jessore
and Calcutta. In 1903-4 the District contained 490 miles of roads, of
which only 12 miles were metalled, in addition to 1,031 miles of village
tracks. The principal roads are those connecting Khulna with Jessore
and Bagherhat.

The larger rivers are for the most part tidal and navigable by large
boats throughout the year, and they carry a great amount of traffic

FAMINE

291

Some of the connecting channels form portion of a very important
system of waterways connecting Calcutta with the eastern Districts,
and also with the Ganges and the Brahmaputra systems {see Cal¬
cutta AND Eastern Canals). The central mart of the Sundarbans is
the town of Khulna, towards which all the boat routes converge. The
chief route, after reaching the junction of the Kabadak with the
Morirchap river, proceeds by the latter as far as its junction with
the Betua and the Kholpetua, where it divides into two channels. The
large boats pass along the Kholpetua, Galghasia, Banstala, and Kank-
siali channels to Kaliganj, while the smaller boats enter the Sovnali
at its junction with the Kholpetua and proceed to Kaliganj by the
Guntiakhali, Habra Sitalkhali, Jhapjhapia, and Kanksiali; the route
through the Sitalkhali has been shortened since the opening of the
Gobinda Canal, and boats of all sizes now pass through it. From
Kaliganj the route proceeds through the Jamuna as far as Basantpur,
where it again divides, forming an inner and an outer passage. The
outer passage enters the Twenty-four Parganas through the KalindrI
river and the Sahibkhali and Barakulia Khals, while the inner passage
proceeds by the Jamuna from Basantpur to Husainabad, where it
enters a channel called the Husainabad or Dhansara Khal. From
Khulna routes branch off north, east, and south ; the chief northern
route proceeds up the Atharabanki, Madhumatl, and Garai into the
Padma or main channel of the Ganges, and carries the river trade
not only of Northern Bengal but also of Bihar during the season when
the Nadia rivers are closed. In recent years, the silting up of this
route has led to its abandonment by steamers. The eastern route
from Khulna passes down the Bhairab, and then by Barisal through
Backergunge District to Dacca. The main southern route connects
Khulna with Morrelganj.

In addition to the Cachar-Sundarbans dispatch service, which plies
from Calcutta through the Sundarbans to Barisal, Chandpur, Narayan-
ganj and Assam, there are services of steamers between Khulna and
Muhammadpur, Khulna and Binodpur, and (during the rains) Magura
and Khulna and Madarlpur via the Madhumatl Bll route {see FarIdpur
District). There is also a service on the Kabadak between Kapilinuni
in Khulna and Kotchandpur in the Jessore District, which taps the
railway at Jhingergacha.

The famine of 1897-8 affected parts of the Khulna and Satkhira sub¬
divisions. The rainfall was deficient in 1895-6, and a cyclonic storm

drove salt water over the fields and destroyed the _

... Famine,

young plants. The rainfall was again very short in

1896-7, and the out-turn of the great rice area bordering on the

Sundarbans barely amounted to an eighth of the normal crop. An

area of 467 square miles with a population of 276,000 was affected, but

292

KHULNA DISTRICT

the number requiring relief never exceeded 16,000. The relief works
were closed at the end of September, but poorhouses were maintained
till a month later. The total expenditure was 1*74 lakhs, of which
Rs. 61,000 was spent on relief works and Rs. 75,000 on gratuitous relief.
Apart from this, Rs. 48,000 was advanced under the Land Improvement
Loans Act and Rs. 69,000 under the Agriculturists’ Loans Act.

For administrative purposes the District is divided into three sub¬
divisions, with head-quarters at Khulna, Bagherhat, and Satkhira.

The Magistrate-Collector is assisted at head-quarters
Administration. ^ Deputy-Magistrate-Collectors, and

the Bagherhat and Satkhira subdivisions are each in charge of a Deputy-
JNIagistrate-Collector assisted by a Sub-Deputy-Collector. A Deputy-
Conservator of forests and two Extra-Assistant Conservators attached to
the Sundarbans division are also stationed at Khulna.

For the disposal of civil judicial work, in addition to the District and
Sessions Judge, who is also Judge of Jessore, two Munsifs and a Sub¬
ordinate Judge sit at Khulna and three Munsifs at each of the other
subdivisional head-quarters. There are in all twelve criminal courts,
including the court of an Additional Sessions Judge, who also sits at
Jessore for a portion of the year. The most common cases are those
arising out of land disputes.

The early land revenue history of the District cannot be distinguished
from that of the neighbouring Districts of Jessore and the Twenty-four
Parganas, of which until recently it formed part. At the time of the
Permanent Settlement, most of the present District was divided into
a few large zamlnddris^ including portions of the Isafpur and Saidpur
estates Jessore District). Of 979 estates in 1903-4 with a current
demand of 6-9 lakhs, 756 with a demand of 5-1 lakhs were permanently
settled. There are no tenures peculiar to the District. Utharidi
tenants pay rent only upon the land actually cultivated during the year
(see Nadia District). Korfd ryots hold under a middleman such as
a gdfiihiddr or jotddr^ middi ryots are liable to ejectment after a fixed
period, kistkdrl ryots are tenants-at-will, while the occupants of jula
jama and dhdftya karari holdings pay rent in kind. For the whole
District the incidence of rental is Rs. 4-3-2 per cultivated acre; but
rents vary greatly, ranging from Rs. 4-8 to Rs. 9 per acre in the Khulna
subdivision, from Rs. 3 to Rs. 18 in Bagherhat, and from Rs. 3 to Rs. 7
in Satkhira. Fdn and garden lands bring in between Rs. 6 and Rs. 9
in Bagherhat, and between Rs. 9 and Rs. 18 in Khulna, while in
Satkhira as much as Rs. 30 is occasionally paid for garden and Rs. 52
for pd7i land. In a settlement of a small tract which was made in
1901-2 the rate of rent was found to vary from Rs. 2-13 to Rs. 6 per
cultivated acre, the average rate being Rs. 4-6-6, and the average
'holding of each tenant 12-28 acres.

ADMINISTRA TION

^93

The following table shows the collections of land revenue and of
total revenue (principal heads only), in thousands of rupees :—

1890-1.

1900-1.

1903-4.

Land revenue

Total revenue

6,44

11,48

6,69

13,21

6,S6

I4»23

Outside the municipalities of Khulna, Satkhira, and Debhata,
local affairs are managed by the District board, with subordinate local
boards in each subdivision. In 1903-4 the income of the District
board was Rs. 1,95,000, of which Rs. 1,03,000 was derived from rates;
and the expenditure was Rs. 1,56,000, including Rs. 98,000 spent on
public works and Rs. 35,000 on education.

The District contains 13 police stations and 9 outposts; and in 1903
the force subordinate to the District Superintendent consisted of 3
inspectors, 35 sub-inspectors, 36 head constables, and 394 constables,
including 41 water constables and 57 town police. In addition, there
was a rural police of 239 daffadars and 2,155 chaukiddrs. The District
jail at Khulna has accommodation for 49 prisoners, and subsidiary
jails at Satkhira and Bagherhat have accommodation for 47.

In respect of education Khulna is less advanced than would be
expected from its proximity to Calcutta, and in 1901 only 6-9 per cent,
of the population (12-4 males and o-8 females) could read and write.
The total number of pupils under instruction fell from 38,000 in 1892-3
to 34,000 in 1900-1. In 1903-4 there were 34,000 boys and 3,000
girls at school, being, respectively, 34-7 and 3-4 per cent, of the children
of school-going age. The number of educational institutions, public
and private, in that year was 1,009, including an Arts college, 91
secondary, 909 primary, and 8 special schools. The expenditure on
education was i-8 lakhs, of which Rs. 21,000 was met from Provincial
funds, Rs. 34,000 from District funds, Rs. 1,000 from municipal funds,
and Rs. 96,000 from fees.

In 1903 the District contained ii dispensaries, of which 3 had
accommodation for 41 in-patients. At these the cases of 79,000 out¬
patients and 500 in-patients were treated during the year, and 2,000
operations were performed. The expenditure was Rs. 15,000, of which
Rs. 1,100 was met by Government contributions, Rs. 7,000 from Local
and Rs. 2,000 from municipal funds, and Rs. 4,000 from subscriptions.

Vaccination is compulsory only in municipal areas. In 1903-4 the
number of persons successfully vaccinated was 32,000, or 26*28 per
1,000 of the population.

[Sir W. W. Hunter, Statistical Account of Bengal^ vols. i and ii (1875);
Sir J. Westland, Report on Jessore (Calcutta, 1874); F. E. Pargiter,
Revenue History of the Sunda/Pans from 1765 to iS’jo (Calcutta, 1885).]

294

KHULNA SUBDIVISION

Khulna Subdivision.—Head-quarters subdivision of Khulna Dis¬
trict, Bengal, lying between 21° 41' and 23° i' N. and 89° 14' and
89° 45' E., with an area of 649 square miles. The subdivision is an
alluvial tract, merging to the south in the Sundarbans; the general
features are the same as in the lower delta through which the rivers of
Bengal find their way to the sea. Its population in 1901 was 401,785,
compared with 341,493 in 1891, the density being 619 persons per
square mile. It contains one town, Khulna, its head-quarters (popu¬
lation, 10,426); and 929 villages. Khulna town is the chief centre of
trade; but Alaipur, Daulatpur, Dumria, Phultala, and Kapil-
MUNi are also important marts.

Khulna Town.—Head-quarters of Khulna District, Bengal, situated
in 2 2^^ 49' N. and 89® 34' E., at the point where the Bhairab river
meets the Sundarbans. Population (1901), 10,426. Khulna may be
described as the capital of the Sundarbans, and has been for more than
a hundred years a place of commercial importance. It was the head¬
quarters of the salt department during the period of the Company’s salt
manufacture. It is the terminus of the central section of the Eastern
Bengal State Railway, and all the great river routes converge on the
town, it being connected by steamer with Narayanganj, Barisal,
Madaripur, iMuhammadpur, and Binodpur. Rice, sugar, betel-nuts,
and coco nuts, the produce of the vicinity, are collected here for export
to Calcutta, and the trade in salt is also large. Khulna was constituted
a municipality in 1884. The income during the decade ending
1901-2 averaged Rs. 22,000, and the expenditure Rs. 20,000. In
1903-4 the income was Rs. 19,000, including Rs. 4,600 derived from
a tax on persons (or property tax), Rs. 3,500 from a tax on houses and
lands, and Rs. 4,600 from a conservancy rate; and the expenditure
was Rs. 17,000. The municipality has recently undertaken a scheme
for improving the drainage. The town contains the usual civil, criminal,
and revenue courts. District jail, circuit-house, hospital, and schools.
The jail has accommodation for 49 prisoners ; the principal industries
are oil-pressing, wheat-grinding, paddy-husking, mat-making, aloe¬
pounding, and rope-making. The Woodburn Hospital was com¬
pleted in 1901 at a cost of Rs. 18,000.

Khunti Subdivision.—South-eastern subdivision of Ranchi Dis¬
trict, Bengal, lying between 22° 38' and 23° 18' N. and 84° 56' and
85° 54' E., with an area of 1,140 square miles. The subdivision,
which was created in 1905, is an elevated table-land; but to the south
the surface is broken and the undulating ridges and valleys give place
to steep hills and ravines, terminating in a comparatively open plain to
the south-east towards Manbhum. It had a population in 1901 of
225,407, compared with 198,730 in 1891, the density being 198
persons per square mile. It contains one town, Bundu (popula-

KHURDA SUBDIVISION

295

tion, 5,469), and 599 villages, one of which, Khuxti, is the head¬
quarters.

Khunti Village.—Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Ranch! District, Bengal, situated in 23® 5' N. and 85° 16' E.
Population (1901), 1,446. It is a trade centre of some importance on
the road from Ranchi to Chaibasa.

Khurai Tahsil [Kurai). —North-western tahsil of Saugor District,
Central Provinces, lying between 23° 51' and 24° 27' N. and 78® 4'
and 78° 43' E., with an area of 940 square miles. The population
decreased from 126,004 1891 to 93,788 in 1901. The density in

the latter year was 100 persons per square mile, which is below the
District average. The tahsil contains two towns, Khurai (population,
6,012), the head-quarters, and Etawa (6,418); and 470 inhabited
villages. Excluding 124 square miles of Government forest, 45 per
cent, of the available area is occupied for cultivation. The cultivated
area in 1903-4 was 238 square miles. The demand for land revenue
in the same year was Rs. 77,000, and for cesses Rs. 8,000. The tahsil
is an open undulating plain, with a stretch of hilly and stony land in
the north, and belts of forest on the borders of the Bina and Betwa
rivers.

Khurai Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Saugor District, Central Provinces, situated in 24° 3' X. and 78° 20' E.,
on the railway line towards Blna, 33 miles from Saugor town. Popu¬
lation (1901), 6,012. An old fort is now used as the tahsil office.
Khurai contains a considerable colony of Jains and a number of fine
Jain temples. It was created a municipality in 1867. The municipal
receipts during the decade ending 1901 averaged Rs. 15,300. In
1903-4 the receipts were Rs. 8,000, mainly derived from fees on the
registration of cattle. The town is a collecting centre for local trade.
A large weekly cattle market is held here, and dried meat is prepared
for export to Burma. Khurai contains an English middle school, two
branch and two girls’ schools, one of which is supported by the
Swedish Lutheran Mission, and a dispensary.

Khurda Subdivision.—^\^estern subdhision of Puri District, Ben¬
gal, lying between 19° 41' and 20° 26' N. and 84° 56' and 85® 53' E.,
with an area of 971 square miles. The population in 1901 was
359,236, compared with 331,423 in 1891, the density being 370
persons per square mile. The subdivision adjoins the south¬
eastern fringe of the Chota Nagpur plateau, and detached hills of
gneiss occur, the plains between them consisting of laterite and
alluvium. It contains 1,212 Nallages, one of which, Khurda, is its
head-quarters ; but no towm. At Bhubaneswar are situated the cele¬
brated Lingaraj temple and numerous other temples, and the Khand-
giri and Udayagiri hills contain many caves and rock temples.

296

KHURDA SUBDIVISION

Khurda was the last portion of territory held by the independent
Hindu dynasty of Orissa. The Maratha cavalry were unable to overrun
this jungle-covered and hilly tract; and the ancient royal house retained
much of its independence till 1804, when the Raja rebelled against the
British Government and his territory was confiscated. A rising on the
part of the peasantry took place in 1817-8, due chiefly to the oppres¬
sion of the minor Bengali officials. The insurrection was speedily
quelled, reforms were introduced and grievances redressed ; and at the
present day Khurda is a profitable and well-managed Government
estate, the cultivators being a contented and generally prosperous
class. The current settlement dates from 1897, when the demand was
assessed at 3-77 lakhs. The present Raja of Khurda is hereditary
superintendent of the temple of Jagannath, but has delegated all his
powers as such for five years to an experienced Deputy-Magistrate-
Collector.

[J. Taylor, Settlement ReJ>ort (Ca\cutt2iy 1900).]

Khurda Village.—Head-quarters of the subdivision of the same
name in Purl District, Bengal, situated in 20° ii' N. and 85° 38' E.,
on the high road from Cuttack to Ganjam in Madras, and connected
by road with the Bengal-Nagpur Railway. Population (1901), 3,424.
Between 1818 and 1828 Khurda was the head-quarters of Purl Dis¬
trict, transferred in the latter year to Purl town. It contains the usual
public offices; the sub-jail has accommodation for 10 prisoners.

Khuria.—Plateau in the Jashpur State, Central Provinces, occupying
the north-western portion of the State, and lying between 23^ o' and
23° 14' N. and 83° 30' and 83° 44^ E. It consists of trap-rock topped
with volcanic laterite, overlying the granite and gneiss which form the
surface rocks at lower elevations. The plateau affords excellent
pasturage, and Ahirs or cowherds from Mirzapur and elsewhere drive
in large herds of cattle to graze; many such Ahirs have settled here
permanently.

Khurja Tahsll.—Southern tahsil of Bulandshahr District, United
Provinces, comprising the parga7ias of Jewar, Khurja, and Pahasti, and
lying between 28° 4' and 28° 20' N. and 77° 29' and 78° 12' E., with
an area of 462 square miles. The population rose from 221,137 in
1891 to 266,838 in 1901. There are 348 villages and seven towns, the
largest of which are Khurja (population, 29,277), the tahsll head¬
quarters, Jewar (7,718), Pahasu (5,603), Chhatari (5,574), and
Rabupura (5,048), The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was
Rs. 5,05,000, and for cesses Rs. 82,000. The tahsil is drained by
the East Kali Nadi, the Karon or Karwan, and the Patwai or Patwaha
Bahu, all which have been deepened and straightened to improve
the drainage. The Jumna flows along the western border. East of
the Kali Nadi and west of the Patwai are tracts of light sandy soil;

KHUSHAB TAHSlL

297

but the central portion is highly fertile, and is well supplied by irri¬
gation from the Upper Ganges Canal and the Mat branch of the same
work. Cotton is more largely grown in this tract than in any other
part of the District. In 1903-4 the area under cultivation was 345
square miles, of which 152 were irrigated. Well-irrigation supplies
about one-third of the total, and is ehiefly important in the area
between the canals.

Khurja Town.—Head-quarters of the tahsll of the same name in
Bulandshahr District, United Provinces, situated in 28® 15' N. and 77°
51' E., near the grand trunk road, and 4 miles from Khurja station on
the East Indian Railway. Population (1901), 29,277, of whom 15,878
are Hindus and 12,923 Musalmans. The town is said to derive its
name from khdrija (‘revenue free^), as it was built by the Bhale Sultan
Rajputs on a revenue-free grant made by Firoz Shah Tughlak. The
deseendants of the original grantees retained possession of their hold¬
ings till they were resumed partly by Suraj Mai, Raja of Bharatpur,
in 1740, and partly by Daulat Rao Sindhia towards the close of the
eighteenth century. There is only one aneient building, the tomb of
Makhdum Sahib, near the grand trunk road, which is about 400 years
old. The chief public buildings are the tahsili^ dispensary, and town
hall. The prineipal inhabitants are KheshgT Pathans and Churuwal
Banias; the latter, who are Jain by religion, are an enterprising and
wealthy class, carrying on banking all over India and taking a leading
share in the trade of the place. Thirty years ago they built a magni¬
ficent domed temple, which cost more than a lakh and is adorned with
a profusion of stone carving of fine execution. The interior is a blaze
of gold and colour, the vault of the dome being painted and decorated
in the most florid style of indigenous art. The market-place, bazar, and
dharmsdla, all adorned with handsome gateways of carved stone, also
owe much to the munificence of the Jain traders. There are branches
of the American Methodist and the Zanana Bible and Medical Missions.

Khurja has been a municipality since 1866. The receipts and
expenditure during the ten years ending 1901 averaged Rs. 27,500.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 38,000, chiefly derived from octroi
(Rs. 28,000); and the expenditure was Rs. 42,000. The town is the
chief commercial centre of the District, and contains seven cotton-gins
and presses, which employed 444 hands in 1903. Cotton-ginning by
hand is important, and there is a very large export of grain, besides
a smaller trade in indigo, sugar, and ghi. The pottery of Khurja
resembles that made at Multan and in the Rampur State, and has
some reputation. English cotton cloth, metals, and brass utensils are
the chief articles imported. There are eight schools with about 600
pupils.

Khushab Tahsil. —Tahsll of Shahpur District, Punjab, lying between

298

KHUSHAB TAHSIL

31® 32' and 32° 42' N. and 71° 37' and 72° 38' E., with an area of
2,536 square miles. It is bounded on the east by the Jhelum river.
The population in 1901 was 161,885, compared with 151,627 in 1891.
The head-quarters are at the town of Khushab (population, 11,403).
The number of villages is 206. The land revenue and cesses in 1903-4
amounted to 2*4 lakhs. The Salt Range runs through the north of the
lahsll^ culminating in the peak of Sakesar. The fertile southern slopes
sink into a salt-impregnated plain, which in turn gives place to the sand¬
hills of the Thai. Along the Jhelum lies a narrow strip of fertile lowland.

Khushab Town. —Head-quarters of the tahsil of the same name in
Shah pur District, Punjab, situated in 32® 18' N. and 72° 22' E., on the
right bank of the Jhelum river, and on the Sind-Sagar branch of the
North-Western Railway. Population (1901), 11,403. It has an exten¬
sive trade, exporting cotton, wool, and ghl to Multan and Sukkur;
cotton cloth to Afghanistan and the Derajat; and wheat grown in the
Salt Range, which is considered particularly suitable for export, princi¬
pally to Karachi. The municipality was created in 1867. The income
during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 12,100, and the
expenditure Rs. 11,000. In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 11,500, chiefly
from octroi; and the expenditure was Rs. 11,000. The town possesses
an Anglo-vernacular middle school, maintained by the municipality,
and a Government dispensary,

Khutahan. —Northern tahsil of Jaunpur District, United Provinces,
comprising the parganas of Ungli, Rari {tdluka Badlapur), Karyat
Mendha, and Chanda, and lying between 25° 50' and 26° 12' N. and
82° 21' and 82° 46' E., with an area of 362 square miles. Portions of
the tahsil form enclaves in Partabgarh and Sultanpur Districts. Popu¬
lation fell from 286,832 in 1891 to 269,438 in 1901. There are 700
villages and only one town, Shahganj (population, 6,430), the tahsil
head-quarters. The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs.
2,27,000, and for cesses Rs. 50,000. The density of population, 744
persons per square mile, is below the District average. Several small
drainage channels exist; but the Gumti, which crosses the south-west
of the tahsil^ is the only considerable river. Khutahan contains a large
area of good rice land, and also a number of barren usar tracts. The
area under cultivation in 1903-4 was 288 square miles, of which 129
were irrigated. Wells supply about seven-eighths of the irrigated area,
and tanks and jhlls most of the remainder.

Khuzdar. —The principal place in the Jhalawan division of the
Kalat State, Baluchistan, and the head-quarters of the Native Assistant
and of the Khan of Kalat’s naib^ situated in 27° 48' N. and 66° 37' E.
It is known to the Sindls as Kohiar, and is a long narrow valley, at the
upper end of which a fort was constructed in 1870. Khuzdar owes its
importance to its central position at the point of convergence of roads

KHYBER

299

from Kalat on the north, Karachi and Bela on the south, Kachhi on
the east, and Makran and Kharan on the west. It is unhealthy in
summer. The garrison consists of 7 artillerymen with one gun and
45 irregular levies. The Native Assistant has a small escort of 20
levies. The nidbat of Khuzdar includes land in Baghwana, Zidi, the
valley of the Kolachi river, Karkh, and Chakku.

Khyber (Kkaibar ).—Historic pass leading from Peshawar District
in the North-West Frontier Province into Afghanistan, the centre of
the pass lying in 34° 6 ' N. and 71° 5' E. The name is also applied
to the range of hills through which the pass runs. The Khyber moun¬
tains form, indeed, the last spurs of the Safed Koh, as that mighty
range sinks down into the valley of the Kabul river. The elevation of
the connecting ridge is 3,400 feet, but it rises to 6,800 feet in the
Tartara peak. On either side of it are the sources of two small streams,
one flowing north-west to the Kabul river, the other south-south-east
towards Jamrud. The beds of these streams form the Khyber defile.

The Khyber Pass is the great northern route from Afghanistan into
India, while the Kurram and Gonial Passes form intermediate com¬
munications, and the Bolan Pass is the great southern passage. The
pass begins near Jamrud, io| miles west of Peshawar, and twists
through the hills for about 33 miles in a north-westerly direction till
it debouches at Dakka. The most important points 7 ‘oute are All
Masjid, a village and fort lo^ miles from Jamrud; Landi Kotal, the
summit of the pass, 10 miles farther; and Tor Kham, at which point
the pass enters Afghan territory, about 6 miles beyond Landi Kotal.
The plains of Peshawar District stretch from the eastern mouth of the
pass, and those of JalalabM from the western. Outside the eastern
gate is the remarkable collection of caves at Kadam, and beyond its
western limits are many interesting remains of Buddhism and of
ancient civilization. The pass lies along the bed of a torrent, chiefly
through slate rocks, and is subject to sudden floods, especially in July,
August, December, and January. The gradient is generally easy,
except at Landi Khana, and the road is in good condition.

The elevation, in feet, at various points of the pass is: Jamrud,
1,670; All Masjid, 2,433; Landi Kotal, 3,373; Landi Khana, 2,488;
Dakka, 1,404. The ascent over the Landi Khana pass is narrow,
rugged, steep, and generally the most difficult part of the road. Guns
could not be drawn here except by men, and then only after the
improvement of the road; the descent is a well-made road, and not
so difficult. Just beyond All Masjid the road passes over a stretch
of uneven and slippery rock, which is extremely difficult for laden
animals. The Khyber can be turned by the Mullagori road, which
enters the hills about 9 miles north of Jamrud, and either joins the
Khyber road or keeps to the north of the range and emerges at Dakka.

VOL. XV. u

300

KHYBER

The Khyber has always been one of the gateways into India. Alex¬
ander of Macedon probably sent a division under Hephaistion and
Perdiccas through the Khyber, while he himself followed the northern
bank of the Kabul river, and thence crossed the Kunar valley into
Bajaur and Swat. Mahmud of Ghazni only once used the Khyber
route, when he marched to encounter Jaipal in the Peshawar valley.
The Mughal emperors Babar and Humayun each traversed it more
than once. Nadir Shah, advancing by it to attack Nasir Khan, Subah-
dar of Kabul under the Mughal government, was opposed by the
Pathans; but he led his cavalry through Bazar, took Nasir Khan
completely by surprise, and overthrew him near Jamrud. Ahmad
Shah DurrSni and his grandson Shah Zaman, in their invasions of
the Punjab, also followed the Khyber route on several occasions.
The Mughal emperors attached great importance to the control of the
Khyber, but were singularly unsuccessful in their attempts to keep
the route open. Then, as now, it was held by the Afridi Pathans,
a race implacably hostile to the Mughals.

Jalalabad, first fortified by Humayun in 1552, was further strength¬
ened by his son Jalal-ud-din Akbar, after whom it was named; and
the latter emperor so improved the road that wheeled carriages could
traverse it with ease. But even in his reign the Khyber was infested
by the Roshania sectaries, who wielded great influence over the Afghan
tribes; and the Rajput general Man Singh had to force the pass in
1586, when Akbar desired to secure possession of Kabul on the death
of his brother Mirza Muhammad Hakim. In 1672, under Aurangzeb,
the tribes waylaid the Subahddr of Kabul, Muhammad Amin Khan,
in the pass, and annihilated his army of 40,000 men, capturing all his
treasure, elephants, women, and children.

The first British advance into the Khyber was in 1839, when
Captain Wade was deputed to conduct Shahzada Timur to Kabul via
Peshawar, while his father Shah Shuja was escorted thither by the
army of the Indus via the Bolan Pass and Kandahar.

During the first Afghan War the Khyber was the scene of many
skirmishes with the Afridis and of some disasters to our troops.
Captain Wade, with from 10,000 to 11,000 of all arms, including the
Sikh contingent, moved from Jamrud on July 22, 1839, to Gagri;
here he halted a day and entrenched his position; on July 24 he
again marched to Lala China; on the 25th he moved to the attack
of All Masjid, sending a column of 600 men and 2 guns, under
Lieutenant Mackeson, to the right, and ii companies of infantry,
one 6-pounder gun, and one howitzer to the left, while below a column
was placed to watch the mouth of Shadi Bagadi gorge. Both columns
drove the enemy before them, the right meeting with some opposition,
and the left getting into a position to shell the fort. On the 26th all

KHYBER

30T

the enemy’s outposts were driven in, and on the 27th they evacuated
the fort. The enemy had 509 jazailchis^ or musket-men, and were
supported by several hundred Afrldis. The British loss was 22
killed and 158 wounded. After this there was no further opposition.

A strong post was left in Alf Masjid and a detachment near Lala
China to maintain communication with Peshawar, and a post of
irregulars under Lieutenant Mackeson was placed near Dakka. The
post near Lala China was attacked during the operations. It was
garrisoned by Yusufzai auxiliaries, whose numbers had been thinned
and the survivors worn down by continued sickness, when the Afrldis,
estimated at 6,000 strong, attacked their breastwork. They were long
kept at bay, but the marauders were animated by the lust of plunder,
and persevered in their attacks. They were aware that the devoted
garrison had recently received their arrears of pay, and that a sum of
Rs. 12,000 was buried on the spot. Finally, they carried the weak
fieldwork, and put to the sword 400 of its defenders. They did not
keep possession of it, but, after repeating their vain attempts on All
Masjid and the posts in the valley, retired to their mountains.

When Jalalabad was blockaded, it was proposed to send a force
through the Khyber to its relief, and as a preliminary measure Lieu¬
tenant-Colonel IMoseley was detached to occupy All Masjid with two
regiments of native infantry. He marched on the night of January 15,
1842, and reached the place with little opposition the next morning.
Through some mismanagement, however, only a portion of the pro¬
visions requisite for the two regiments accompanied them. It became
necessary, therefore, to forward the residue without delay; and Briga¬
dier Wilde advanced from Jamrud with the remaining two regiments
(the 60th and 30th Native Infantry) and 4 Sikh guns. But the appear¬
ance of Colonel Moseley’s detachment had alarmed the Afrldis, who
now rose and, closing the pass, prepared to resist Brigadier Wilde’s
entrance. The brigadier nevertheless pushed onwards on January 19,
and encountered the enemy at the mouth of the pass ; but, owing
to the uselessness of the Sikh guns and the inadequacy of his force
with so powerful a body of the enemy advantageously placed in his
front, his attempt to reach All Masjid totally failed. The situation of
Lieutenant-Colonel Moseley, shut up in All Masjid, with scarcely any
provisions, now became desperate; but he was successful in forcing
his way back to Jamrud.

The next occasion on \vhich the Khyber was used as a great military
road was when General Pollock advanced on April 6, 1842. On his
return to India the British army marched through the Khyber in three
divisions. The first, under General Pollock, passed through with no
loss. The second, under General ISPCaskil], was not equally fortunate.
One brigade being overtaken by night left two mountain-train guns

u 2

302

KHYBER

with the rear-guard, which was suddenly attacked, and the guns were
taken, but recovered next day. The rear-guard of General Nott's force
was also attacked on November 5 and 6 between Landi Khana and
Lalabagh, and again on leaving Ali Masjid.

It was at All Masjid in 1878 that Sir Neville Chamberlain’s friendly
mission to the Amir Sher Air Khan was stopped and repelled with
threats. An ultimatum ^^^as therefore handed to the Amir’s general, Faiz
Muhammad, in All Masjid; and the day specified having passed without
the return of an answer, Afghanistan was invaded by three British
columns, one of which started from Jamrud at the mouth of the Khyber.

On the second day of the campaign the fortress of All Masjid was
brilliantly captured by the British troops under General Browne. The
successful passage of the Khyber, and the unopposed occupation, first
of Dakka at the western mouth of the pass, and then of Jalalabad in
the plains beyond, immediately followed. The treaty which closed the
war in May, 1879, Khyber tribes for the future under British

control. From that date the history of the Khyber Pass is bound up
with that of the Khyber Political Agency, which includes Mullagori
country north of the Khyber, Tirah of the Afridis, and the country on
both sides of the Khyber Pass. None of it is administered, but the pass
is kept open and is picketed twice a week for the passage of caravans.

The Khyber Political Agency is bounded on the north by the Kabul
river and the Safed Koh; on the east by Peshawar District; on the
south by the Aka Khel and Orakzai countries; and on the west by the
Chamkanni and Masuzai countries, and the Safed Koh. The Khyber
Pass between Jamrud and Landi Kotal originally belonged to the Shin-
waris, Zakka Khel, Kuki Khel, and the Orakzai only. At the time
of the extension of Sikh rule to Jamrud the Orakzai were ousted by the
Afridis, and the only trace of their presence is a ruined village near
Jam. The Sikh rule never extended beyond Jamrud. When Captain
Mackeson was negotiating with the Afridis in 1840, the Malikdin
Khel Maliks of Chora forced their way between the Zakka Khel and
Kuki Khel, and established a small village at Katta Kushta near Ali
Masjid. The Sipah Kambar Khel and Kamrai Khel also, seeing the
advantages of a footing in the Khyber, stepped in, and were admitted
to a share in the Khyber allowance.

After the Sikh War the Afridis took service in large numbers in the
Indian army, and when the Mutiny of 1857 broke out they did exceed¬
ingly well. From 1857' to 1878 the Afridis were subsidized by the
Afghan government, wha kept a garrison of Afghan troops at All
Masjid. The Afridis were, however, never on good terms with the
Afghans. They very often visited the British officers of Peshawar
District; but relations with them were maintained through the Khalil
and Mohmand Arbabs of Peshawar District, who were generally of an.

KHYBER

303

intriguing disposition, and very seldom did any real service. Their
main object ^Yas to keep those tribes in a state of unrest, and thus
enhance their own importance. A year or two before the second
Afghan War Amir Sher All summoned the jirgas of all the Afridis
and Shinwaris, and distributed about 5,000 rifles among them. When
war broke out, and All Masjid was attacked and turned, the Afghans
and Afridis fled in great disorder, and the Afghans were robbed of their
clothes and rifles by the Afridis in the Khyber and in Bazar. The
Afridis, and especially the Bazar Zakka Khel, subsequently harassed
the passage of the British troops through the Khyber, and a force was
sent against them in December, 1878.

By the Gandamak Treaty of 1879 between the British and Amir
Yakub Khan, it was agreed that the British Government should retain
the control of the Khyber Pass; and, in pursuance of this agreement,
allowances were fixed for the Afridis, aggregating Rs. 87,540 per
annum. The management of the pass was entrusted to the tribesmen
themselves through their inaliks^ who executed a formal agreement by
which they undertook to guard it with their tribesmen. Some local
levies called jazailchis (which afterwards became the Khyber Rifles),
numbering about 400 men, were also raised for escorting caravans
through the Khyber. These were eventually increased to 600 strong.

In 1897 disturbances broke out all along the frontier. The Afridis
remained quiet for some time, but in August they .attacked the Khyber
posts and sacked the fortified sarai at Landi Kotal. They met with
opposition from the Khyber Rifles, but the garrison could not hold out
owing to want of water. To punish the Afridis for this violation of
their engagements, a force was sent into Tirah under Sir W. Lx)ckhart,
and a fine of Rs. 50,000 and 800 breech-loading rifles was recovered
from them by April, 1898. In October of the same year a fresh settle¬
ment was made with the Afridis, by which they undertook to have no
intercourse with any power except the British, and to raise no objection
to the construction of railways or roads through the Khyber. On these
conditions the allowances were restored, with a small increase of
Rs. 250 for the Kambar Khel. The Khyber Rifles were augmented
to two battalions of 600 each, 50 of the total being mounted, and were
placed under British officers.

The chief subdivisions of the Afridi tribe are as follows :—

Section* Habitat, Strength {estimated^

Kambar Khel

( Maidan, Bara Valiev . . . j

j Kajuri Valley . ' . . . j

- 4,500 fighting men.

Kamrai

Bara Valley ....

600

>» jj

Kuki Khel .

j Khyber . . . . . ]
( All Masjid, Jamrud . . . 1

I 4,000

J»

Malik Din Khel

Mardan .....

5,000

)i >)

Sepaiah (Sipah)

Bara Valley and Kajuri Plain .

1,200

Zakka Khel .

Khyber, Bazar, and Bara Valley

4.500

if if

304

KHYRIM

Khyrim (Khairatn or Nongkhrem).—Petty State in the Khasi Hills,
Eastern Bengal and Assam. The population in 1901 was 31,327, and
the gross revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 12,161. The principal products are
potatoes, rice, millet, maize, lac, oranges, and cotton ; and the chief
manufactures, silk, cloth, and iron hoes and billhooks. Deposits of
lime, coal, and iron exist in the State, but they are not worked.

Kiamari.—Formerly an island, now owing to the action of sand-
drifts a portion of the mainland on the farther side of Karachi harbour,
Sind, Bombay, situated in 24° 49' N. and 67° 2' E., and forming one
of the municipal quarters of Karachi City, with which it is connected
by a tramway road called the Napier IMole, 3 miles long, constructed in
1854 by the North-Western Railway. Kiamari is the landing-place for
passengers and goods destined for Karachi or dispatch up-country, and
contains the Merewether Pier, called after a former Commissioner in
Sind, the foundation-stone of which was laid by Lord Ripon in 1880,
the Erskine Wharf, the James ^^Tarf, and an oil pier. There are here
a commissariat store, a customs house, a dispensary, &c. Kiamari is
a station on the North-Western Railway.

Kichhaunchha (or Ashrafpur-Kichhaunchha).—Town in the Tanda
tahsll of Fyzabad District, United Provinces, situated in 26° 25' N. and
82° 47' E., on the bank of a small stream called the TonrI. Population
(1901), 2,325. This place, with the neighbouring villages of Bashkari
and Rasulpur, is celebrated as having belonged to a famous saint,
named Makhdum Ashraf, who lived in the fourteenth century, or to
his descendants, who received rent-free grants from the Mughal em¬
perors. The saint’s tomb is built on rising ground in the village of
Rasulpur, and is much resorted to by pilgrims, especially in the month
of Aghan (November-Deceinber). A visit is believed to be very effi¬
cacious for persons possessed by devils. Kichhaunchha is admin¬
istered under Act XX of 1856, with an income of Rs. 300. A school
has 95 pupils.

Kidderpore.—A quarter of Calcutta containing the docks. See
Calcutta.

Kiggatnad.—Southern taluk of Coorg, Southern India, lying be¬
tween 11° 56' and 12° 18' N. and 75° 50' and 76° 12' E., ^^ith an area
of 410 square miles. The population in 1901 was 37,235, compared with
31,230 in 1891. The taluk contains 68 villages, of which Ponnampet
is the head-quarters. The west rests upon the Western Ghats, covered
with evergreen forest; the south is bounded by the Brahmagiri or
Marenad range, from which ridges of hills branch off throughout the
taluk ; the east is a continuous stretch of deciduous forest, through
which flows the Lakshmantirtha.

Kila Didar Singh.—Town in the District and tahsil of Gujranwala,
Punjab, situated in 32° 7' N. and 74° 5' E., 10 miles south-west of

KILIMANUR

305

Gujranwala town, on the road to Hahzabad. Population (1901), 2,705.
The municipality was created in 1867. The income during the ten
years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 2,900, and the expenditure Rs. 2,800.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 2,800, chiefly from octroi; and the
expenditure was Rs. 3,000.

Kilakarai. —Seaport in the Ramnad tahsil of the Ramnad estate,
Madura District, Madras, situated in 9° 14' N. and 78° 48' E., on the
Gulf of Manaar, 10 miles south of Ramnad town, from which it is
separated by a wide morass, all but impassable in the rainy season. It
is an untidy and dreary looking town, surrounded by sandy wastes and
a little low scrub. The population (11,078 in 1901) consists mainly
of Labbais, a Musalman trading community. Its commerce, which
is chiefly in grain, is carried on mainly with Cocanada and Ceylon.
The Labbais are experts in diving for .y^i/zM-shells (^Turbrnella rapa)^
which are obtained principally opposite Devipatam, Tirupalakudi, and
Rameswaram.

Kila Saifulla. — Tahsil of the Upper Zhob subdivision of the
Zhob District, Baluchistan, situated between 30° 32' and 31° 43' N.
and 68° 9' and 69° 18' E. It lies along the central part of the
valley of the Zhob river, and also includes part of the Toba-Kakar
range known as Kakar Khorasan. Its area is 2,768 square miles, and
population (1901) 19,229. The land revenue, including grazing tax,
in 1903-4 amounted to Rs. 44,000. The head-quarters station is Kila
Saifulla, and the tahsil contains 60 villages. The majority of the
people are Sanzar Khel Kakars, who combine flock-owning with agri¬
culture. They cultivate considerable ^rains-crop’ areas. The Jogizais,
once the ruling family in Zhob, live in this tahsil. Earth-salt is manu¬
factured, and traces of coal have been found. A small trade is done in
fox-skins.

Kila Sobha Singh. —Town in the Pasrur tahsil of Sialkot District,
Punjab, situated in 32° 14' N. and 74° 46' E., on the banks of the
Dengh torrent. Population (1901), 3,338. It was founded in the
eighteenth century by the Sikh chief Bhag Singh, Ahluwalia, who built
a fort here and called it after his son Sobha Singh. It contains a
colony of Kashmir! weavers who weave pashmina shawls. Vessels of
white metal are also made, but both industries have much decayed of
late years. The municipality was created in 1867. The income and
expenditure during the ten years ending 1902-3 averaged Rs. 3,900.
In 1903-4 the income was Rs. 1,400, chiefly from octroi; and the
expenditure was Rs. 3,700. A vernacular middle school is maintained
by the District board.

Kilimanur. —An idavagay\ or petty principality, in the Chirayinkll
taluk of Travancore State, Madras, situated in 8° 46' N. and 76° 52' E.
Population (1901), 3,053. It is a freehold estate belonging to the Koil

3o6

KILIMANUR

Tampurans, who are allied by marriage to the Ranis of Travancore and
thus to the reigning family. The estate was granted about 1728, in
recognition of the bravery with which a Koil Tampuran saved a Rani
and heir apparent to the throne of Travancore from their enemies.

Kiling.—River in Nowgong District, Eastern Bengal and Assam.
See Umiam.

Kinchinjunga {Kdnche>ij2mgd ).—A mountain, second only to Everest
in elevation, situated in the Eastern Himalayas, on the Sikkim-Nepal
boundary (27° 42' N., 88^9' E.), its summit attaining an altitude of
28,146 feet above sea-level.

‘The geological position of Kanchenjunga is obviously in the main
axis of the Himalayas, although that mountain lies considerably to the
south of the line of water-parting between the Tibetan plateau and
India, and on a spur which runs at right angles to this line, so that
even the drainage of its northern slopes flows directly down into the
Indian plains. . . . The name Kanchenjunga is Tibetan, and means,
literally, “The Five Repositories of the Great Glaciers,” and it is phy¬
sically descriptive of its five peaks. . . . The Lepcha name of this
mountain is Kong-lo-chu, or “The Highest Screen or Curtain of
Snows.” ^ (Waddell, Amo 72 g the Hiinalayas^ 1^99*)

Kindat Subdivision.—Central subdivision of the Upper Chin-
dwin District, Upper Burma, containing the Kindat and Tamu
townships.

Kindat Township.—Central township of the Upper Chindwin
District, Upper Burma, stretching across the Chindwin river from the
Yoma in the west to Shwebo District in the east, between 23° 25' and
23° 58' N. and 94° i8' and 95° 2' E., with an area of 1,715 square
miles. It is covered with forest, thinly populated, and, except in the
immediate neighbourhood of the Chindwin, hilly. The population was
11,429 in 1891, and 13,946 in 1901, distributed in 117 villages and one
town, Kindat (population, 2,417), the head-quarters. The area culti¬
vated in 1903-4 was 21 square miles, and the land revenue and thaiha-
meda amounted to Rs. 42,000.

Kindat Town.—Head-quarters of the Upper Chindwin District,
Upper Burma, situated in 23° 44' N. and 94® 26' E., on the left bank
of the Chindwin river, about 200 miles from the point at which that
stream flows into the Irrawaddy. Population (1901), 2,417. The
town is well wooded, but low-lying and in many ways unfavourably
situated, as in the dry season it is separated by a wide expanse of sand
from the river channel and the steamer ghdt^ and during the rains it
occupies a narrow strip of land bounded on one side by the stream and
on the other by a large jhU and swampy ground. It is faced across
the stream by low wooded hills, but on its own side of the river the
immediate surroundings are flat and uninteresting. The native quarter

KIRAOLI

307

stretches for some distance along the bank; the civil station lies at its
northern end \ the jail occupies the farther end of the civil station, and
the military police lines are located to the north again of the jail.
The civil station, which is protected by embankments from the en¬
croachment of the river on one side and of the jhll on the other,
contains the District court and circuit house, the residences of the local
officials, and the club. The civil hospital and the post and telegraph
offices are in the native quarter. Kindat was a frontier post of some
importance in Burmese times, but has never succeeded in attracting
much trade, and is still nothing more than a village. The hospital
contains 16 beds, and there is a small Anglo-vernacular school.
Kindat is not a municipality, and can boast of little in the w*ay of
roads or other public improvements.

Kinu.—Eastern township of Shwebo District, Upper Burma, extending
from the Irrawaddy to the Mu river, between 22° 38'' and 22° 55' N. and
95° 27' and 96° o' E., with an area of 244 square miles. It is for the
most part a level plain, with a low rainfall. The population was 28,107
in 1891, and 31,499 in 1901, distributed in 120 villages, Kinu (popula¬
tion, 2,223), ^'bout 12 miles north of Shwebo on the raihvay, being the
head-quarters. The area cultivated in 1903-4 was 39 square miles,
and the land revenue and thathameda amounted to Rs. 75,900.

Kinwat .—Taluk in Adilabad District, Hyderabad State, constituted
in 1905 out of the northern villages of the former Narsapur and Nirmal
taluks. The head-quarters are at Kinw^at (population, 1,514).

Kirakat.—Eastern tahsll of Jaunpur District, United Provinces,
comprising the parga?ias of Daryapar and BialsI and tappas Chandwak,
Pisara, and Guzara, and lying between 25° 32' and 25° 46' N. and
82° 47' and 83° 5' E., with an area of 244 square miles. Population
fell from 201,546 in 1891 to 187,128 in 1901. There are 455 villages
and only one town, Kirakat (population, 3,355), the tahsll head-quarters.
The demand for land revenue in 1903-4 was Rs. 180,000, and for
cesses Rs. 36,000. The density of population, 767 persons per square
mile, is almost equal to the District average. Kirakat is bisected by
the Gumti, which flows from north-west to south-east in a very winding
course. The area under cultivation in 1903-4 was 161 square miles,
of which 95 were irrigated. There are few' tanks orand irrigation
is supplied almost exclusively by wells.

Kiraoli.—North-western tahsll of Agra District, United Provinces,
conterminous with the pargana of Fatehpur Sikri, lying betw'cen 27° o'
and 27° 17' N. and 77° 30' and 77® 55' E., w'ith an area of 272 square
miles. Population increased from 106,977 in 1891 to 123,812 in 1901.
There are 171 villages and tw'o towns, Fatehpur Sikri (population,
7,147) and Achhnera (5,375). The demand for land revenue in
1903-4 was Rs. 2,51,000, and for cesses Rs. 31,000. The density of

3o8

KIRAOLI

population, 455 persons per square mile, is below the District average.
The Utangan flows close to the southern border, while the Khar! Nadi
crosses the centre. The eastern portion is level, but in the western
half there are hills, the most important being the range on which the
town of Fatehpur Sikri stands. A much shorter and lower range of
hills runs parallel to this, north of the Kharl NadT. Both ranges consist
of red sandstone. The area under cultivation in 1903-4 was 210
square miles, of which 67 were irrigated. About one-third of the
irrigated area is served by the Agra Canal, and extensions are con¬
templated. Wells supply the rest, but in many parts the water is so
brackish that without good rains it cannot be used.

Kiratpur.—Town in the Najibabad tahsil of Bijnor District, United
Provinces, situated in 29° 30' N. and 78° 13' E., 10 miles north of
Bijnor town. Population (1901), 15,051. There are two quarters
of the town, Kiratpur Khas and Basl. The former was founded in
the fifteenth century during the reign of Bahlol Lodi, and the latter
in the eighteenth century by Pathans, who built a fort. The walls are
still standing near the gateway, and within is a handsome mosque.
Kiratpur is administered under Act XX of 1856, with an income of
about Rs. 3,600. Trade is insignificant, but lacquered chairs and
boxes are made. The District board school has 112 pupils, and six
aided schools 216 pupils. The American Methodist Mission has
a branch here.

Kirkee {Kirki or Khadki).—Town in the Haveli tdhtka of Poona
District, Bombay, situated in 18° 34' N. and 73° 51' E., on the south¬
east branch of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, 116 miles south¬
east of Bombay and 4 north-west of Poona city. Population (1901),
10,797. On November 5, 1817, the first of three battles which led to
the collapse of the Maratha power was fought near Kirkee, then a mere
village. The British force under Colonel Burr was 2,800 strong, of
whom 800 were Europeans. The Peshwa’s force under Bapu Gokhale
numbered 18,000 horse and 8,000 foot, with an immense train of
ordnance. The Peshwa Baji Rao witnessed the battle and his own
defeat from Parbati hill, one mile south of Poona. Kirkee is the
principal artillery station in the Bombay Presidency, four field batteries
being quartered here. It contains an arms and ammunition factory,
employing about 2,000 operatives. The average income of the canton¬
ment fund during the decade ending 1901 was Rs. 22,000. In 1903-4
it was Rs. 28,000, and the expenditure amounted to Rs. 22,000. The
town contains an English school. A branch of the Church Missionary
Society, stationed here, carries on evangelistic work in the tdliika.

Kirli. — Petty State in the Dangs, Bombay.

Kirthar Range.—Mountain range forming the boundary between
Sind and the Jhalawan country in Baluchistan, between 26° 13' and

KISHANGANJ TOWN

309

28° 36' N. and 67° ii' and 67° 40' E. From the point where the
Mala river debouches into the Kachhi plain, the range runs almost
due south for a distance of 190 miles in a series of parallel ridges of
bare rocky hills. At intervals similar ranges run athwart them. The
offshoots tail off south-eastwards into Karachi District, but a single line
of low hills extends as far as Cape Monze. The greatest breadth is
about 60 miles. The highest point is the Zardak peak (7,430 feet),
and another fine peak is the Kuta-ka-kabar, or Kuta-jo-kabar, i. e. ‘ the
dog’s tomb' (6,878 feet). The principal offshoot is the Lakhi range.
The Kirthar hills are pierced by the Kolachi or Gaj river in a fine
gorge, and the chief passes are known as the Harbab, Phusi, Rohel,
and Garre. These hills give their name to the Kirthar geological group
of Nummulitic limestone, which is found on their crests, overlaid by
Tertiary rocks of Nari and Gaj beds, the former being soft sandstone
and the latter a hard dark-brown limestone exposed on the Gaj river.
The tribes residing in the Kirthar are the Marri and Jamali Baloch,
Jamot and Chuta Jats, and some Khidrani and Sassoli Brahuis. They
subsist chiefly by tending flocks, and by exporting the dwarf-
palm (^Na?inorhops Ritchieand). Sind ibex and mountain sheep are
fairly plentiful, and both black bears and leopards are occasionally
met with.

Kishanganj Subdivision, —North-eastern subdivision of Purnea
District, Bengal, bordering on Nepal and lying between 25® 54' and
26° 35' N. and 87° 37' and 88° 32' E., with an area of 1,346 square
miles. The subdivision is a fertile alluvial tract stretching southwards
from the Nepal tarai. The population in 1901 was 619,476, compared
with 651,039 in 1891. It contains one town, Kishanganj (population,
7,671), the head-quarters; and 1,227 villages. The public offices are
at present situated at the village of Bhariadangi, 4 miles north-west
of the town ; but the courts will shortly be removed to Kishanganj
town, where buildings are under construction. The subdivision is
the most fertile portion of the District, and is more densely populated
than the rest, supporting 460 persons to the square mile. It is more
nearly allied to the neighbouring Districts of North Bengal than to
Bihar, and the majority of the inhabitants are of Rajbansi (Koch)
origin, though most of them are now converts to Islam. The chief
markets are at Kishanganj town, Phulbaria, Bibiganj, Gandharbdanga,
and Islampur.

Kishanganj Town. —Head-quarters of the subdivision of the
same name in Purnea District, Bengal, situated in 26° 7' N. and 87°
56' E., on the Ganges-Darjeeling road, east of the Mahananda river.
Population (1901), 7,671. Kishanganj is a large exporting centre
for rice and jute. It was constituted a municipality in 1887. The in¬
come during the decade ending 1901-2 averaged Rs. 7,500, and the

310

KISHANGANJ TOWN

Physical

aspects.

expenditure Rs. 6,800. In 1903-4 the income, which is mainly derived
from a tax on persons (or property tax), was Rs. 12,000, and the
expenditure was Rs. 8,000. The public offices are at present situated
about 4 miles from the town, but new courts are being built at Kishan-
ganj; the sub-jail has accommodation for 23 prisoners. The town
contains the head office of the Khagra Ward’s estate; a great fair is
held annually under the auspices of the estate, which is attended by
some 100,000 persons. A great number of elephants, camels, ponies,
sheep, and cattle are sold, and much general merchandise changes
hands; the camels are in great demand for sacrifice by Musalmans
at the Bakr-Id festival. Cart-wheels are largely manufactured in the
neighbouring village of Chakla, which are used throughout the District
and are also exported.

Kishangarh State. —A State lying almost in the centre of Rajpu-
tana, between 25° 49' and 26° 59' N. and 70° 40' and 75° n' E., with
an area of 858 square miles. It is bounded on the north and north¬
west by Jodhpur; on the east by Jaipur ; on the west and south-east by
the British District of Ajmer; and on the extreme south by the Shah-
pura chiefship. Leaving out of account five small
isolated patches which contain but a village or two
each, the territory consists of two narrow strips of
land, separated from each other, which together are about 80 miles in
length from north to south, and have a breadth varying from 20 miles in
the centre to about 2 at the southern extremity. The northern and
larger of these two tracts is for the most part sandy, and is crossed by
three parallel ranges of hills, running from south-west to north-east,
which form part of the Aravallis, the highest peak being 2,045
above the sea; the southern portion of the State is generally flat and
fertile. A few streams contain water during, and immediately after,
the rains. The Rupnagar, after a north-easterly course, empties itself
into the Sambhar Lake, while the Mashi (with its tributary, the Sohadra)
and the Dain flow east and eventually join the Banas.

The hill ranges and intervening valleys in the north consist of an
ancient series of highly metamorphosed sediments known as the
Aravalli system, among the varied strata of which the crystalline lime¬
stones constituting white and coloured marbles are especially valuable.
The plain in the south-east and south consists principally of gneiss.
Numerous igneous intrusions penetrate this rock, and most of them
are granitic pegmatites, sometimes with plates of mica of marketable
size. Near the capital the intrusions belong to the exceptional group
of the eleolite syenites, and are remarkable for containing an extraor¬
dinary variety of sodalite, acquiring, when kept in the dark for some
weeks, a vivid pink tinge, which disappears in a few seconds on ex¬
posure to light, the mineral becoming once more colourless until again

KISHANGARII STATE

3 ir

protected. Near Sarwar in the south is a considerable outcrop of mica
schists, containing an abundance of garnets remarkable for their size,
transparency, and beautiful colouring.

In addition to antelope, ‘ ravine deer ^ (gazelle), and the usual small
game, there are wild hog and nilgai {Boselaphus iragocamelus) in the
northern and central portions of the State, and leopards, hyenas, and
occasionally wolves in the hills.

The climate is dry and healthy, but malarious fevers are prevalent in
October and November. The annual rainfall at the capital averages
between 20 and 21 inches, ranging from over 36 inches in 1892 to
about 4^ inches in 1899. There is usually less rain to the north and
slightly more to the south of the capital.

The chiefs of Kishangarh belong to the Rathor clan of Rajputs, and
are descended from Raja Udai Singh of Jodhpur, The latter’s second
son, Kishan Singh, born in 1575, remained in the History
country of his birth till 1596, when, in consequence
of some disagreement with his elder brother, Sur Singh, then Raja of
Jodhpur, he took up his abode at Ajmer. Obtaining an introduction to
Akbar, he received from him the district of Hindaun, now in Jaipur; and
subsequently, for services rendered in recovering imperial treasure car¬
ried off by the IMers, he obtained a grant of Setholao and certain other
districts. In 16 ii he founded the town of Kishangarh close to Setholao,
which is now in ruins, and from that time the State began to be called by
its present name. In Akbar’s time Kishan Singh was styled Raja, but
according to the State records Jahangir gave him the title of Maharaja.
He died in 1615 and has been followed by sixteen successors. The
fourth of these, Rup Singh (1644-58), was a favourite of the emperor
Shah Jahan, for whom he fought well and gained several victories. He
thrice accompanied an expedition to Afghanistan, and was rewarded
with a command of 5,000 and several estates, including the fort and
district of Mandalgarh, now in Udaipur. Raj Singh, the seventh chief
of Kishangarh (r7o6-48), fought in the battle of Jajau on the side of
Shah Alam Bahadur Shah against Azam Shah, and was wounded; he
received a grant of the districts of Sarwar and Malpura, the latter of
which now belongs to Jaipur. His successor, Sawant Singh, gave half
the State to his younger brother, Bahadur Singh, and himself ruled at
Rupnagar in the north. He was a religious recluse, and soon retired
to Brindaban, where he died in 1764. His son, Sardar Singh, ruled
for two years only; and, his successor being a minor, Bahadur Singh
actually governed the whole territory till his death in 1781.

The thirteenth chief was Kalyan Singh (1797-1832), and in his time
(1818) Kishangarh was brought under British protection. He soon
began to behave in a manner which argued either insanity or a total
absence of principle. Becoming involved in disputes with his nobles.

312

KISHANGARH STATE

he fled to Delhi, where he busied himself in buying honorary privileges
from the titular sovereign, such as the right to wear stockings in the
royal presence. Meanwhile affairs grew worse at Kishangarh, and,
British territory having been violated by the disputants, the leaders of
both parties were called upon to desist from hostilities and to refer
their grievances to the mediation of the Government. The Maharaja
was at the same time warned that, if he did not return to his capital
and interest himself in the affairs of his State, the treaty with him would
be abrogated, and engagements formed with the insurgent Thakurs.
This threat brought Kalyan Singh back to Kishangarh, but, finding
himself unable to govern the State, he offered to lease it to Govern¬
ment. This offer was refused, and he took up his residence at Ajmer.
The nobles then proclaimed the heir apparent as Maharaja, and laid
siege to the capital, which they were on the point of capturing when
Kalyan Singh accepted the mediation of the Political Agent, through
whom matters were for the time adjusted. The reconciliation with the
nobles, however, did not prove sincere, and in 1832 Kalyan Singh
abdicated in favour of his son, Mohkam Singh. The latter was suc¬
ceeded in 1840 by his adopted son, PrithwT Singh, who carried on the
administration with prudence and more than average ability. In 1867
a sum of Rs. 20,000 a year was granted by the British Government as
compensation for the loss of transit dues owing to the introduction of
the railway; in 1877 he received an addition of two guns to his salute
for life; and in 1879 a further sum of Rs. 25,000 a year was granted as
compensation for suppressing the manufacture of salt and abolishing
customs duties of every kind on all articles except spirits, opium, and
intoxicating drugs. Maharaja PrithwT Singh died in 1879, and was
succeeded by his eldest son, Sardul Singh, who continued the enlight¬
ened policy of his father. During his rule many valuable reforms in
almost every department were introduced and carried to a successful
issue, and in 1892 he was created a G.C.I.E. On his death in 1900
his only son, Madan Singh, the present Maharaja, succeeded. His
Highness, who is the seventeenth chief of the State, was born in 1884,
was for some time an under-officer in the Imperial Cadet Corps, and
was invested with powers in 1905. The Maharaja of Kishangarh is
entitled to a salute of 15 guns, and in 1862 the usual sanad was granted
guaranteeing the privilege of adoption.

The number of towns and villages in the State in 1901 was 221, and
the population at each of the three enumerations was : (1881) 112,633,
^ . (i8qi) i 2 c ;,=; i 6, and (igor) 90,970. The decrease

during the last decade of over 27 per cent, is ascribed
to emigration during the famine of 1899-1 goo, and to excessive
mortality from fever in the autumn of 1900. The State is divided into
the five districts or huku?nats of Arain, Bandar Sindri, Kishangarh,

AGRICULTURE

313

Rupnagar, and Sarwar. The first four form the northern portion of
the territory, with an area of 650 square miles, while Sarwar is the
detached tract on the south. All the three towms (Kishangarh,
Rupnagar, and Sarwar) are municipalities.

The following table gives the chief statistics of area and population
in 1901 :—

Hitkiimat.

Area in square
miles.

Number of

Population.

Percentage of

variation in

population be¬

tween 1891
and 1901,

Number of

persons able to

read and

write.

Towns.

Villages.

Arain ....

196

U )994

- 25.8

648

Bandar Sindri )

260

Kishangar

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